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A Teacher’s Guide to
Philosophy for Children
A Teacher’s Guide to Philosophy for Children provides educators with
the process and structures to engage children in inquiring as a group
into ‘big’ moral, ethical and spiritual questions, while also considering
curricular necessities and the demands of national and local standards.
Based on the actual experiences of educators in diverse and global
classroom contexts, this comprehensive guide gives you the tools you
need to introduce philosophical thinking into your classroom, curricu-
lum and beyond. Drawing on research-based educational and psycho-
logical models, this book highlights the advantages gained by students
who regularly participate in philosophical discussion: from building cog-
nitive and social/emotional development, to becoming more informed
citizens. Helpful tools and supplementary online resources offer addi-
tional frameworks for supporting and sustaining a higher level of think-
ing and problem-solving among your students.
This practical guide is essential reading for teachers, coaches and
anyone wondering how you can effectively teach philosophy in your
classroom.
Sustainability 126
Overall Conclusions About the Effects of Philosophy for
Children 127
References 128
Index�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177
Dedication and Acknowledgements
Thanks particularly to my wife, Doris, who brought much from her practical
experience of P4C to help refine the Thinking Through Philosophy approach
and build supporting classroom aids. She has also worked tirelessly when
training teachers and endured many difficult conditions (particularly in rural
India) in order to make this pedagogy available to all. Her help and support
have been invaluable. Thanks to Jane Craik, school principal in Scotland,
who has worked hard over many years to make P4C available to many
teachers and schools. She represents all those who work so hard because
they believe in this work and approach. Lastly, thanks to Education Renais-
sance Trust (London) and Yojana Projecthulp (Netherlands), who sponsored
the projects in Grenada and India because they too believe in working to
improve education for young people, wherever they may be.
Paul Cleghorn
In their classic 1980 text on Philosophy for Children, Lipman, Sharp and
Oscanyon wrote on behalf of a child: ‘When I entered the educational
system, I brought curiosity and imagination and creativity with me.
Thanks to the system, I have left all these behind’1 (p. 5).
This comment is stark and pessimistic, but it does raise the ques-
tion of how young students can be supported to retain their curiosity
and interest throughout their educational experiences while also being
encouraged to be reflective and judicious in their thinking. Matthew
Lipman and his colleagues developed the Philosophy for Children
(P4C) program in the 1960s and 1970s. P4C has endured while
many other educational initiatives have come and gone. The process
of Philosophy for Children is now practiced in over 60 countries
throughout the world2.
But Lipman was not the first. Much of the questioning in P4C comes
from Socratic dialogue and argument, fostered in ancient Greece. Bron-
son Allcott (father of Louisa May) was a schoolmaster in Boston in the
1840s and a friend and mentor to New England philosophers Emerson
and Thoreau. He used a very similar questioning technique, and the ses-
sions were recorded by a Miss Peabody, sitting in the corner! The stimuli
were biblical quotations, but the discussions were fascinating and quite
2 ◆ Introducing Thinking Through Philosophy
open. It was a bit too ahead of its time for the good folk of Boston, who
closed the school down after three years.
A Teacher’s Guide to Philosophy for Children aims to support
teachers who want to engage their students in meaningful discussion
to construct knowledge and understanding, rather than seeing learning
as a repetitive process aimed at ‘ticking off’ narrow prescribed targets.
More active engagement is likely to satisfy and fulfill the psychologi-
cal needs of both learner and teacher. This book is about a method of
inquiry that can be used with students of all ages to explore the meaning
of difficult-to-define concepts – such as beauty, fairness and truth – and
embed that knowledge in a wider context of understanding. Inquiry
stimulates students (and the teacher) to think more deeply and ‘reason-
ably’ about concepts and issues in general, not just those with a philo-
sophical dimension.
This book will provide guidance as to how this can be done. It
aims to promote critical, creative and collaborative thinking and can
support learning throughout the curriculum. Philosophical inquiry is
also conducive to students’ social and emotional development. Apart
from these pragmatic reasons, engaging students in thinking together
about questions that interest them is an enjoyable and motivating experi-
ence for all concerned.
Philosophy for Children aims to teach children to think for them-
selves and make informed choices. It also seeks to improve children’s
reasoning abilities and judgment by having them think about their
thinking as they discuss concepts of importance to them. The process
encourages children to develop critical reasoning and creative think-
ing skills through collaborative dialogue facilitated by their teacher.
This book will consider how teachers can facilitate regular practice of
Philosophy for Children so it engages students of all ages to think and
inquire together. When students are able to think together, they can cre-
ate meaning and extend understanding beyond that which they could
achieve individually. The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. This
book will also consider how P4C can promote long-term cognitive and
social development.
A Teacher’s Guide to Philosophy for Children provides teachers and
students with a structure for exploring ‘big’ moral, ethical and spiritual
questions such as ‘What is fairness?’ ‘What is beauty?’ or ‘What is a
friend?’ Children are curious. It is often said that children are natural
Introducing Thinking Through Philosophy ◆ 3
References
1. M. Lipman, A. M. Sharp and F. Oscanyon, Philosophy in the
classroom. 1980. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
2. Society for the Advancement of Philosophical Enquiry and
Reflection in Education (SAPERE). Available at: www.sapere.org.
uk/Default.aspx?tabid=162 [November 27, 2018].
3. M. Gregory. Precollege philosophy education: What can it be? The
IAPC Model. In S. Goering, N. J. Shudak and T.E. Wartenberg
(Eds.). Philosophy in schools: An introduction for philosophers
and teachers. 2013, pp. 69–85. New York: Routledge.
4. C. C. McCall. Transforming thinking: Philosophical inquiry in the
primary and secondary classroom. 2009. London: Routledge.
Introducing Thinking Through Philosophy ◆ 13
The overall aim of Philosophy for Children is ‘to help children learn
how to think for themselves’ and make informed choices3 (p. 53). The
goal of the program is to improve children’s reasoning abilities and
judgment by having them think about thinking as they discuss concepts
of importance to them. An independent thinker is able to organize their
thinking through questioning, hypothesizing and suggesting alternative
explanations. Their conclusions are directly linked to their reasoning
from evidence. The UNESCO Philosophy report4 states that Lipman’s
primary goal was to foster critical thinking and formal logic in particu-
lar. Lipman believed that children have the ability to think abstractly and
understand philosophical questions from an early age. While the scien-
tific method can contribute to critical reasoning, the skills of philosophy
address more abstract questions, for example, ‘Do we have free will?’,
‘Is there a God?’ and ‘What is greed?’. The ambiguity of such questions
maximizes the scope for eliciting different views and justifying one’s
argument rationally.
Lipman suggested that Philosophy for Children encourages children
to develop critical and creative thinking skills through collaborative
dialogue. Reasoning skills are central to critical thinking and involve
students justifying their views with reasons, drawing inferences, making
deductions, identifying underlying assumptions and dealing with con-
tradictions. Ill-defined concepts are clarified, sweeping generalizations
avoided and decisions informed by reasons and/or evidence. The facili-
tator encourages reasoning through probing questions to help student’s
judgments become more balanced. Examples of such questions would be
‘How do you know that?’, ‘Can you explain what you mean by saying
something is not fair?’ and ‘Can you give me an example of what you are
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