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ROUTINE DYNAMICS IN ACTION
RESEARCH IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF
ORGANIZATIONS
Series Editor: Michael Lounsbury

Recent Volumes:

Volume 41: Religion and Organization Theory

Volume 42: Organizational Transformation and
Scientific Change: The Impact of
Institutional Restructuring on
Universities and Intellectual Innovation
Volume 43: Elites on Trial
Volume 44: Institutions and Ideals: Philip Selznick’s
Legacy for Organizational Studies
Volume 45: Towards a Comparative
Institutionalism: Forms, Dynamics and
Logics Across the Organizational Fields
of Health and Higher Education
Volume 46: The University under Pressure
Volume 47: The Structuring of Work in
Organizations
Volume 48A: How Institutions Matter!
Volume 48B: How Institutions Matter!
Volume 49: Multinational Corporations and
Organization Theory: Post Millennium
Perspectives
Volume 50: Emergence
Volume 51: Categories, Categorization and
Categorizing: Category Studies in
Sociology, Organizations and Strategy
at the Crossroads
Volume 52: Justification, evaluation and critique in
the study of organizations:
contributions from French pragmatist
sociology
Volume 53: structure, content and meaning of
organizational networks: extending
network thinking
Volume 54A: Multimodality, Meaning, and Institutions
Volume 54B: Multimodality, Meaning, and Institutions
Volume 55: Social Movements, Stakeholders and
Non-Market Strategy
Volume 56: Social Movements, Stakeholders and
Non-Market Strategy
Volume 57: Toward Permeable Boundaries of
Organizations?
Volume 58: Agents, Actors, Actorhood: Institutional
Perspectives on the Nature of Agency,
Action, and Authority
Volume 59: The Production of Managerial
Knowledge and Organizational Theory:
New Approaches to Writing, Producing
and Consuming Theory
Volume 60: Race, Organizations, and the
Organizing Process
 RESEARCH IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF
ORGANIZATIONS VOLUME 61

ROUTINE DYNAMICS IN
ACTION: REPLICATION AND
TRANSFORMATION
EDITORS
MARTHA S. FELDMAN
University of California, USA
LUCIANA D’ADDERIO
Strathclyde Business School, UK
KATHARINA DITTRICH
Warwick Business School, UK
PAULA JARZABKOWSKI
Cass Business School, City, University of London, UK
&
University of Queensland Business School, Australia.
United Kingdom – North America – Japan
India – Malaysia – China
Emerald Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2019

Chapter 2 © Siri Boe-Lillegraven.

Selection, editorial matter and all other chapters © Emerald.
This book contains an Open Access chapter.

Reprints and permissions service

Contact: [email protected]

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying
issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA
by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the
chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort
to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no
representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability
and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to
their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-78756-586-9 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-78756-585-2 (Online)
ISBN: 978-1-78756-587-6 (Epub)
ISSN: 0733-558X (Series)
CONTENTS

Lists of Tables and Figures

Contributor Biographies

Acknowledgments

Introduction: Routine Dynamics in Action

Martha S. Feldman, Luciana D’Adderio, Katharina
Dittrich and Paula Jarzabkowski

Chapter 1 Remounting a Ballet in a Different

Context: A Complementary Understanding of
Routines Transfer Theories
Charlotte Blanche and Patrick Cohendet

Chapter 2 Transferring Routines Across

Multiple Boundaries: A Flexible Approach
Siri Boe-Lillegraven

Chapter 3 Copying Routines for New Venture

Creation: How Replication Can Support
Entrepreneurial Innovation
Thomas Schmidt, Timo Braun and Jörg Sydow

Chapter 4 Interdependence Within and

Between Routines: A Performative Perspective
Waldemar Kremser, Brian T. Pentland and Sabine
Brunswicker

Chapter 5 The Dark Side of Routine

Dynamics: Deceit and the Work of Romeo
Pimps
Jeannette Eberhard, Ann Frost and Claus Rerup

Chapter 6 Making New Strategic Moves

Possible: How Executive Management Enacts
Strategizing Routines to Strengthen
Entrepreneurial Agility
Simon Grand and Daniel Bartl

Chapter 7 The Role of Multiple Points of View

in Non-envisioned Routine Creation: Taking
Initiative, Creating Connections, and Coping
with Misalignments
Jorrit van Mierlo, Raymond Loohuis and Tanya
Bondarouk

Chapter 8 Learning a New Ecology of Space

and Looking for New Routines: Experimenting
Robotics in a Surgical Team
Léa Kiwan and Nathalie Lazaric

Chapter 9 Enacting Relational Expertise to

Change Professional Routines in Technology-
mediated Service Settings
Joanna Kho, Andreas Paul Spee and Nicole Gillespie

Index
LISTS OF TABLES AND FIGURES

TABLES
Introduction Table 1 Overview of Papers and Themes in this
Volume.
Chapter 1 Table 1 People Involved in the Project.
Chapter 3 Table 1 Novelspeed’s Ventures.
Table 2 List of Interviews.
Table 3 Venture Creation at Novelspeed (Idealized).
Chapter 4 Table 1 Passenger Service on Delta 139.
Chapter 5 Table 1 Data Sources.
Chapter 6 Table 1 Details of Interviewees.
Table 2 Key Events and Initiatives.
Table 3 Strategizing Routines.
Table 4 Settings for Executive Management’s Routine
Enactment.
Chapter 7 Table 1 Overview of Data Sources Dutch Cleaners.
Table A1 Action Patterns Identified at Dutch Cleaners.

FIGURES
Chapter 1 Fig. 1 Remounting a Show Approached as a
Replication Process.
Fig. 2 Dynamic of Sub-routines Replication.
Chapter 2 Fig. 1 Flexible Routine Transfer (Transfer-as-
Adaptation) in the Case of EuroCo and
AsiaCo.
Fig. 2 A Simplified Model of a Flexible Routine
Transfer (Transfer-as-Adaptation).
Chapter 3 Fig. 1 Coding Scheme.
 Fig. 2 Replicating Entrepreneurial Innovation.
Chapter 4 Fig. 1 Bird’s Eye View of Interdependence between
Subunits.
Fig. 2 Menu Card for a Trans-Atlantic Flight.
Fig. 3 Visualizing Interdependence within and
between Routines: (A) Four Routines and (B)
One Routines.
Chapter 5 Fig. 1 (a) Phases of Romeo Pimp Routine
Emergence.
(b) Pimp/Woman Role Sets.
Fig. 2 Trajectory of Role Set Transitions and Phases
of Romeo Pimp Routine Emergence.
Chapter 6 Fig. 1 Mapping Deal-making between 1987 and
2004.
Chapter 8 Fig. 1 Laparoscopic Surgery.
Fig. 2 Robotic System Installation Steps.
Fig. 3 Practitioners during the Debriefing Session.
Fig. 4 Practitioners Confronted with Video
Recordings of their Surgical Acts in the Or.
Chapter 9 Fig. 1 The Interdependence of Professional
Interactions and Tasks.
Fig. 2 Sequences of Interdependent Action Patterns
Associated with a Telehealth Routine.
CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES

Daniel Bartl, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland. Daniel holds a

PhD in Business Administration from the University of St. Gallen and
an Executive Master’s Degree in Communication Sciences from the
University of Lugano. He is a Lecturer of Management, engaged in
researching, consulting, and executive teaching in the fields of
Strategic Management, Strategy-as-Practice, and Leadership
Development.

