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INDIGENOUS
JUSTICE
NEW TOOLS,
APPROACHES,
AND SPACES
Edited by Jennifer Hendry,
Melissa L. Tatum, Miriam Jorgensen
and Deirdre Howard-Wagner
Series Editor
Dave Cowan
University of Bristol Law School
Bristol, UK
The Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series is a developing series of monographs
and textbooks featuring cutting edge work which, in the best tradition of
socio-legal studies, reach out to a wide international audience.
Indigenous Justice
New Tools, Approaches, and Spaces
Editors
Jennifer Hendry Melissa L. Tatum
School of Law James E Rogers College of Law
Leeds University University of Arizona
Leeds, UK Tucson, AZ, USA
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Macmillan Publishers Ltd. part of
Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom
Preface
v
A Note on Terminology
One of the primary benefits of a project like the Spaces of Indigenous Justice
is the involvement of scholars from different countries and different academic
backgrounds. That diversity, however, is also a complicating factor in attempt-
ing to develop standard terminology. Accordingly, rather than try to stan-
dardise on one term—Indigenous, Aboriginal, First Nation, Native—we have
opted to keep intact the convention used by the author, which is influenced
by a number of factors, including the author’s home country and academic
discipline.
J.H.
M.L.T.
M.J.
D.H-W.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction 1
Jennifer Hendry, Melissa L. Tatum, Miriam Jorgensen, and
Deirdre Howard-Wagner
ix
x Contents
6
Tsilhqot’in Nation: Aboriginal Title in the Modern Era 89
Renee Racette
Sarah Ciftci holds a Bachelor of Socio-Legal Studies (Hons) from the University of
Sydney and is undertaking a PhD in the Department of Sociology and Social Policy,
also at the University of Sydney. Her thesis reflects her broader research interests in
Indigenous social and legal justice and explores the use of inclusive decision-making
models in the child welfare and protection context. She is a graduate representative
for the Executive Committee of the Law and Society Association of Australia and
New Zealand (LSAANZ).
Benedict J. Colombi is Faculty Director of the University of Arizona’s Graduate
Interdisciplinary Programs and Associate Professor of American Indian Studies and
Affiliate Associate Professor in the School of Anthropology, the School of Geography
and Development, and the School of Natural Resources and Environment. He also
holds a faculty appointment with the Institute of Environment, a centre for disciplin-
ary and interdisciplinary environmental and climate change research at the University
of Arizona. In 2014, he served as a US Fulbright scholar conducting ethnographic
fieldwork with Indigenous communities along Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula.
Stephen Cornell is a political and cultural sociologist at the University of Arizona,
where he is Professor of Sociology, Faculty Chair of the Native Nations Institute, and
Past Director of the Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy. He is a faculty affiliate
with the university’s James E. Rogers College of Law and its School of Government
and Public Policy. He co-founded the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic
Development, which he continues to codirect. He has written widely on Indigenous
affairs, economic development, collective identity, and ethnic and race relations.
Tatiana Degai received her PhD from the University of Arizona, where her disserta-
tion research (in American Indian Studies and Linguistics) focused on the revitalisation
possibilities of her ancestral Itelmen language in Kamchatka, Russia. As a member of
the Council of Itelmens ‘Tkhsanom’, she is actively involved with various projects on
culture and language development of Itelmens. She has a Master of Arts in
xiii
xiv Notes on the Contributors
Anthropology from the University of Alaska Fairbanks and a teaching degree in for-
eign languages from Kamchatka State University. Her research borders with
Indigenous education, sociolinguistics, ethnography, Indigenous activism and
revitalisation.
Kirsty Gover is a member of the faculty at Melbourne Law School. Her research
and publications address the law, policy, and political theory of Indigenous rights,
institutions, and jurisdiction. She is interested in the role played by ‘indigeneity’ in
the constitutionalism of settler societies, and in the importance of Indigenous con-
cepts of law and politics in settler state political theory and international law. She is
the author of Tribal Constitutionalism: States, Tribes and the Governance of Membership
(2010).
Jennifer Hendry is Associate Professor in Law and Social Justice at the University of
Leeds School of Law. She researches in the fields of social and legal theory, socio-legal
studies, and comparative legal studies. She is currently writing on issues of Indigenous
justice, legal culture, and legal pluralism, and on theoretical and comparative per-
spectives on civil/criminal procedural hybrids. She is Director of the School of Law’s
Centre for Law and Social Justice, Vice-Chair of the Socio-Legal Studies Association
Executive Committee, and a member of the Economic and Social Research Council
Peer Review College.
