Unit 3

PRENATAL
LIFE
 Claimed that fully formed “little people” were
ANIMALCULISTS contained in the head of the sperm, ready to
grow, when deposited in the nurturing
environment of the womb

HISTORICAL OVISTS
Claimed that female ovaries contained tiny,
already formed humans whose growth was

APPROACH activated by the males sperm

• German born anatomist

KASPER
• Demonstrated that both the biological parents
FRIEDRICH
contributed to the formation of a new being
WOLFF
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Female Gamete –
Ova/Ovum/Egg
• 23 chromosomes
• Every female child is born with
about 400,000 immature ova in her
2 ovaries.
• Each ova is held within a sac like
structure called follicle
• Upon reaching maturation, the
follicle ruptures to release the ovum
into the fallopian tube
• The ovum then moves through the
fallopian tube with the help of small
hair like structure called Cilia
MALE GAMET – SPERM • 23 chromosomes
• Head & Tail structure – Head consists
of the genetic material while the tail
helps with mobility
• Size - 1/600th of an inch
• Produced in the testicles ( testes)
• Rate of production – several 100
millions a day
• Ejaculated – towards the climax of the
sexual intercourse along with the
semen
• For fertilization to be likely, at least 20
million sperms must enter the females
body
NATURAL FERTILIZATION PROCESS
 FERTILIZATION
• FERTILIZATION OR CONCEPTION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH SPERM AND
OVUM FUSE TO FORM A SINGLE CELL – CALLED THE ZYGOTE.
• Once ejaculated, sperm can survive upto 5 days inside the female reproductive track
and can maintain the ability to fertilize the egg
• The egg can be fertilised for a period of upto 24 hours after ovulation ( release of the
ova from the mature follicle )
• Thus the chances of fertilization is maximum when sexual intercourse
• Egg and sperm’s which are not fertilized eventually die in the females body.
• Egg which is not fertilized passes through the uterus and exits the body through
vagina ( along with the shedding of the uterine wall- menstruation).
• Sperm’s which fail too fertilize the egg are absorbed by the woman’s white blood cells.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMETN

Prenatal development occurs in 3 stages

THE GERMINAL STAGE ( Fertilization To 2 Weeks)

THE EMBRYONIC STAGE ( end of 2nd week to 8th week )

THE FETAL STAGE ( 8th week to birth )

THE GERMINAL STAGE ( FROM FERTILIZATION TO 2 WEEKS )

• This stage lasts from the time

of fertilization to 2 weeks of
gestational age.
• In this stage – the Zygot
divides rapidly to develop
into the Blastocyst which gets
implanted on the uterine wall
• Zygot divides rapidly by
mitosis
BLASTOCYST-
A Cluster of dividing cells made by the fertilised egg ,
which is in the form of a fluid filled sphere
Once the Blastocyst reached the uterus,, it moves
around freely in the uterus for a day or two, and then in
the second week, the blastocyst gets implanted on the
uterine wall.

• The cells in the blastocyte divide into the outer layer

of cells and the inner layer of cells
• The outer layer of cells of the Blastocyte is called the
trophoblast. The outer layer of the Blastocyte
develop into organs which protect and nurture the
baby- Umblical Cord , Placenta & Amniotic Sac
• The cells within the blastocyst cluster to one side to
form the Embroynic Disk – which is a thickened
cell mass from which the embryo begins to develop.
The process of implantation occurs in 3 stages
Apposition – during apposition, the fertilised egg, which is now called as Blastocyte
comes to rest on the Uterine wall.
Adhesion – in this stage, the outer surface of the Blastocyte called the Trophoblast ,
and the uterine wall touch and actually stick together ( the inner lining of the uterus
is prepared to receive the fertilised egg)
Invasion – in this stage the trophoblast begins to dig inside the uterine wall and
burys itself in the uterine lining.
THE EMBRYONIC PERIOD ( END OF 2 ND WEEK TO 8 WEEKS)
In this stage, the a recognizable human baby develops through rapid cell division and
cell differentiation
The cells in the embryonic disk divide into three layers, which give rise to different part
of the body
Ectoderm –
Upper most layer
Becomes outer layer of skin, nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, nervous system, brain &
spinal cord
Endoderm -
Lower layer
Develops in to the digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands & respiratory system
Mesoderm -
Middle layer
Develops into inner layer of the skin, muscles, skeleton, circulatory organs, excretory
system.
AUXILLARY ORGANS
The Trophoblast, or the outer layer of the blastocyte develop into the organs
which nurture and protect the baby-
They are
Amniotic sac
Umblical cord
Placenta

