ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Pictorial representations of a three-dimensional (3-D) object on a plane are adequate only if the
object is simple i.e., they provide an image that is similar to the image in the designer’s mind’s
eye. But 3-D projections are often weak in providing adequate details of the object, and there is
often some distortion of the object. For instance, a circular hole becomes an ellipse in an
isometric 3-D projection. To overcome the weaknesses of 3-D projections, a different method of
representation must be used to represent an accurate or true shape of an object and this is none
other than Orthographic projection. Using this projection, even the most complex shape can be
fully described.

Definition

Orthographic projection is a means of representing a three-dimensional object on a two-

dimensional plane surface or is a method of producing a number of separate two-dimensional
inter-related views to planes which are mutually at right angles to each other. Orthographic
projection depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight and uses multiple views
of an object, from points of view rotated about the objects’ centre through increments of 900.

Primary or Principal Planes of Projection

By observing the shadows of objects cast by light sources, it can be seen that an object can be
‘projected’ onto six planes of projection from a point at infinity, and joining the objects’
projected points in order, an accurate visible outline of the object is obtained. However,
orthographic projection is based on three principal planes of projection, intersecting each other.
These include;

 Horizontal Plane (HP)

 Vertical Plane (VP)
 Side or Profile Plane (PP)

Conventional Orthographic Views

The most common means of understanding the generation of conventional orthographic views is
- The Glass Box method. In this,

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  The user imagines that the object is enclosed in a transparent “box” said to be “the glass
box”.
 Each view of the object is established on its corresponding glass box surface.
 To obtain a view, perpendicular projectors are drawn originating at each point of the
object and extending to the related box surface.
 The box is imagined as hinged so that it can be unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper)
to obtain the arrangement of views.

The Six Principal Views

Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at right angles to each other. On
these planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, right side, left
side, bottom and
rear.

 The projection on the frontal plane is called the front view or vertical projection or front
elevation.
 The projection on the horizontal plane is called the top view or horizontal projection or
plan.
 The projections on the left/right sides are called left/right profile views or left/right side
view or left/right profile projection or left/right side elevation.

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  By reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained instead of a top view or a
rear view instead of a front view.

In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one
drawing. All these views are principal views with each showing two of the three dimensions of
height, width and depth. In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved
outward so that they lie in the plane of the paper, with each image plane being perpendicular to
its adjacent image plane and parallel to the image plane across from it. Before it is revolved
around its hinged fold line (reference line).

A fold line is the line of intersection between any hinged (adjacent) image planes. The left side,
front, right side, and back are all elevation views, each being vertical. The top and bottom planes
are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases, the most usual combination selected from the six
possible views consists of the top, front and right-side views. However, sometimes the left- side
view describes an object more clearly than the right-side view.

In figure 7.6, the vertical lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to meet
at infinity. The line of sight is always perpendicular to the plane of projection, represented by the
surfaces of the glass box (top, front, and right side). Projection lines(C) connect the same point
on the plane of projection from view to view, always at right angle. A point is projected up on the
plane of projection where its projector cuts that image plane. In the figure 7.6, point 1, which
represents a corner of the given object, has been projected on to the three primary image planes.

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When it intersects the horizontal plane (top plane of projection), it is identified as 1H, when it
intersects the frontal plane (front plane of projection), it is identified as 1F, and where it
intersects the profile plane (right side plane of projection), it is labeled 1P.

Arrangement of Views

Orthographic views are positioned relative to each other according to either of two schemes or
techniques as:

a. 1st angle projection (Used in European countries; ISO standard) also known as British
system
b. 3rd angle projection (Used in Bangladesh, Canada, USA, Japan, Thailand) also known as
American system.

In each, the appearances of views may be thought of as being “projected” onto planes that form a
transparent “box” around the object.

First Angle Projection

In this, each view of the object is projected in the direction (sense) of sight of the object, onto the
interior surfaces of the box. A two-dimensional representation of the object is then created by
“unfolding” the box, to view all the interior surfaces.