Deirdre Howard-Wagner is a sociologist and socio-legal scholar and a research fel-
low at the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, Australian National
University (ANU), Australia. Prior to coming to the ANU, she was a research fellow
(2012–2016) and a lecturer and senior lecturer in socio-legal studies in the
Department of Sociology and Social Policy at the University of Sydney (2006–2012)
and Deputy Director of the Justice Policy Research Centre in the School of Law at
the University of Newcastle (2004–2006).
Miriam Jorgensen is a research director of the Native Nations Institute at the
University of Arizona and a research director of its sister organisation, the Harvard
Project on American Indian Economic Development. She holds additional appoint-
ments as a research scientist in the Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy at the
University of Arizona and as Professor of Indigenous Governance in the Jumbunna
Institute for Indigenous Education and Research at the University of Technology,
Sydney. As an economist and public policy analyst, she has worked with Indigenous
communities and organisations in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Her
research examines the ways social, political, and cultural characteristics affect
Indigenous communities’ development.
Teresa Libesman is an associate professor at the University of Technology, Sydney.
Her research focuses on the fields of children and law and Indigenous peoples and the
Notes on the Contributors
xv
law. She works closely with Indigenous children’s organisations and her work criti-
cally engages with the meaning and implementation of human rights with respect to
child welfare. She teaches and supervises in the fields of children and the law, Tort
law, Indigenous peoples, and the law and jurisprudence.
Darren Modzelewski received a PhD in anthropology and a JD from the University
of California, Berkeley, and an LLM in Indigenous Peoples Law and Policy from the
University of Arizona. His research and advocacy focus on how federal Indian law,
international human rights law, and the principles of the environmental justice move-
ment and indigenous archaeology can be combined for protection, preservation, and
promotion of Indigenous cultural heritage and property.
Amrita Mukherjee is a lecturer at the University of Leeds School of Law. She holds
a PhD and LLM in International law from the University of Nottingham. Her pri-
mary research interests are in the areas of international law and international human
rights law. She has written on the prohibition of torture, the UN human rights moni-
toring bodies, legal orientalism, and postcolonial perspectives of international law.
She also serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of Human Rights and
is the programme director for the LLM in international law.
Wantarri Steve Jampijimpa Patrick is a fully initiated Warlpiri man from the
Northern Territory community of Lajamanu. His first language is Warlpiri. He is a
community liaison officer and a teacher’s assistant at the Lajamanu Community
Education Centre where he has worked for many years. His passion is the reinvigora-
tion of Warlpiri culture by finding traditional principles that are relevant to today’s
community life.
Renee Racette is a Cree and Metis lawyer from south-eastern Saskatchewan. She
received an SJD in Indigenous Peoples Law and Policy from the University of Arizona.
She enjoys a broad range of practice primarily serving Indigenous communities in
matters such as Aboriginal rights and title, treaty negotiations, international human
rights, community representation, and economic development.
Gina D. Stuart-Richard is a member of the Native American Studies faculty at the
University of Oklahoma. She received her PhD in American Indian Studies from the
University of Arizona. Her research focuses on the intersection of mapping, geogra-
phy, land, culture, and federal Indian policy.
Melissa L. Tatum is a member of the Law Faculty at the University of Arizona,
where she also holds affiliate faculty appointments with the American Indian Studies
graduate programme, Gender and Women’s Studies, and the Native Nations Institute.
She specialises in tribal jurisdiction and tribal courts, as well as in issues relating to
cultural property and sacred places. She was a contributing author to Felix Cohen’s
Handbook of Federal Indian Law, and has written extensively about both civil and
criminal procedural issues, as well as about the relationship between tribal, state, and
xvi Notes on the Contributors
federal courts. Between 1999 and 2006, she served as a judge on the Southwest
Intertribal Court of Appeals.
Brian Thom is Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Victoria.
His research focus is on the political, social, and cultural processes that surround
Indigenous people’s efforts to resolve Aboriginal title and rights claims and establish
self-government. The research is community-driven and politically engaged in mat-
ters of contemporary social significance. His written work explores the interplay of
culture, power, and colonial discourses in land claims negotiations, and examines the
political and ontological challenges for Indigenous people engaged with institutions
of the state.