Charlotte Blanche is a Doctoral Candidate at HEC Montréal and

Senior Partner in a consulting firm. She is a Lecturer on Intercultural
Management and leads workshops on the theme of Art and
Knowledge. Her research in the world of art inspires original insights
for managerial approaches.

Siri Boe-Lillegraven is an Assistant Professor of Strategy at the

Amsterdam Business School, University of Amsterdam, The
Netherlands. Her research is focused on how operative managers
and employees contribute to strategic outcomes and the role of
business in society. She often works with private companies and
practitioners during data collection.

Tanya Bondarouk is the Head of the University of Twente’s HRM

department. She is the Associate Editor for the International Journal
of HRM and Co-editor of the Advanced Series in Management
(Emerald Publishers). She focuses on e-HRM implementation, the
integration of HRM, and social aspects of IT implementations.

Timo Braun is an Assistant Professor for Project Management at

the Freie Universität Berlin, Germany. His current research interests
are interorganizational projects and underlying project networks as
Another random document with
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hairy side of which is turned outwards, are sewed together so well,
that they can go up to their shoulders in the water without wetting
their under cloaths. Under their upper cloaths, they wear shirts and
waistcoats made of seals skins, prepared so well as to be quite soft.
I saw one of their womens dresses; a cap, a waistcoat, and coat,
made all of one piece of seals skin well prepared, soft to the touch,
and the hair on the outside. Their is a long train behind at their
coats, which scarce reach them to the middle of the thigh before;
under it they wear breeches and boots, all of one piece. The shirt I
saw was likewise made of a very soft seals skin. The Esquimaux
women are said to be handsomer than any of the American Indian
women, and their husbands are accordingly more jealous in
proportion. [235]

I have likewise seen an Esquimaux boat. The outside of it consists

entirely of skins, the hair of which has been taken off; and the sides
of the skins on which they were inserted are turned outwards, and
feel as smooth as vellum. The boat was near fourteen feet long, but
very narrow, and very sharp pointed at the extremities. In the inside
of the boat, they place two or three thin boards, which give a kind of
form to the boat. It is quite covered with skins at the top, excepting,
near one end, a hole big enough for a single person to sit and row
in, and keep his thighs and legs under the deck. The figure of the
hole resembles a semi-circle, the base or diameter of which is turned
towards the larger end of the boat. The hole is surrounded with
wood, on which a soft folded skin is fastened, with straps at its
upper end. When the Esquimaux makes use of his boat, he puts his
legs and thighs under the deck, sits down at the bottom of the boat,
draws the skin before mentioned round his body, and fastens it well
with the straps; the waves may then beat over his boat with
considerable violence, and not a single drop comes into it; the
cloaths of the Esquimaux keep the wet from him. He has an oar in
his hand, which has a paddle at each end; it serves him for
[236]rowing with, and keeping the boat in equilibrium during a storm.
The paddles of the oar are very narrow. The boat will contain but a
single person. Esquimaux have often been found safe in their boats
many miles from land, in violent storms, where ships found it
difficult to save themselves. Their boats float on the waves like
bladders, and they row them with incredible velocity. I am told, they
have boats of different shapes. They have likewise larger boats of
wood, covered with leather in which several people may sit, and in
which their women commonly go to sea.

Bows and arrows, javelins and harpoons, are their arms. With the
last they kill whales, and other large marine animals. The points of
their arrows and harpoons are sometimes made of iron, sometimes
of bone, and sometimes of the teeth of the walruss. Their quivers
are made of seals skins. The needles with which they sow their
cloaths are likewise made of iron or of bone. All their iron they get
by some means or other from the Europeans.

They sometimes go on board the European ships in order to

exchange some of their goods for knives and other iron. But it is not
adviseable for Europeans to go on shore, unless they be numerous;
for the [237]Esquimaux are false and treacherous, and cannot suffer
strangers amongst them. If they find themselves too weak, they run
away at the approach of strangers; but if they think they are an
over-match for them, they kill all that come in their way, without
leaving a single one alive. The Europeans, therefore, do not venture
to let a greater number of Esquimaux come on board their ships
than they can easily master. If they are ship-wrecked on the
Esquimaux coasts, they may as well be drowned in the sea as come
safe to the shore: this many Europeans have experienced. The
European boats and ships which the Esquimaux get into their power,
are immediately cut in pieces and robbed of all their nails and other
iron, which they work into knives, needles, arrow-heads, &c. They
make use of fire for no other purposes but working of iron, and
preparing the skins of animals. Their meat is eaten all raw. When
they come on board an European ship, and are offered some of the
sailors meat, they never will taste of it till they have seen some
Europeans eat it. Though nothing pleased other savage nations so
much as brandy, yet many Frenchmen have assured me, that they
never could prevail on the Esquimaux to take a dram of it. Their
mistrust of other nations [238]the cause of it; for they undoubtedly
imagine, that they are going to poison them, or do them some hurt;
and I am not certain, whether they do not judge right. They have no
ear-rings, and do not paint the face like the American Indians. For
many centuries past, they have had dogs, whose ears are erected,
and never hang down. They make use of them for hunting, and
instead of horses in winter, for drawing their goods on the ice. They
themselves sometimes ride in sledges drawn by dogs. They have no
other domestic animal. There are, indeed, plenty of reindeer in their
country; but it is not known, that either the Esquimaux, or any of
the Indians in America, have ever tamed them. The French in
Canada, who are in a manner the neighbours of the Esquimaux,
have taken a deal of pains to carry on some kind of trade with them,
and to endeavour to engage them to a more friendly intercourse
with other nations. For that purpose, they took some Esquimaux
children, taught them to read, and educated them in the best
manner possible. The intention of the French was, to send these
children to the Esquimaux again, that they might inform them of the
kind treatment the French had given them, and thereby incline them
to [239]conceive a better opinion of the French. But unhappily all the
children died of the small-pox, and the scheme was dropt. Many
persons in Canada doubted, whether the scheme would have
succeeded, though the children had been kept alive. For they say,
there was formerly an Esquimaux taken by the French, and brought
to Canada, where he staid a good while, and was treated with great
civility. He learnt French pretty well, and seemed to relish the French
way of living very well. When he was sent back to his countrymen,
he was not able to make the least impression on them, in favour of
the French; but was killed by his nearest relations, as half a
Frenchman and foreigner. This inhuman proceeding of the
Esquimaux against all strangers, is the reason why none of the
Indians of North America ever give quarter to the Esquimaux if they
meet with them, but kill them on the spot; though they frequently
pardon their other enemies, and incorporate the prisoners into their
nation.

