Geodetic basis

dr inż. Stefan Jankowski

[email protected]
Reference systems and frames

• The reference system is a set of recommendations, findings and

constants and models necessary to define the origin, the scale, the
orientation of the coordinate system axes and their variability over
time
• The reference frame is a practical implementation of the reference
system. It is defined by a set of physical points with precisely
determined coordinates in a system defined in the definition of the
reference system
• The coordinate system determines the manner of assigning a set of
numerical values (coordinates of a point) to the position of a point in
space in relation to the axis of this system
Models of the Earth

Flat Earth
Globe
Reference surfaces

• The physical surface of the Earth is very complicated and has complex
shapes.
• For these reasons, a certain level has been set, to which the
measurements of the surface of the Earth relate.
• This level of reference was taken to the level of seas and oceans with
the full balance of the water masses contained therein
a physical surface
Sea level
 The geoid
the equipotential surface of the Earth’s gravity field which best fits, in a least squares
sense, global mean sea level
 The Elipsoid

In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a mathematically-defined surface that approximates

the shape of the Earth.
It is a closed surface, formed from the rotation of an ellipse around its small axis
 The Elipsoid vs the geoid
Due to asymmetrical mass circumstances in the earth, gravity has an irregular
course, which will render the geoid useless for a precise calculation surface for
determination of points
Normal to elipsoid
Normal to geoid

Deflection of
the plumb line

a mountain

elipsoidal height geoidal separation

geoidal height
Reference surfaces

Globe Geoid Ellipsoid

R b a

R = 6371000 m a = 6 378 137 m

b = 6 356 752,3142 m

f = 1/298,257223563

e = 0,081819

Where: 𝑎−𝑏
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓=
R = mean earth radius 𝑎
a – semi major axe 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
b – semi minor axe 𝑒 − 𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒=
𝑎2
 Reference ellipsoids: local and global

The best fit for the whole

geoid => a global reference
ellipsoid i.e. WGS84

Areas where the ellipsoid

matches very well the geoid
(local reference systems)
 Reference ellipsoids
Name Semi major axe (m) Semi minor axe (m) Inverse of flattening
Modified Everest (Malaya) Revised Kertau 6 377 304,063 6 356 103,038993 300,801699969

Timbalai 6 377 298,56 6 356 097,55 300,801639166

Sferoida Everesta 6 377 301,243 6 356 100,228 300,801694993
Maupertuis (1738) 6 397 300 6 363 806,283 191
Delambre (1810} 6 376 985,0 308 6465
Everest (1830) 6 377 276,345 6 356 075,413 300,801697979
Airy (1830) 6 377 563,396 6 356 256,909 299,3249646
Bessel (1841) 6 377 397,155 6 356 078,963 299,1528128
Clarke (1866) 6 378 206,4 6 356 583,8 294,9786982
Clarke (1880) 6 378 249,145 6 356 514,870 293,465
Helmert (1906) 6 378 200 6 356 818,17 298,3
Hayford (1910) 6 378 388 6 356 911,946 297
Międzynarodowa (Hayford 1924) 6 378 388 6 356 911,946 297

NAD 27 6 378 206,4 6 356 583,800 294,978698208

Krassowski (1940) 6 378 245 6 356 863,019 298,3
WGS-66 (1966) 6 378 145 6 356 759,769 298,25
Australian National (1966) 6 378 160 6 356 774,719 298,25
Nowa Międzynarodowa (1967) 6 378 157,5 6 356 772,2 298,24961539
GRS-67 (1967) 6 378 160 6 356 774,516 298,247167427
Południowo-Amerykańska (1969) 6 378 160 6 356 774,719 298,25
WGS-72 (1972) 6 378 135 6 356 750,52 298,26
GRS 80 (1979) 6 378 137 6 356 752,3141 298,257222101
NAD 83 6 378 137 6 356 752,3 298,257024899
WGS-84 (1984) 6 378 137 6 356 752,3142 298,257223563
IERS (1989) 6 378 136 6 356 751,302 298,257
Sfera (6371 km) 6 371 000 6 371 000 ∞
 The Datum
A geodetic reference frame. In surveying and geodesy, a datum is a set of reference points
on the Earth’s surface, and (often) an associated model of the shape of the Earth
(reference ellipsoid) used to define a geographic coordinate system. Horizontal datums are
used to describe the location of a point on the Earth’s surface, in latitude and longitude or
other appropriate coordinates

Equoter
0° 0°

Greenwich meridian - 0
The Royal Observatory
Co-ordinates

• Terrestrial co-ordinates
• They have a fixed position connected to the Earth’s crust and rotate with it
• The origin lies in or near the Earth’s center of gravity (geocentric system),
or lies on the Earth’s Surface (topocentric system)
• Describes position on / near the Earth’s surface
• Celestial co-ordinates
• Connected to the solar system, applied to define co-ordinates for celestial
bodies
• Orbit co-ordinates used to describe position of satellites in orbit around the
Earth
Terrestrial co-ordinates

• Geographical co-ordinates
• based on angular measurements
• North – South direction – latitude +/- 90
• East – West direction – longitude +/- 180
• Cartesian co-ordinates
• based on triaxial (x, y, z) right-hand system
• Used to fix position on an ellipsoid’s surface
• Usual uses meters as a unit
 Geographical co-ordinates

N 90°
66°

44°

22°

W up to 180° 66° 44° 22° 0° 22° 44° 66° E up to 180°

22°

44°

66°
S 90°
The latitude – from 0, on the equator, up to +90 to the North and up to -90 to the South
The longitude – from 0 meridian, which goes through the Greenwich Observatory, up to +180 to the
East and up to -180 to the West
 Latitude