Amniotic sac – it’s a sac like structure which contains the amniotic fluid, a
watery liquid in which the developing embryo floats.
It serves as a protective buffer against physical shocks and temperature

Umbilical Cord –
Is composed of blood vessels.
Its main purpose it to transport blood and nutrients too and fro from the baby
to the placenta and to transport the body waste of the baby to the placenta to
be further excreted.
Placenta
It is a temporary organ that is formed during the
gestational period.
It is formed when the tendrils which attach the
embryo to the uterine wall increase in size and
complexity to form a fleshy disc.
Placenta is connected to the embryo via the
umbilical cord
• It provides nourishment to the embryo and
removes its body waste
• It also protects the foetus from diseases and
infections.
• Placenta has two sets of blood vessels.
• It produces hormones which support
pregnancy.
 FETAL STAGE ( 3 WEEKS TO BIRTH)
Week 3
Rapid development of
the nervous system
Sensitive to any
obstruction to growth
Week 4
Heart develops and
begins to beat – first
movement in the
embryo
Embryo 10,000 times
bigger than the zygote
Size - Quarter to half
an inch
Week 5
Eyes and ears begin to develop
Bosy buds for arms and legs
Head is the largest part of the body

Week 6 & 7
Embryo – recognizable as a human
being but disproportionate – head is
the same size as the rest of the body
Fingers and toes outline visible
Organs formed – organogenesis

Week 8 –
95% of the body parts develop,
Body movement detected
3rd month
Sex organs develop, can determine the sex of
the baby
Nervous system continues to develop
Embryo recognizable as foetus
4th month
Foetus size – 8-10 inches
Movements more visible , kicking – ‘quickening’
RBC & WBC are produced
Fetus can swallow, digest and discharge urine
5th month
Baby can sleep and wake up like infants , they
even have a favourite sleeping position
Foetus more active- kicking, turning etc
Body covered with wooly hair – lanugo
6th month
• Fetal growth slowed
down
• Size – 14 inches
• Organs are present but
very immature
• Baby if born cannot
survive
• Some cases of survival
are recorder
7th month
Growth slow, but the
organs develop and
become viable ( able to
survive if weight is 5
pounds)
8th & 9th month
Senses ready to function
Size -20 inches
Brain - 25 % of adult
weight
Preparations for birth
underway
THE FETAL PERIOD ( 8TH WEEK TO
BIRTH )
3rd month 6th month
Sex organs develop, can determine the sex of Fetal growth slowed down
the baby Size – 14 inches
Nervous system continues to decelop Organs are present but very immature
Embryo recognizable as fetus Baby if born cannot survive
Some cases of survival are recorder
4th month
Foetus size – 8-10 inches
7th month
Movements more visible , kicking –
Growth slow, but the organs develop and
‘quickening’
become viable ( able to survive if weight is 5
RBC & WBC are produced
pounds)
Fetus can swallow, digest and discharge urine