For the use of those, who are fond of comparing the languages of
several nations, I have here inserted a few Esquimaux words,
communicated to me by the Jesuit Saint Pie. One, kombuc; two,
tigal; three, ké; four, missilagat; water, sillalokto; rain, [240]killaluck;
heaven, taktuck, or nabugakshe; the sun, shikonak, or sakaknuk;
the moon, takock; an egg, manneguk; the boat, kagack; the oar,
pacotick; the knife, shavié; a dog, mekké, or timilok; the bow,
petiksick; an arrow, katso; the head, niakock; the ear, tchiu; the eye,
killik, or shik; the hair, nutshad; a tooth, ukak; the foot, itikat. Some
think that they are nearly the same nation with the Greenlanders, of
Skralingers; and pretend that there is a great affinity in the
language 102.

Plumb-trees of different sorts, brought over from France, succeed

very well here. The present year they did not begin to flower till this
month. Some of them looked very well; and I am told the winter
does not hurt them.

September the 11th. The marquis de la Galissonniere is one of the

three noblemen, who, above all others, have gained high esteem
with the French admiralty in the last war. They are the marquisses
de la Galissonniere, de la Jonquiere, and de l’Etendure. [241]The first
of these was now above fifty years of age, of a low stature, and
somewhat hump-backed, but of a very agreeable look. He had been
here for some time as governor-general; and was going back to
France one day this month. I have already mentioned something
concerning this nobleman; but when I think of his many great
qualities, I can never give him a sufficient encomium. He has a
surprizing knowledge in all branches of science, and especially in
natural history; in which he is so well versed, that when he began to
speak with me about it, I imagined I saw our great Linnæus under a
new form. When he spoke of the use of natural history, of the
method of learning, and employing it to raise the state of a country,
I was astonished to see him take his reasons from politics, as well as
natural philosophy, mathematics, and other sciences. I own, that my
conversation with this nobleman was very instructive to me; and I
always drew a deal of useful knowledge from it. He told me several
ways of employing natural history to the purposes of politics, and to
make a country powerful, in order to depress its envious neighbours.
Never has natural history had a greater promoter in this country;
and it [242]is very doubtful whether it will ever have his equal here.
As soon as he got the place of governor-general, he began to take
those measures for getting information in natural history, which I
have mentioned before. When he saw people, who had for some
time been in a settled place of the country, especially in the more
remote parts, or had travelled in those parts, he always questioned
them about the trees, plants, earths, stones, ores, animals, &c. of
the place. He likewise enquired what use the inhabitants made of
these things; in what state their husbandry was; what lakes, rivers,
and passages there are; and a number of other particulars. Those
who seemed to have clearer notions than the rest, were obliged to
give him circumstantial descriptions of what they had seen. He
himself wrote down all the accounts he received; and by this great
application, so uncommon among persons of his rank, he soon
acquired a knowledge of the most distant parts of America. The
priests, commandants of forts, and of several distant places, are
often surprized by his questions, and wonder at his knowledge,
when they come to Quebec to pay their visits to him; for he often
tells them that near such a mountain, or on such a shore, &c. where
they often went a [243]hunting, there are some particular plants,
trees, earths, ores, &c. for he had got a knowledge of those things
before. From hence it happened, that some of the inhabitants
believed he had a preternatural knowledge of things, as he was able
to mention all the curiosities of places, sometimes near two hundred
Swedish miles from Quebec, though he never was there himself.
Never was there a better statesman than he; and nobody can take
better measures, and choose more proper means for improving a
country, and encreasing its welfare. Canada was hardly acquainted
with the treasure it possessed in the person of this nobleman, when
it lost him again; the king wanted his services at home, and could
not leave him so far off. He was going to France with a collection of
natural curiosities; and a quantity of young trees and plants, in
boxes full of earth.

The black lime-slate has been repeatedly mentioned during the

course of my journey. I will here give a more minute detail of it. The
mountain on which Quebec is built, and the hills along the river St.
Lawrence, consist of it for some miles together, on both sides of
Quebec. About a yard from the surface, this stone is quite compact,
and without any cracks; so that [244]one cannot perceive that it is a
slate, its particles being imperceptible. It lies in strata, which vary
from three or four inches, to twenty thick, and upwards. In the
mountains on which Quebec is built, the strata do not ly horizontal,
but dipping, so as to be nearly perpendicular; the upper ends
pointing north-west, and the lower ones south-east. From hence it
is, that the corners of these strata always strike out at the surface
into the streets, and cut the shoes in pieces. I have likewise seen
some strata, inclining to the northward, but nearly perpendicular as
the former. Horizontal strata, or nearly such, have occurred to me
too. The strata are divided by narrow cracks, which are commonly
filled with fibrous white gypsum, which can sometimes be got loose
with a knife, if the layer or stratum of slate above it is broken in
pieces; and in that case it has the appearance of a thin white leaf.
The larger cracks are almost filled up with transparent quartz
crystals, of different sizes. One part of the mountain contains vast
quantities of these crystals, from which the corner of the mountain
which lies to the S. S. E. of the palace, has got the name of Pointe
de Diamante, or Diamond Point. The small cracks which divide the
stone, [245]go generally at right angles; the distances between them
are not always equal. The outside of the stratum, or that which is
turned towards the other stratum, is frequently covered with a fine,
black, shining membrane, which looks like a kind of a pyrous horn-
stone. In it there is sometimes a yellow pyrites, always lying in small
grains. I never found petrefactions or impressions, or other kinds of
stone in it, besides those I have just mentioned. The whole
mountain on which Quebec is situated, consists entirely of lime-slate
from top to bottom. When this stone is broken, or scraped with a
knife, it gives a strong smell like the stink-stone. That part of the
mountain which is exposed to the open air, crumbles into small
pieces, had lost their black colour, and got a pale red one in its
stead. Almost all the public and private buildings at Quebec consist
of this lime-slate; and likewise the walls round the town, and round
the monasteries and gardens, it is easily broken, and cut to the size
wanted. But it has the property of splitting into thin shivers, parallel
to the surface of the stratum from whence they are taken, after lying
during one or more years in the air, and exposed to the sun.
However, this quality does no damage [246]to the walls in which they
are placed; for the stones being laid on purpose into such a position
that the cracks always run horizontally, the upper stones press so
much upon the lower ones, that they can only get cracks outwardly,
and shiver only on the outside, without going further inwards. The
shivers always grow thinner, as the houses grow older.
In order to give my readers some idea of the climate of Quebec, and
of the different changes of heat and cold, at the several seasons of
the year, I will here insert some particulars extracted from the
meteorological observations, of the royal physician, Mr. Gaulthier: he
gave me a copy of those which he had made from October 1744, to
the end of September 1746. The thermometrical observations I will
omit, because I do not think them accurate; for as Mr. Gaulthier
made use of de la Hire’s thermometer, the degrees of cold cannot be
exactly determined, the quicksilver being depressed into the globe at
the bottom, as soon as the cold begins to be considerable. The
observations are made throughout the year, between seven and
eight in the morning, and two and three in the afternoon. He has
seldom made any observations in the afternoon. His thermometer
[247]was likewise inaccurate, by being placed in a bad situation.