Sharon Toi is a Māori PhD student at the University of Waikato, Aotearoa, New
Zealand. Her research intent is to interrogate practical solutions and strategies for iwi
to engage in self-development while retaining and valuing their own unique identi-
ties and values as Indigenous peoples. The focus of her research is the positioning of
Indigenous women in tribal structures and governance roles. She completed a
Fulbright exchange at the University of Arizona in 2014–2015.
Mary Spiers Williams is a lecturer at the ANU College of Law. She has a broad
range of experience in criminal law and criminology research, teaching, practice,
policy, and advocacy. Her research is on impacts of state law on Indigenous peoples
and the phenomenon of transnational law. Her doctoral research is concerned with
legal concepts of culture in sentencing law in the Northern Territory (NT). Prior to
becoming a full-time academic, she practised in criminal law in New South Wales
(NSW) and the NT, was a senior policy officer in criminal law reform in NSW, facili-
tated law and justice projects with Warlpiri people, and conducted community legal
education in Aboriginal communities in central Australia.
1
Introduction
Jennifer Hendry, Melissa L. Tatum, Miriam Jorgensen,
and Deirdre Howard-Wagner
J. Hendry (*)
School of Law, Leeds University, Leeds, UK
M. L. Tatum • M. Jorgensen
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
D. Howard-Wagner
Fellow, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research,
The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
of the workshop, a second one was planned for the following year, to be hosted
by the University of Arizona. This University of Arizona workshop served to
reinforce the usefulness of this new approach and helped to further define and
articulate the approach and the foundation upon which it rests. The Spaces of
Indigenous Justice Project is built on five foundational pillars:
(1) Litigation is not always the answer and it should not be the automatic first
response to an injustice.
(2) Leveraging additional human rights at either the domestic or interna-
tional level has the effect of funnelling claims into adversarial legal forums.
(3) The best and most effective strategies for achieving justice are interdisci-
plinary and multimethodological.
(4) Legal philosophical and sociological theories offer vital critical insights
and perspectives on issues of Indigenous justice.
(5) In developing a strategy, Indigenous people and communities should be
at the table as equal partners; they cannot and should not be the subject
of academic experimentation.
The 14 essays selected for inclusion in this volume were drawn from both
the Leeds and Arizona workshops, and represent approaches, tools, and solu-
tions that are at the core of the Spaces of Indigenous Justice Project. First,
each works on multiple levels, from being an individual case study or an
exploration of one potential tool to illustrating a larger point stretching across
multiple systems. In addition, this approach has the benefit of avoiding—or
at least minimising—the ‘pan-Indigenous’ problem of homogenising and
essentialising Indigenous groups.
Second, the essays and contributors come from a variety of academic disci-
plines, including law, sociology, public policy, economics, socio-legal studies,
anthropology, and American Indian studies. The volume also makes a con-
certed effort to include the voices of early career scholars. The Spaces of
Indigenous Justice Project is designed to foster new and creative approaches
that reach across traditional boundaries. By infusing the work of the emerging
generation of scholars, this collection both provides a platform for new voices
and helps to encourage a new generation of academics to think outside tradi-
tional academic disciplines and silos. Of the 18 authors involved in this vol-
ume, a third were in the late stages of a doctoral programme when they
received the invitation to participate.
Finally, this volume makes a deliberate effort to include the voices of
Indigenous scholars and those scholars who have extensive experience work-
ing with Indigenous communities. If one of the goals of the project is to
include Indigenous people and communities as equal partners at the decision-
making table, they should also be equal partners in developing the theories
and approaches that will guide that decision-making. Three-quarters of the
contributors to this volume are either Indigenous or have substantial experi-
ence working cooperatively with Indigenous communities. There is represen-
tation from all four CANZUS (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the
United States) countries, in addition to India and the United Kingdom.
To date, the most common approach to accommodating Indigenous justice
claims has been the inclusion of Indigenous law and legal practices within
those of the dominant legal order. Experience with this approach leads us to
identify two categories of problems that arise repeatedly and which provide a
useful framing for the examples contained within this collection. We have
styled these categories as issues of conceptualisation and implementation.