5th month 8th & 9th month senses ready to function

Baby can sleep and wake up like infants , they Size -20 inches
even have a favourite sleeping position Brain - 25 % of adult weight
Foetus more active- kicking, turning etc Preparations for birth underway
Body covered with wooly hair – lanugo
TERATOGENS
• Agents which can cause abnormalities in the fetus following fetal exposure during pregnancy
are called as TERATOGENS.
• The word comes from the Greek word – ‘tera’ meaning monster
• Teratogens either cause a birth defect, or negatively alter the cognitive and behavioural
outcomes of the foetus
• Teratogens include –
• Drugs – Prescribed & Non prescribed Drugs
• Chemicals
Diseases, diet, hormones ,
• Pollutants age, disorders
Mothers physical state
• Maternal conditions –
Stress, emotional state
• Environmental factors Mothers mental state
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
• Diseases or infections which are contracted during pregnancy or at
birth – which can be harmful to the foetus are grouped together as
• STORCH
• S- SYPHILLIS
• T – TOXOPLASMOSIS
• O- OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES
• R- RUBELLA
• C- CYTOMEGAVIRUS
• H – HERPES
SYPHILLIS
• Syphillis is a sexually transmitted disease
• It is more damaging to the fetus when it is
contracted during the later stages prenatal
development.
• Could cause – stillbirth, (50% of the
infected fetus die any time during or after
the second semester), Blindness, mental
retardation & deafness
Treatment – penicillin ( off late congenital
syphilis has steadily decreased)
TOXOPLASMOSIS
• It is a disease cause by protozoan ( a
microorganism)
• It is transmitted by animals – especially cats.
• This infection goes undetected in women
usually and hence the infection could be
passed on to the fetus
• Could cause – premature birth , still birth,
misscarriage, low birth weight, mental
retardation cerebral palsy, blindness
OTHER INFECTIONS
• This category includes diseases such as
• Influenza
• Chicken pox
• Measles
• Mumps
• Hepatisis
• Could cause – heart diseases and fetal deaths
RUBELLA
• A contagious viral infection, typically
a childhood disease
• Also refered to as German measles
• When contracted by pregnant
women ( usually before the 11th
month of pregnancy) it causes
defects in the baby
• Could lead to - congenital heart
disorders, cataracts, deafness, Mental
Retardation, spontaneous abortion.
• Preventive measure- immunization
CYTOMEGAVIRUS
• Most common STORCH infection
• It is a viral infection
• No information about whether the
infection is harmful in early stage or
later stage- as the disease remains
unrecognized in the pregnant
women.
• Could lead to – Mental retardation,
deafness, & death
HERPES
• Two types – herpes I & herpes II
• Herpes I – appears around he mouth area
• Herpes II – appears in the genital area
• Herpes – the fetus is usually exposed to this
when it passes through the birth canal and
hence as a preventive measure, a c-section
birth procedure can be adopted
• If untreated it could lead to damaging effects in
the brain , lungs Kidneys, spinal cord
DRUGS
PRESCRIBED DRUGS
• Analgesics – pain killer – eg anesthetic or barbiturates –
respiratory disorders in infant
• Aspirin – non steriodical anti inflammatory drugs – could cause
blood disorders, low intelligence, low birth weight, spontaneous
abortion
• Anti convulsive drugs – leads to cleft lip and cleft palate
• Antimalarials – Quinine – deafness
• Retinoids – isotretinoin, accutane – for acne issues –
abnormalities in heart, head, neck, CNS, behavioural problems and
lack of ears
• Antibiotics – streptomycin & tetracycline – hearing loss, inhibition of
bone growth & discolored teeth
• Hormones – DES- Diethyl Stilbestrol - it is prescribed to prevent
miscarriages- but-
Female children when they reached puberty showed high rate of cancer of
the vagina, malformations of the uterus
Male children had a high rate of genital abnormalities , cancer of the testes
• Thalidomide – prescribed as a sedative or anti-nausea during
pregnancy resulted in Phocomelia- a condition when limbs are missing -
& feet and hands are attached to torso like flippers, eye defects, cleft
palate, small ears etc. this drug is been banned from prescription now
• Ibuprofen – increases the risk of a prolonged delivery and hypertention
Graphical representation
of Phocomelia
NON PRESCRIBED DRUGS
• Opiates like heroin, morphine, codeine – addicted mothers have
children who are also prone to addiction, and infants go through
withdrawal symptoms like irritability, vomiting , trembling shrill
crying, rapid breathing, hyperactivity,The babies may doe soon after
birth
• Marijuana ( hallucinogens) – fetus has tremors, startles, high
pitched cry, reduced attention to the environment
• Nicotine – smoking during pregnancy- negative effects – low birth
weight, prematurity, miscarriages, suddenn infant death syndrome (