The year 1745.

January. The 29th of this month the river St. Lawrence was covered
over with ice, near Quebec. In the observations of other years, it is
observed, that the river is sometimes covered with ice in the
beginning of January, or the end of December.

February. Nothing remarkable happend during the course of this

month.

March. They say this has been the mildest winter they ever felt;
even the eldest persons could not remember one so mild. The snow
was only two feet deep, and the ice in the river, opposite Quebec,
had the same thickness. On the twenty-first there was a thunder-
storm, which fell upon a soldier, and hurt him very much. On the
19th and 20th, they began to make incisions into the sugar-maple,
and to prepare sugar from its juice.
April. During this month they continued to extract the juice of the
sugar-maple, for making sugar. On the 7th the gardeners began to
make hot-beds. On the 20th the ice in the river broke loose near
Quebec, and went down; which rarely happens so soon; for the river
St. [248]Lawrence is sometimes covered with ice opposite Quebec, on
the 10th of May. On the 22d, and 23d, there fell a quantity of snow.
On the 25th they began to sow near St. Joachim. The same day they
saw some swallows. The 29th they sowed corn all over the country.
Ever since the 23d the river had been clear at Quebec.

May. The third of this month the cold was so great in the morning,
that Celsius’s, or the Swedish thermometer, was four degrees below
the freezing point; however, it did not hurt the corn. On the 16th all
the summer-corn was sown. On the 5th the Sanguinaria, Narcissus,
and violet, began to blow. The 17th the wild cherry-trees, rasberry-
bushes, apple-trees, and lime-trees, began to expand their leaves.
The strawberries were in flower about that time. The 29th the wild
cherry-trees were in blossom. On the 26th part of the French apple-
trees, cherry-trees, and plum-trees, opened their flowers.

June. The 5th of this month all the trees had got leaves. The apple-
trees were in full flower. Ripe straw-berries were to be had on the
22d. Here it is noted, that the weather was very fine for the growth
of vegetables.

July. The corn began to shoot into ears on the 12th, and had ears
every where [249]on the 21st. (It is to be observed, that they sow
nothing but summer-corn here.) Soon after the corn began to flower.
Hay making began the 22d. All this month the weather was
excellent.

August. On the 12th there were ripe pears and melons at Montreal.
On the 20th the corn was ripe round Montreal, and the harvest was
begun there. On the 22d the harvest began at Quebec. On the 30th,
and 31st, there was a very small hoar-frost on the ground.

September. The harvest of all kinds of corn ended on the 24th, and
25th. Melons, water-melons, cucumbers, and fine plums, were very
plentiful during the course of this month. Apples and pears were
likewise ripe, which is not always the case. On the last days of this
month they began to plough the land. The following is one of the
observations of this month: “The old people in this country say, that
the corn was formerly never ripe till the 15th, or 16th, of September,
and sometimes on the 12th; but no sooner. They likewise assert,
that it never was perfectly ripe. Bur since the woods have been
sufficiently cleared, the beams of the sun have had more room to
operate, and the corn ripens sooner [250]than before 103.” It is further
remarked, that the hot summers are always very fruitful [251]in
Canada, and that most of the corn has hardly ever arrived at perfect
maturity.

October. During this month the fields were ploughed, and the
weather was very fine all the time. There was a little frost for several
nights, and on the 28th it snowed. Towards the end of this month
the trees began to shed their leaves.

November. They continued to plough till the 10th of this month,

when the trees had shed all their leaves. Till the 18th the cattle went
out of doors, a few days excepted, when bad weather had kept
them at home. On the 16th there was some thunder and lightning.
There was not yet any ice in the river St. Lawrence on the 24th.

December. During this month it is observed, that the autumn has

been much milder than usual. On the 1st a ship could still set sail for
France; but on the 16th the river St. Lawrence was covered with ice
on the sides, but open in the middle. [252]In the river Charles the ice
was thick enough for horses with heavy loads to pass over it. On the
26th the ice in the river St. Lawrence was washed away by a heavy
rain; but on the 28th part of that river was again covered with ice.

The next observations shew, that the winter has likewise been one
of the mildest. I now resume the account of my own journey.

This evening I left Quebec with a fair wind. The governor-general of

Canada, the marquis de la Jonquiere, ordered one of the king’s
boats, and seven men to bring me to Montreal. The middle of the
boat was covered with blue cloth, under which we were secured
from the rain. This journey I made at the expence of the French
king. We went three French miles to-day.

September the 12th. We continued our journey during all this day.

The small kind of maize, which ripens in three months time, was ripe
about this time, and the people drew it out of the ground, and hung
it up to dry.

The weather about this time was like the beginning of our August,
old stile. Therefore it seems, autumn commences a whole month
later in Canada, than in the midst of Sweden. [253]

Near each farm there is a kitchen-garden, in which onions are most

abundant; because the French farmers eat their dinners of them
with bread, on Fridays and Saturdays, or fasting days. However, I
cannot say, the French are strict observers of fasting; for several of
my rowers ate flesh to-day, though it was Friday. The common
people in Canada may be smelled when one passes by them, on
account of their frequent use of onions. Pumpions are likewise
abundant in the farmer’s gardens. They dress them in several ways,
but the most common is to cut them through the middle, and place
the inside on the hearth, towards the fire, till it is quite roasted. The
pulp is then cut out of the peel, and eaten; people above the vulgar
put sugar to it. Carrots, sallad, French beans, cucumbers, and
currant shrubs, are planted in every farmer’s little kitchen-garden.