Conceptualisation problems, we submit, arise at the stage of determining
how, where, and in relation to what the respective legal orders should interact.
We outline four requirements for best practice. First, it is vital that any trans-
planted legal feature2 be more than simply the functional equivalent to any
non-Indigenous counterpart. If it were a mere substitution, there would be no
reason beyond symbolism for borrowing the feature. The transplanted feature
4 J. Hendry et al.
must bring with it something special or different. The reasons for its trans-
plantation thus pertain to its unique contribution, and maintaining the full
nature of the contribution necessarily requires an understanding of context, of
the true role played by the legal feature. Further to this, caution should be
exercised in terms of generalising across disparate Indigenous groups—a solu-
tion appropriate for one context may not be suitable for another, and it is
important that there is no homogenisation of Indigenous communities, delib-
erate or otherwise. The third conceptual consideration is a temporal one.
Legal cultures evolve and adapt over time, whether by accident or design,
meaning that it would be a mistake to ‘freeze-frame’ how these are at a par-
ticular moment in time. While this observation holds true for both the domi-
nant and Indigenous legal cultures, the danger is that it is the Indigenous legal
culture that is erroneously bounded and concretised. Finally, interactions
ought to be genuine, which is to say that engagement with tribal law should
be respectful and not merely lip service. For example, the opportunity for an
Indigenous community to provide testimony about its child-rearing practices
is empty unless there is also an effective mechanism for its consideration,
while obligations to consult mean little if they are not undertaken in good
faith by both parties. Bearing these four requirements in mind can be useful
in avoiding many of the pitfalls that can arise in each of the approaches.
Implementation challenges arise subsequent to conceptualisation issues,
and concern the codification, application, and amendment of Indigenous
legal features. Codification challenges concern the legal means by which a
‘new’ Indigenous legal feature is introduced into the overarching legal order.
Common law or statutory provision, regulation or policy choice—the selec-
tion of the mechanisms and procedures through which such a legal feature is
included is often indicative of the degree of import placed upon it. Targeted
scrutiny of this, therefore, can be revealing. Application challenges, by con-
trast, encompass decision-making issues in terms of when and under what
circumstances the legal feature should be brought to bear. Perhaps the most
important consideration here is the issue of ensuring that those charged with
application have the necessary information and understanding to be able to
properly do so. Amendment challenges involve a related query, that is, in the
event that the new legal feature requires alteration, who is empowered to do
so? Does the authority to take this decision rest with the Indigenous legal
order of its origin or with the principal legal order of which it is now a com-
ponent part? Comparative legal studies has engaged with some of these issues
in the context of nation state constitutional borrowing and legal transfer,3 for
example, but such theoretical inquiry in terms of Indigenous legal orders is
still limited. This volume is intended as a contribution to this debate.
Introduction 5
This collection opens with four essays that set the stage by examining cur-
rent approaches. The chapters in Part I each explore an aspect of the issues
that prompted the Spaces of Indigenous Justice Project. Stephen Cornell leads
off by identifying two different aspects of justice and discussing what these
mean for Indigenous communities. His primary focus is on the Nisga’a
Nation, one of the First Nations located in what is now Canada, and he
explores the issues confronting them as they move from fighting for the right
to govern themselves to, on winning that right, suddenly realising that they
had to figure out how to govern themselves. Kirsty Gover follows with a case
study that explores why litigation that relies on existing laws governing rela-
tions with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is almost certainly
destined for failure. She uses the case of Maloney v The Queen to illustrate
how ‘anti-discrimination law has not only failed to support an obligation to
consult Australian Indigenous peoples, it has also disempowered Indigenous
communities in their dealings with Australian governments and undermined
their efforts to self-govern’. Darren Modzelewski’s chapter uses the water
rights claims of the Pueblos in the southwestern United States to demonstrate
that Gover’s critique is not Australia-specific, but rather is equally applicable
to the United States, and arguably also to other countries. Concluding this
part, Terri Libesman examines how the involvement of western-based human
rights as interpreted through the lens of neoliberalism into Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander child welfare cases has been counterproductive, and ulti-
mately served to perpetuate the cycle of unjust removals rather than helping
to break it.