SIDS)
• Alchohol – Excessive consumption leads to Fetal Alcohol
Syndrome ( FAS)
Slow prenatal & post natal physical growth, malformations, disorders
of the CNS, MR, Poor attention, facial abnormalities, irritability,
hyperactivity, microcephaly, fetal alcohol effect
Even small amounts can have a lasting effect.
• Caffeine – not completely safe, high consumption is linked to
spontaneous abortion, but this is not established
OTHER MATERNAL FACTORS
• NUTRITION
• A pregnant women typically needs 300 to 500 additional calories a day
along with extra protein
• Diet has to be rich in various nutrients, vitamins & minerals. Studies have
shown that malnourishment has a multiple negative effects on the
growing fetus. ( intra uterine growth retardation IUGR )
• In case of malnutrition, appropriate supplements have to be taken to
prevent a negative effect on the fetus
• Iron – deficiency leads to still birth, & brain damage in the fetus
• Zinc – deficiency leads to low birth weight, small head circumference
• Iodine – deficiency cretinism ( insufficient thyroid hormone- impaired
physical & mental development)
• Folate – deficiency leads to birth defects in the brain and the spinal cord
( folic acid supplements prescribed to pregnant women)
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
• Moderate exercise is advised. It promotes circulation, skin elasticity,
helps prevent constipation
• Strenuous activities which tire the pregnant women and cause
stress on the abdomen should be avoided
• Employment is not a major concern as long as its not too stressful
to the expectant mother.
• Falls or minor accidents could cause some harm to the fetus.
HORMONES
• Imbalance in the hormones could have a negative effect on the
fetus.
• Excessive estrogen & progesterone in the 2nd & 3rd month could
cause miscarriages, disturbances in the cardiovascular development ,
congenital heart conditions ext.
MATERNAL AGE
• Ideal age for child bearing – 20 to 30 yrs of age
• Older women, over 35 yrs of age – more risk factors associated
with child birth
• Greater chances of mutation leading to disorders
• Greater chances of multiple births, sue to multiple releases of ova
or due to defects in the cell division
• Slow development of the embryo & fetus
• More vulnerability for downs syndrome, cretinism, development of
mental disorder , smaller babies with complications at birth
INCOMPATIBILITY OF BLOOD TYPE
• Rh protein
• Some individuals possess Rh protein while some don’t
• If the mother does not posses Rh protein , but the baby posses Rh
protein, then in cases where the mothers blood comes in Contact with
the baby’s blood, the mothers blood which is devoid of Rh protein
recognises the Rh protein present in the babys blood as a foreign body
and activates the immune system and produces antibodies to destroy
the Rh protein, and when these antibodies enter the babys blood stream,
it causes harm to the baby by destroying the red blood cells in its body,
leading to a condition called as Erythroblastocys
• This could lead to spontaneous abortion, , stillbirth, jaundice, anemia,
hearth defects and mental retardation.
• Preventive measure – early screening and vaccine – immune globulin
shots
• High blood pressure - not very harmful- reduces the efficiency of
the placenta
• Diabetes – if untreated then - miscarriage, metabolic disturbance
like respiratory and circulatory issues, intrauterine death
• Maternal stress – if excessive – miscarriage, premature birth, low
birth weight , respiratory illness, high foetal movement , feeding
problems , bowel difficulties
• Radiations – medical X rays, & nuclear reactors- causes gene
mutation – defects in development
• Incompatible cervix – at 14 weeks it could open up and the
baby is miscarried , so as a preventive measure it could be identifies
earlier and stitched up and then stiches could be removed around
the 38th week to prepare for delivery
PATERNAL FACTORS
• Abnormal sperms – exposure to radiations, drugs, chemicals
• Could cause – lower birth weight, tumors of the nervous system,
higher risk of cancer, dwarfism, deformities of head & limbs(
Marfans Syndrome ) and deformation of bones.
PRINCIPLES OF TERATOGEN EFFECTS
• Some defects can be caused by different teratogens eg Cleft Palate – caused by both anti
convulsive drugs and Thalidomide
• Variety of defects may be caused by a single teratogen – eg – cytomegalovirus causes both
mental retardation and blindness
• Dose and exposure influences the impact of the teratogen on the baby
• Vulnerable periods –
10 -25 days – brain
25 – 40 days – eyes
24 – 36 days – legs
• Clegg gave that in the fetal stage, the teratogen induced abnormalities occur only in locations
or systems that are still maturing such as cerebellum, palate, cardiovascular and urogenital
structures
• Maternal and paternal genotype influences the fetus’s vulnerability to a teratogen