Every farmer plants a quantity of tobacco near his house, in

proportion to the size of his family. It is likewise very necessary that
they should plant tobacco, because it is so universally smoaked by
the common people. Boys of ten or twelve years of age, run about
with the pipe in their mouths, as well as the old people. [254]Persons
above the vulgar, do not refuse to smoak a pipe now and then. In
the northern parts of Canada, they generally smoak tobacco by
itself; but further upwards, and about Montreal, they take the inner
bark of the red Cornelian cherry 104, crush it, and mix it with the
tobacco, to make it weaker. People of both sexes, and of all ranks,
use snuff very much. Almost all the tobacco, which is consumed
here, is the produce of the country, and some people prefer it even
to Virginian tobacco: but those who pretend to be connoisseurs,
reckon the last kind better than the other.

Though many nations imitate the French customs; yet I observed on

the contrary, that the French in Canada in many respects follow the
customs of the Indians, with whom they converse every day. They
make use of the tobacco-pipes, shoes, garters, and girdles, of the
Indians. They follow the Indian way of making war with exactness;
they mix the same things with tobacco, they make use of the Indian
bark-boats, and row them in the Indian way; they wrap square
pieces of cloth round their feet, instead of stockings, and have
adopted many other Indian fashions. When [255]one comes into the
house of a Canada peasant, or farmer, he gets up, takes his hat off
to the stranger, desires him to sit down, puts his hat on and sits
down again. The gentlemen and ladies, as well as the poorest
peasants and their wives, are called Monsieur and Madame. The
peasants, and especially their wives, wear shoes, which consist of a
piece of wood hollowed out, and are made almost as slippers. Their
boys, and the old peasants themselves, wear their hair behind in a
cue; and most of them wear red woollen caps at home, and
sometimes on their journies.

The farmers prepare most of their dishes of milk. Butter is but

seldom seen, and what they have is made of sour cream, and
therefore not so good as English butter. Many of the French are very
fond of milk, which they eat chiefly on fasting days. However, they
have not so many methods of preparing it as we have in Sweden.
The common way was to boil it, and put bits of bread, and a good
deal of sugar, into it. The French here eat near as much flesh as the
English, on those days when their religion allows it. For excepting
the soup, the sallads, and the desert, all their other dishes consist of
flesh variously prepared. [256]

At night we lay at a farm-house, near a river called Petite Riviere,

which falls here into the river St. Lawrence. This place is reckoned
sixteen French miles from Quebec, and ten from Trois Rivieres. The
tide is still considerable here. Here is the last place where the hills,
along the river, consist of black lime-slate; further on they are
composed merely of earth.

Fire-flies flew about the woods at night, though not in great

numbers; the French call them Mouches à feu.

The houses in this neighbourhood are all made of wood. The rooms
are pretty large. The inner roof rests on two, three, or four, large
thick spars, according to the size of the room. The chinks are filled
with clay, instead of moss. The windows are made entirely of paper.
The chimney is erected in the middle of the room; that part of the
room which is opposite the fire, is the kitchen; that which is behind
the chimney, serves the people to sleep, and receive strangers in.
Sometimes there is an iron stove behind the chimney.

September the 13th. Near Champlain, which is a place about five

French miles from Trois Rivieres, the steep hills near the river consist
of a yellow, and sometimes ockre-coloured sandy earth, in which
[257]a number of small springs arise. The water in them is generally
filled with yellow ockre, which is a sign, that these dry sandy fields
contain a great quantity of the same iron ore, which is dug at Trois
Rivieres. It is not conceivable from whence that number of small
rivulets takes their rise, the ground above being flat, and exceeding
dry in summer. The lands near the river are cultivated for about an
English mile into the country; but behind them there are thick
forests, and low grounds. The woods, which collect a quantity of
moisture, and prevent the evaporation of the water, force it to make
its way under ground to the river. The shores of the river are here
covered with a great deal of black iron-sand.

Towards evening we arrived at Trois Rivieres, where we staid no

longer, than was necessary to deliver the letters, which we brought
with us from Quebec. After that we went a French mile higher up,
before we took our night’s lodging.

This afternoon we saw three remarkable old people. One was an old
Jesuit, called father Joseph Aubery, who had been a missionary to
the converted Indians of St. François. This summer he ended the
fiftieth year of his mission. He therefore [258]returned to Quebec, to
renew his vows there; and he seemed to be healthy, and in good
spirits. The other two people were our landlord and his wife; he was
above eighty years of age, and she was not much younger. They had
now been fifty-one years married. The year before, at the end of the
fiftieth year of their marriage, they went to church together, and
offered up thanks to God Almighty for the great grace he gave them.
They were yet quite well, content, merry, and talkative. The old man
said, that he was at Quebec when the English besieged it, in the
year 1690, and that the bishop went up and down the streets,
dressed in his pontifical robes, and a sword in his hand, in order to
recruit the spirits of the soldiers.

This old man said, that he thought the winters were formerly much
colder than they are now. There fell likewise a greater quantity of
snow, when he was young. He could remember the time when
pumpions, cucumbers, &c. were killed by the frost about mid-
summer, and he assured me, that the summers were warmer now
than they used to be formerly. About thirty and some odd years ago,
there was such a severe winter in Canada, that the frost killed many
birds; but the old man [259]could not remember the particular year.
Every body allowed, that the summers in 1748, and 1749, had been
warmer in Canada than they have been many years ago.

The soil is reckoned pretty fertile; and wheat yields nine or ten
grains from one. But when this old man was a boy, and the country
was new and rich every where, they could get twenty, or four-and-
twenty, grains from one. They sow but little rye here; nor do they
sow much barley, except for the use of cattle. They complain,
however, that when they have a bad crop, they are obliged to bake
bread of barley.

September the 14th. This morning we got up early, and pursued our
journey. After we had gone about two French miles, we got into lake
St. Pierre, which we crossed. Many plants, which are common in our
Swedish lakes, swim at the top of this water. This lake is said to be
covered every winter with such strong ice, that a hundred loaded
horses could go over it together with safety.