Part II focuses on efforts to secure the recognition of Indigenous customs
and traditions by the dominant legal order. Renee Racette begins this part
with a chapter illustrating how the process of incorporating First Nations’ law
unfolded through Aboriginal Title cases in Canada. As the chapters in this
part illustrate, this approach is perhaps the most dangerous one because it is
the most difficult to do correctly—outsiders are making decisions about a
legal culture not their own, often with little to no formal training or under-
standing. Amrita Mukherjee’s chapter uses the case study of Jharkhand to
provide an illustrative example of the problems that can occur when law from
one legal system is imported into a different system. The two chapters by
Sarah Ciftci and Deirdre Howard-Wagner both reinforce this point, arguing
that merely importing the law of the Indigenous group may not in itself be
sufficient, and that to ensure that the law is used correctly it is important to
involve people knowledgeable about the law in its original context. These
arguments recognise the importance of effective communication across the
relevant cultures in leading to genuine understanding. Mary Spiers-Williams
6 J. Hendry et al.
and Steve Patrick conclude with a chapter that demonstrates both the difficul-
ties with and potential rewards of cross-cultural understanding and
cooperation.
Part III then turns to an examination of new tools and approaches and
what they can bring to the table. Hendry and Tatum lead off this part with a
chapter that not only employs the concept of interactive legal culture to argue
in favour of reciprocity, but also makes the case that theoretical insights can
contribute usefully to providing practical solutions. Gina Stuart-Richard then
looks at new mapping tools and the promise they hold for Indigenous groups
seeking to protect both physical and cultural boundaries. Colombi, Thom,
and Degai describe a project involving academics and Indigenous communi-
ties on the Kamchatka Peninsula that illustrates the usefulness of these map-
ping tools, as well as the concept of academia partnering with Indigenous
communities. This part then concludes with two chapters exploring how
Indigenous groups are drawing on their own traditions and customs to
develop methods of governing and interacting with the dominant legal sys-
tem, and how those methods can be used to help pursue justice. Sharon Toi
explores some of the pitfalls inherent in drawing on traditional practices, in
particular, the need to update those practices to fit current circumstances
while at the same time avoiding interpreting past practices through a lens
distorted by colonialism and its influences. Miriam Jorgensen examines how
two Mohawk communities in eastern Canada have drawn on their own tradi-
tions to reclaim the process of lawmaking, creating space for greater self-
determination and self-governance.
The essays in this volume clearly establish that there is no one-size-fits-all
solution to the myriad issues of Indigenous justice. As a result there is no
attempt to provide such a solution, but rather a call to look for contextually
appropriate approaches to addressing specific problems. Relative to this
endeavour, these chapters provide timely and useful guidance by drawing
attention to potential obstacles that may occur at either the conceptual or
implementation stage; it is our contention that awareness and greater under-
standing of these obstacles can be of assistance to those seeking to use a par-
ticular approach.
Notes
1. J. Hendry (2013) ‘Spaces of Indigenous Justice: Concept and Aims’, http://
www.law.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/research/events/1300918-indig-workshop-
concept.pdf.
Introduction 7
My thanks to Jen Hendry, Melissa L. Tatum, and Deirdre Howard-Wagner for including me in the
workshops that stimulated this volume, to the workshop participants for stimulating discussions, to
Miriam Jorgensen for suggestions and comments during the drafting of this paper, and to Rob Williams
for helpful information and insight.
S. Cornell (*)
Native Nations Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
effect, the Nisga’a leaders looked at each other and said, more or less, ‘Uh-oh.
Now we have to govern’.
In short, the world had suddenly changed. For more than a century, they
had been denied the right to do what they had done for many prior genera-
tions: govern their lands and themselves. Now they had restored much of that
right. More than a century of struggle for rights and recognition had morphed,
overnight, into the challenge of governance. Subsequent years, said the Nisga’a
leader, had been a learning process as the Nation took up once again the task
of governing and began to figure out what it would require of them in con-
temporary times.
What does this story have to do with justice?
A Matter of Difference
In much of the world today, and certainly in the so-called CANZUS coun-
tries—Canada, Australia, Aotearoa New Zealand, and the United States—
Indigenous peoples, such as the Nisga’a, are engaged in an extraordinary effort
to restore self-government as an Indigenous right and practice. The issue of
justice infuses that effort, as an aspect of both the colonial experience and the
Indigenous agenda, and I want to pay attention here to both aspects. But
before talking about justice, let us consider the character of this Indigenous
movement for self-governing power.