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When making a drawing using first angle projection the following points should be noted:

1. Corresponding heights in the front view and side view are the same. For example, the
height of the hole from the base, H, is the same in both front and side views. The
thickness of the base, T, is the same in both front and side views.
2. Widths in the side view correspond to depths in the plan. For example, the total width, D,
in the side view is the same as the total depth, D, in the plan.
3. The width, d, is the same in both plan and side views. Projection of widths from side
view to plan is made easier by using the 45º swing line as shown above.
4. The plan view is usually projected below the front view. It can be above but this would be
called an “inverted” plan.
5. The R.H. side view is shown on the L.H. side of the front view.
6. The L.H. side view is shown on the R.H. side of the front view.

Note: Drawings should be read (or interpreted) by viewing from the R.H. side or bottom R.H.
corner of the drawing.

Third Angle Projection

In third angle projection, each view of the object is projected opposite to the direction (sense) of
sight of the object, onto the interior surfaces of the box. A two-dimensional representation of the
object is then created by “unfolding” the box, to view all the interior surfaces.

Additional Information

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Second-angle and fourth-angle projection also are defined, but do not result in useful images.
Third-angle projection is often considered to be more intuitive than first-angle projection.

First and Third Angle Orthographic Projection Symbols

The symbols for first and third angle are based on the frustum of a cone as shown.

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View selection procedures

1. Orient the object to the best position relative to a glass box.

2. Select the front view.
3. Select adjacent views.

Orient the object

 The object should be placed in its natural position.

 The orthographic views should represent the true size and true shape of an object (as
much as possible).

Select the front view

 The longest dimension of an object should be presented as a width (in a front view).
 The adjacent views project from the selected front view should be appeared in a natural
position.
 It has the fewest number of hidden lines.

Select an adjacent view

 Choose the view that has the fewest number of hidden lines.
 Choose the minimum number of views that can represent the major features of the object.
 Choose the views that are suitable to a drawing sheet.

Orthographic Projections of Parallel, Inclined and Oblique Surfaces

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  An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point
when it is perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the
plane.
 Similarly, a surface appears in true shape when it is parallel to the planes of projection, as
line when it is perpendicular to the plane and fore-shortened when it inclined to the plane.
 A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it
does not show in true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows
interval length in one view and is fore shortened in the other two views.

When an inclined or oblique line is to be projected it is helpful to identify and draw the end
points and then joining them to obtain the projection.

Orthographic Projections of Hidden Surfaces

To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should contain lines
representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects. In any view there will
be some parts of the object that cannot be seen from the position of the observer, as they will be
covered by portion of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and
surface limits of these hidden parts are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line or
hidden line. Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these dashed lines. If
carelessly drawn, they ruin the appearance of a drawing.

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Orthographic Projections of Curved Surfaces and Holes

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To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are commonly utilized. All
the center lines are the axes of symmetry.

Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line before the part
is drawn.

Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular center lines.

Precedence of Lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. For example; Hidden portions of the
object may project to coincide with visible portions and center lines may occur where there is a
visible or hidden out line of some part of the object. Since the physical features of the object
must be visible, visible out lines take precedence over all other lines followed by hidden and
cutting plane lines with Center lines having the lowest precedence. Therefore, when any two
lines coincide, the one that is more important to the readability of the drawing takes precedent
over the other.

Order of importance

For Example:

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Hidden Line Practice

Hidden line should join a visible line, except it extended from the visible line.

Hidden line should intersect to form L and T corners.

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Hidden arcs should start on a center line.

Center Line Practice

 In circular view, short dash should cross at the intersections of center line.
 For small hole, center line is presented as thin continuous line.
 Center line should not extend between views.
 Leave the gap when centerline forms a continuation with a visible or hidden line
 Center line should always start and end with long dash.

Object Features

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Edges are lines that represent the boundary between two faces.

Corners represent the intersection of two or more edges.

Surfaces are areas that are bounded by edges or limiting element.

Limiting element is a line that represents the last visible part of the curve surface.

Edge lines are lines that represent the boundary between two faces

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