A craw-fish, or river lobster, somewhat like a crab, but quite minute,

about two geometrical lines long, and broad in proportion, was
frequently drawn up by us with the aquatic weeds, its colour is a
pale greenish white. [260]

The cordated Pontederia 105 grows plentiful on the sides of a long and
narrow canal of water, in the places frequented by our water-lilies 106.
A great number of hogs wade far into this kind of strait, and
sometimes duck the greatest part of their bodies under water, in
order to get at the roots, which they are very fond of.

As soon as we were got through lake St. Pierre, the face of the
country was entirely changed, and became as agreeable as could be
wished. The isles, and the land on both sides of us, looked like the
prettiest pleasure-gardens; and this continued till near Montreal.

Near every farm on the river-side there are some boats, hollowed
out of the trunks of single trees, but commonly neat and well made,
having the proper shape of boats. In one single place I saw a boat
made of the bark of trees.

September the 15th. We continued our journey early this morning.

On account of the strength of the river, which came down against
us, we were sometimes obliged to let the rowers go on shore, and
draw the boat. [261]

At four o’clock in the evening we arrived at Montreal; and our

voyage was reckoned a happy one, because the violence of the river
flowing against us all the way, and the changeableness of the winds,
commonly protract it to two weeks.

September the 19th. Several people here in town have got the
French vines, and planted them in their gardens. They have two
kinds of grapes, one of a pale green, or almost white; the other, of a
reddish brown colour. From the white ones they say, white wine is
made; and from the red ones, red wine. The cold in winter obliges
them to put dung round the roots of the vines, without which they
would be killed by the frost. The grapes began to be ripe in these
days; the white ones are a little sooner ripe than the red ones. They
make no wine of them here, because it is not worth while; but they
are served up at deserts. They say these grapes do not grow so big
here as in France.

Water-melons 107 are cultivated in great plenty in the English and

French American colonies; and there is hardly a peasant here, who
has not a field planted with them. They are chiefly cultivated in the
[262]neighbourhood of towns; and they are very rare in the north
part of Canada. The Indians plant great quantities of water-melons
at present; but whether they have done it of old is not easily
determined. For an old Onidoe Indian (of the six Iroquese nations)
assured me, that the Indians did not know water-melons before the
Europeans came into the country, and communicated them to the
Indians. The French, on the other hand, have assured me, that the
Illinois Indians have had abundance of this fruit, when the French
first came to them; and that they declare, they had planted them
since times immemorial. However, I do not remember having read
that the Europeans, who first came to North-America, mention the
water-melons, in speaking of the dishes of the Indians at that time.
How great the summer heat is in those parts of America which I
have passed through, can easily be conceived, when one considers,
that in all those places, they never sow water-melons in hot-beds,
but in the open fields in spring, without so much as covering them,
and they ripen in time. Here are two species of them, viz. one with a
red pulp, and one with a white one. The first is more common to the
southward, with the Illinois, and in the [263]English colonies; the last
is more abundant in Canada. The seeds are sown in spring, after the
cold is entirely gone off, in a good rich ground, at some distance
from each other; because their stalks spread far, and require much
room, if they shall be very fruitful. They were now ripe at Montreal;
but in the English colonies they ripen in July and August. They
commonly require less time to ripen in, than the common melons.
Those in the English colonies are commonly sweeter, and more
agreeable, than the Canada ones. Does the greater heat contribute
any thing towards making them more palatable? Those in the
province of New-York are, however, reckoned the best.

The water-melons are very juicy; and the juice is mixed with a
cooling pulp, which is very good in the hot summer-season. Nobody
in Canada, in Albany, and in other parts of New-York, could produce
an example, that the eating of water-melons in great quantities had
hurt any body; and there are examples even of sick persons eating
them without any danger. Further to the south, the frequent use of
them it is thought brings on intermitting fevers, and other bad
distempers, especially in such people as are less used to them. Many
[264]Frenchmen assured me, that when people born in Canada came
to the Illinois, and eat several times of the water-melons of that
part, they immediately got a fever; and therefore the Illinois advise
the French not to eat of a fruit so dangerous to them. They
themselves are subject to be attacked by fevers, if they cool their
stomachs too often with water-melons. In Canada they keep them in
a room, which is a little heated; by which means they will keep fresh
two months after they are ripe; but care must be taken, that the
frost spoil them not. In the English plantations they likewise keep
them fresh in dry cellars, during part of the winter. They assured me
that they keep better when they are carefully broke off from the
stalk, and afterwards burnt with a red-hot iron, in the place where
the stalk was fastened. In this manner they may be eaten at
Christmas, and after. In Pensylvania, where they have a dry sandy
earth, they make a hole in the ground, put the water-melons
carefully into it with their stalks, by which means they keep very
fresh during a great part of winter. Few people, however, take this
trouble with the water-melons; because they being very cooling, and
the winter being very cold too, it seems to be less necessary to
[265]keep them for eating in that season, which is already very cold.
They are of opinion in these parts, that cucumbers cool more than
water-melons. The latter are very strongly diuretic. The Iroquese call
them Onoheserakatee.

Gourds of several kinds, oblong, round, flat or compressed, crook-

necked, small, &c. are planted in all the English and French colonies.
In Canada, they fill the chief part of the farmers kitchen-gardens,
though the onions came very near up with them. Each farmer in the
English plantations, has a large field planted with gourds, and the
Germans, Swedes, Dutch, and other Europeans, settled in their
colonies, plant them. Gourds are a considerable part of the Indian
food; however, they plant more squashes than common gourds.
They declare, that they have had gourds long before the Europeans
discovered America; which seems to be confirmed by the accounts
of the first Europeans that came into these parts, who mentioned
gourds as common food among the Indians. The French here call
them citrouilles, and the English in the colonies, pumpkins. They are
planted in spring, when they have nothing to fear from the frost, in
an enclosed field, and a good rich soil. They are likewise frequently
put into old [266]hot-beds. In Canada, they ripen towards the
beginning of September, but further southward they are ripe at the
end of July. As soon as the cold weather commences, they take off
all the pumpions that remain on the stalk, whether ripe or not, and
spread them on the floor, in a part of the house, where the unripe
ones grow perfectly ripe, if they are not laid one upon the other. This
is done round Montreal in the middle of September; but in
Pensylvania, I have seen some in the fields on the 19th of October.
They keep fresh for several months, and even throughout the winter,
if they be well secured in dry cellars (for in damp ones they rot very
soon) where the cold cannot come in, or, which is still better, in dry
rooms which are heated now and then, to prevent the cold from
damaging the fruit.