The disciplines that I interact with the most—sociology and public pol-
icy—tend to focus on groups but measure change in individuals. Sure, we
aggregate our measures of change by various social descriptors so that we can
tell what is happening to specific population categories—but the fundamental
metric, the key unit, is the individual, measured against the average main-
stream individual or some other reference population. In doing this, we slip
rather easily, although perhaps unconsciously, into the assumption that indi-
viduals generally have similar priorities—everyone wants better access to the
benefits and opportunities society has to offer—and that group agendas are
aggregations of those desires. Thus, we assume, for example, that justice is
served when employment, income, health, and other socioeconomic indica-
tors for American Indian populations more closely resemble those for the US
population as a whole. It is the gaps that matter, and the gaps typically are
measured by means, so that we look for disparities in what the ‘average’ indi-
vidual experiences in each population.
What is often left out of this calculus is collective aspiration, an objective
that has particular relevance for Indigenous populations. The famous White
Justice as Position, Justice as Practice: Indigenous Governance… 13
Paper that the Trudeau government in Canada issued in 1969 made the
assumption that First Nation peoples simply wanted what other Canadians
had—education, jobs, health care, housing, prosperity. The White Paper’s
sentiment was ‘We’re all Canadians’, and we need to break down the barriers
that lead to differential outcomes among us.
Nearly 40 years later, John Howard, not long after stepping down as prime
minister of Australia, expressed a view that had shaped his administration’s
approach to Indigenous issues: ‘The only way the indigenous people of
Australia can get what we call a fair go is for them to become part of the main-
stream of the community and get the benefits and opportunities available
from mainstream Australian society . . .’ (quoted in Davies 2008, p. 1). In
other words, ‘we’re all Australians’. This view was widely shared. A friend of
mine in the mid-2000s held a senior position in an Australian NGO dedi-
cated to addressing the needs of Indigenous Australians and repairing rela-
tions between them and the mainstream. Her chosen measure of success was
life expectancy. She felt they would have succeeded when the life expectancy
of an Aboriginal child was the same as that of a non-Aboriginal child. This is
a necessary goal and one worth pursuing, but it occurred to me at the time
that while she was no fan of John Howard, and her methods would have dif-
fered from his, her take on the Aboriginal situation was in many ways
similar.
The same approach has been evident in Aotearoa New Zealand as well. In
the early 2000s, the policy of the New Zealand government towards Maori
was called ‘closing the gaps’ in schooling, health, employment, and so forth.
The assumption was that closing socioeconomic gaps was both the primary
issue in Maori-Pakeha (European-descent people) relations and a primary
Maori aspiration.
It all reminds me of a Mohawk friend who told me of a conversation he had
with a senior official in the Canadian government a decade or more ago. They
were talking about that government’s policy towards Aboriginal peoples and
the sense among First Nations that the Canadian government was unwilling
to engage their concerns. The official said to my friend, ‘You have to under-
stand: this government is willing to sit down and talk about equality, but we
will not talk about difference’. In other words, we’ll address gaps, but only
certain kinds.
But difference is what many Indigenous communities want to sustain: they
want the freedom to be themselves. What we risk losing here is the aspirations
of peoples, communities, and nations. It is not that equality or socioeconomic
disparities do not matter to Indigenous peoples. They do, and often urgently.
But I have encountered numerous tribal communities in North America and
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jos muistan oikein, niin hän ei ole niitä miehiä, jotka ottavat
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Tyttö on kaunis, ajatteli hän — tai sitten hän oli ollut niin kauan
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(tuuheat) ruosteenruskeat.
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— No?
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on pyhä tapa.
— Kuinka?
*****
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kuolet.
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Pian sen jälkeen eräs nainen toi hänelle kulhollisen keitettyä kalaa
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Murteellisella isisin kielellään hän pyysi naista jäämään luoksensa,
mutta tämä oli nähtävästikin ngombilaisia eikä ymmärtänyt.
*****
*****
Sanders nyökkäsi.
NGOMBIN KUNINGATAR
Tyttö lähetti hänelle pitkän vihreän lehden, joka merkitsi, että tyttö
oli suruissaan hänen puolestaan. Mies käsitti tämän merkiksi siitä,
mitä hänelle tulisi tapahtumaan, ja poistui kylästä kiitettävän
nopeasti.