N 90°
66°

44°

22°

0°

22°

44°

66°
S 90°
The length of the meridian arc, which is expressed in an angular measure from the
equator to a parallel passing through a given point on N or on S to max. 90 °
 Latitude

N 90°

 = 22° N

0°

S 90°
The angle between the equator’s plane and a line drawn from the center of the
Earth and passing through a given point; on N or on S to maximum 90°
 Longitude

158° 180° 158°

136° 136°

114° 114°

W 90° N 90° E 90°

66° 66°

44° 44°

22° 0° 22°
The length of the equator arc, which is expressed in degrees, counted from the
meridian 0 ° to a meridian passing through a given point on E or on W up to max 180°
 Longitude

N 90°

 = 44 E°

0°
the angle between the 0° meridian's semi-plane and a meridian's semi plane passing
through a given point on E or on W up to max 180°
Mercator’s projection

N 90°
66°

44°

22°

W 180° 66° 44° 22° 0° 22° 44° 66° E 180°

22°

44°

66°
S 90°
Mercator’s projection

66°

44°

22°

0°

22°

44°

66°

W 90° E 90°
66° 44° 22° 0° 22° 44° 66°
Mercator’s projection

66°

44°

22°

0°

22°

44°

66°

W 90° E 90°
66° 44° 22° 0° 22° 44° 66°
 Mercator’s projection

66°

44°

22°

0°

22°

44°

66°

W 180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° E
 Distance calculation
Departure – (zboczenie nawigacyjne) difference in longitude expressed in nautical mile

Departure a [Nm] =λ[’] cosaverage

66°

44°

B 22°

0°
 [’][Nm]
22°

44°
A
66°

W 180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° E
Universal Tranversal Mercator UTM

• The tangent meridian (central)

is selected every 6 degree of
longitude, which gives 60 zones
(6 degrees wide)
• The first zone: W180 – W174
• The zone is divided into 20
belts from C to X (except I and
O) along latitude
• Every belts is 8 degrees of
latitude, except X which is
equal 12 degrees
UTM: northing, easting

• North hemisphere – distance in

meters, from the equator to
North ( up to N84)
• South hemisphere – 10 million
minus distance [m] from the
equator to South (up to S80);
“false northing”
• Easting – distance [m] from the
central meridian of the zone +
500 000 m; „false easting”
• Positive values of coordnates
Navigation Chart
Directions on the chart
Nautical miles

• Nautical mile NM – (International Nautical Mile – INM) – it is a

distance unit used in marine navigation and aviation
• It is the arc length of the Earth meridian corresponding to one minute
of an angle on a great circle
• In fact, due to the shape of the globe (Geoid), the arc length of 1
minute angle, varies depending on the latitude, therefore the
average length was assumed
 Nautical mile

• 1 NM → 1’
1 NM = 40 000 km / (360° × 60’) =
1851,852 m ≈ 1 852 m
• 1 NM = 10 cables

R
R
Great circle– the largest circle, which can be R
put into a globe. Its diameter is equal to the
diameter of the sphere, and the plane of the
circle divides the globe into two symmetrical R
halves, called hemispheres. R
It is a trace of the plane on the sphere that
passes through center of the globe.
 Ortodroma / great circle / gc

orthodroma [gr]:
• the shortest line connecting 2 points
on the surface of the ball
• it is the arc of a great circle passing
through the given 2 points;
• on the globe orthodroma crosses
meridians at different angles.

GC (or similar see manual) on receiver's

display means that the navigation is on
the orthodromic: a distance is
calculated on great circle and a bearing
is an initial orthodromic angle

http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/
 Loxodrome / rhumb line / rl
loxodrome [gr.]:
• a line on the surface of the sphere
that cuts all meridians at a constant
angle α;
• when α is an acute or obtuse angle
(α ≠ 0 °, 90 °, 180 °), then it has a
spiral shape with an asymptotic
point on the pole;
• on the chart in the Mercator
projection loxodrome is a straight
line, which is used in navigation
(road after loxodrome means a
route at a fixed course);
• the term l. was introduced by
Snellius (1624). http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/

RL (or similar see manual) on receiver's display means that

the navigation is on the rhumb line: a distance is calculated
on rhumb line and a bearing is a bearing to a destination
 Heading
Heading (hdg) – where the bow is directed in relations to North
the angle between the northern part of the local meridian and the bow part
of the ship's symmetry axis
It depends on which reference line is taken into consideration:

Compass N N Magnetic N
Ct
Cc – Compass course g
Cm hd
Cm – Magnetic course Cc
Ct – True course v
v – magnetic variation d
d – deviation


Bearings
True bearing (bearing) – the angle between the northern part of the local
meridian and the line drawn from the observer to an object (target)

Compass N N Magnetic N
g
hd
d
Bt Bm v
Bc

Bc – Compass bearing
Bm – Magnetic bearing
Bt – True bearing
v – magnetic variation
d – deviation


 Relative bearing

Relative bearing (rel.bearing) - the angle between the bow part of the ship's
symmetry axis and the line drawn from the observer to a object (target)

Ct

Bt

Rel.bearing


 COG

Course over ground - the angle between the northern part of the meridian
and the path of the vessel movement in relation to the a bottom (Earth)

N N
drift

Ct current
Ct

 
 CTW

Course through the water - movement in relation to the water (heading is

corrected for the wind)

N N

hdg drift
hdg

 
The end