Pumpions are prepared for eating in various ways. The Indians boil
them whole, or roast them in ashes, and eat them then, or go to sell
them thus prepared in the towns, and they have, indeed, a very fine
flavour, when roasted. The French and English slice them, and put
the slices before the fire to roast; when they are roasted, they
generally put sugar on the pulp. Another way of roasting them, is to
cut them through the middle, take out all the seeds, put the halves
together again, and roast them in an [267]oven. When they are quite
roasted, some butter is put in, whilst they are warm, which being
imbibed into the pulp, renders it very palatable. They often boil
pumpions in water, and afterwards eat them, either alone or with
flesh. Some make a thin kind of pottage of them, by boiling them in
water, and afterwards macerating the pulp. This is again boiled with
a little of the water, and a good deal of milk, and stirred about whilst
it is boiling. Sometimes the pulp is stamped and kneaded into
dough, with maize flour or other flour; of this they make cakes.
Some make puddings and tarts of gourds. The Indians, in order to
preserve the pumpions for a very long time, cut them in long slices,
which they fasten or twist together, and dry them either by the sun,
or by the fire in a room. When they are thus dried, they will keep for
years together, and when boiled, they taste very well. The Indians
prepare them thus at home and on their journies, and from them
the Europeans have adopted this method. Sometimes they do not
take the time to boil it, but eat it dry with hung beef, or other flesh;
and I own they are eatable in that state, and very welcome to a
hungry stomach. They sometimes preserve them in the following
manner at Montreal: They [268]cut a pumpion in four pieces, peal
them, and take the seeds out of them. The pulp is put in a pot with
boiling water, in which it must boil from four to six minutes. It is
then put into a cullender, and left in it till the next day, that the
water may run off. When it is mixed with cloves, cinnamon, and
some lemon peel, preserved in syrup, and there must be an equal
quantity of syrup and of the pulp. After which it is boiled together, till
the syrup is entirely imbibed, and the white colour of the pulp is
quite lost.

September the 20th. The corn of this year’s harvest in Canada, was
reckoned the finest they had ever had. In the province of New-York,
on the contrary, the crop was very poor. The autumn was very fine
this year in Canada.

September the 22d. The French in Canada carry on a great trade

with the Indians; and though it was formerly the only trade of this
extensive country, yet its inhabitants were considerably enriched by
it. At present, they have besides the Indian goods, several other
articles which are exported from hence. The Indians in this
neighbourhood, who go hunting in winter like the other Indians
nations, commonly bring their furs and skins to sale in the
neighbouring [269]French towns; however this is not sufficient. The
Indians who live at a greater distance, never come to Canada at all;
and, lest they should bring their goods to the English, as the English
go to them, the French are obliged to undertake journies, and
purchase the Indian goods in the country of the Indians. This trade
is chiefly carried on at Montreal, and a great number of young and
old men every year, undertake long and troublesome voyages for
that purpose, carrying with them such goods as they know the
Indians like, and are in want of. It is not necessary to take money on
such a journey, as the Indians do not value it; and indeed I think the
French, who go on these journies, scarce ever take a sol or penny
with them.

I will now enumerate the chief goods which the French carry with
them for this trade, and which have a good run among the Indians.
Muskets, Powder, Shot, and Balls. The Europeans have taught the
Indians in their neighbourhood the use of fire-arms, and they have
laid aside their bows and arrows, which were formerly their only
arms, and make use of muskets. If the Europeans should now refuse
to supply the Indians with muskets, they would be starved to death;
[270]as almost all their food consists of the flesh of the animals,
which they hunt; or they would be irritated to such a degree as to
attack the Europeans. The Indians have hitherto never tried to make
muskets or similar fire-arms; and their great indolence does not
even allow them to mend those muskets which they have got. They
leave this entirely to the Europeans. As the Europeans came into
North-America, they were very careful not to give the Indians any
fire-arms. But in the wars between the French and English, each
party gave their Indian allies fire-arms, in order to weaken the force
of the enemy. The French lay the blame upon the Dutch settlers in
Albany, saying, that they began, in 1642, to give their Indians fire-
arms, and taught them the use of them, in order to weaken the
French. The inhabitants of Albany, on the contrary, assert, that the
French first introduced this custom, as they would have been too
weak to resist the combined force of the Dutch and English in the
colonies. Be this as it will, it is certain that the Indians buy muskets
from the Europeans, and know at present better how to make use of
them, than some of their teachers. It is likewise certain, that the
Europeans gain [271]considerably by their trade in muskets and
ammunition.

Pieces of white cloth, or of a coarse uncut cloth. The Indians

constantly wear such pieces of cloth, wrapping them round their
bodies. Sometimes they hang them over their shoulders; in warm
weather, they fasten them round the middle; and in cold weather,
they put them over the head. Both their men and women wear these
pieces of cloth, which have commonly several blue or red stripes on
the edge.
Blue or red cloth. Of this the Indian women make their petticoats,
which reach only to their knees. They generally chuse the blue
colour.

Shirts and shifts of linen. As soon as an Indian fellow, or one of their

women, have put on a shirt, they never wash it, or strip it off, till it is
entirely torn in pieces.

Pieces of cloth, which they wrap round their legs instead of

stockings, like the Russians.

Hatchets, knives, scissars, needles, and a steel to strike fire with.

These instruments are now common among the Indians. They all
take these instruments from the Europeans, and reckon the hatchets
and knives much better, than those which they formerly made of
stones and bones. The [272]stone hatchets of the ancient Indians are
very rare in Canada.

Kettles of copper or brass, sometimes tinned in the inside. In these

the Indians now boil all their meat, and they have a very great run
with them. They formerly made use of earthen or wooden pots, into
which they poured water, or whatever else they wanted to boil, and
threw in red hot stones to make it boil. They do not want iron
boilers, because they cannot be easily carried on their continual
journies, and would not bear such falls and knocks as their kettles
are subject to.

Ear-rings of different sizes, commonly of brass, and sometimes of

tin. They are worn by both men and women, though the use of
them is not general.

Vermillion. With this they paint their face, shirt, and several parts of
the body. They formerly made use of a reddish earth, which is to be
found in the country; but, as the Europeans brought them vermillion,
they thought nothing was comparable to it in colour. Many persons
have told me, that they had heard their fathers mention, that the
first Frenchmen who came over here, got a great heap of furs from
the Indians, for three times as much cinnabar as would ly on the tip
of a knife. [273]

Verdigrease, to paint their faces green. For the black colour, they
make use of the soot at the bottom of their kettles, and daub their
whole face with it.

Looking glasses. The Indians are very much pleased with them, and
make use of them chiefly when they want to paint themselves. The
men constantly carry their looking glasses with them on all their
journies; but the women do not. The men, upon the whole, are
more fond of dressing than the women.

Burning glasses. These are excellent pieces of furniture in the

opinion of the Indians; because they serve to light the pipe without
any trouble, which an indolent Indian is very fond of.

Tobacco is bought by the northern Indians, in whose country it will

not grow. The southern Indians always plant as much of it as they
want for their own consumption. Tobacco has a great run amongst
the northern Indians, and it has been observed, that the further they
live to the northward, the more they smoke of tobacco.

Wampum, or, as they are here called, porcelanes. They are made of
a particular kind of shells, and turned into little short cylindrical
beads, and serve the Indians for money and ornament. [274]

Glass beads, of a small size, and white or other colours. The Indian
women know how to fasten them in their ribbands, pouches, and
clothes.
Brass and steel wire, for several kinds of work.

Brandy, which the Indians value above all other goods that can be
brought them; nor have they any thing, though ever so dear to
them, which they would not give away for this liquor. But, on
account of the many irregularities which are caused by the use of
brandy, the sale of it has been prohibited under severe penalties;
however, they do not always pay an implicit obedience to this order.

These are the chief goods which the French carry to the Indians,
and they have a good run among them.

The goods which they bring back from the Indians, consist entirely
in furs. The French get them in exchange for their goods, together
with all the necessary provisions they want on the journey. The furs
are of two kinds; the best are the northern ones, and the worst sort
those from the south.

In the northern parts of America there are chiefly the following skins
of animals: [275]beavers, elks 108, rein-deer 109, wolf-lynxes 110, and
martens. They sometimes get martens skins from the south, but
they are red, and good for little. Pichou du Nord is perhaps the
animal which the English, near Hudson’s bay, call the wolverene. To
the northern furs belong the bears, which are but few, and foxes,
which are not very numerous, and generally black; and several other
skins.

The skins of the southern parts are chiefly taken from the following
animals: wild cattle, stags, roebucks, otters, Pichoux du Sud, of
which P. Charlevoix makes mention 111, and are probably a species of
cat-lynx, or perhaps a kind of panther; foxes of various kinds,
raccoons, cat-lynxes, and several others.
It is inconceivable what hardships the people in Canada must
undergo on their journies. Sometimes they must carry their goods a
great way by land; frequently they are abused by the Indians, and
sometimes they are killed by them. They often suffer hunger, thirst,
heat, and cold, and are bit by gnats, and exposed to the bites of
poisonous [276]snakes, and other dangerous animals and insects.
These destroy a great part of the youth in Canada, and prevent the
people from growing old. By this means, however, they become such
brave soldiers, and so inured to fatigue, that none of them fear
danger or hardships. Many of them settle among the Indians far
from Canada, marry Indian women, and never come back again.

The prices of the skins in Canada, in the year 1749, were

communicated to me by M. de Couagne, a merchant at Montreal,
with whom I lodged. They were as follows:

Great and middle sized bear skins, cost five livres.

Skins of young bears, fifty sols.

—— lynxs, 25 sols.
—— pichoux du sud, 35 sols.
—— foxes from the southern parts, 35 sols.
—— otters, 5 livres.
—— raccoons, 5 livres.
—— martens, 45 sols.
—— wolf-lynxes 112, 4 livres.
—— wolves, 40 sols.
—— carcajoux, an animal which I do not know, 5 livres. [277]
Skins of visons, a kind of martens, which live in the water, 25
sols.
Raw skins of elks 113, 10 livres.
—— stags 114.
Bad skins of elks and stags 115, 3 livres.
 Skins of roebucks, 25, or 30 sols.
—— red foxes, 3 livres.
—— beavers, 3 livres.

I will now insert a list of all the different kinds of skins, which are to
be got in Canada, and which are sent from thence to Europe. I got it
from one of the greatest merchants in Montreal. They are as follows:

Prepared roebuck skins, chevreuils passés.

Unprepared ditto, chevreuils verts.
Tanned ditto, chevreuils tanés.
Bears, ours.
Young bears, oursons.
Otters, loutres.
Pecans.
Cats, chats.
Wolves, loup de bois.
Lynxes, loups cerviers.
North pichoux, pichoux du nord. [278]
South pichoux, pichoux du sud.
Red foxes, renards rouges.
Cross foxes, renards croisés.
Black foxes, renards noirs.
Grey foxes, renards argentés.
Southern, or Virginian foxes, renards du sud ou de Virginie.
White foxes, from Tadoussac, renards blancs de Tadoussac.
Martens, martres.
Visons, or soutreaux.
Black squirrels, écureuils noirs.
Raw stags skins, cerfs verts.
Prepared ditto, cerfs passés.
Raw elks skins, originals verts.
Prepared ditto, originals passés.
 Rein-deer skins, cariboux.
Raw hinds skins, biches verts.
Prepared ditto, biches passées.
Carcajoux.
Musk rats, rats musqués.
Fat winter beavers, castors gras d’hiver.
Ditto summer beavers, castors gras d’été.
Dry winter beavers, castors secs d’hiver.
Ditto summer beavers, castors secs d’été.
Old winter beavers, castors vieux d’hiver.
Ditto summer beavers, castors vieux d’été.

To-day, I got a piece of native copper from the Upper Lake. They
find it there [279]almost quite pure; so that it does not want melting
over again, but is immediately fit for working. Father Charlevoix 116
speaks of it in his History of New-France. One of the Jesuits at
Montreal, who had been at the place where this metal is got, told
me, that it is generally found near the mouths of rivers, and that
there are pieces of native copper too heavy for a single man to lift
up. The Indians there say, that they formerly found a piece of about
seven feet long, and near four feet thick, all of pure copper. As it is
always found in the ground near the mouths of rivers, it is probable
that the ice or water carried it down from a mountain; but,
notwithstanding the careful search that has been made, no place
has been found, where the metal lies in any great quantity together.

The head or superior of the priests of Montreal, gave me a piece of

lead-ore to-day. He said it was taken from a place only a few French
miles from Montreal, and it consisted of pretty compact, shining
cubes, of lead ore. I was told by several persons here, that
furthermore southward in the country, there is a place where they
find a great quantity of this lead-ore in the ground. The Indians
[280]near it, melt it, and make balls and shot of it. I got some pieces
of it likewise, consisting of a shining cubic lead-ore, with narrow
stripes between it, and of a white hard earth or clay, which
effervesces with aqua fortis.

I likewise received a reddish brown earth to-day, found near the Lac
de Deux Montagnes, or Lake of Two Mountains, a few French miles
from Montreal. It may be easily crumbled into dust between the
fingers. It is very heavy, and more so than the earth of that kind
generally is. Outwardly, it has a kind of glossy appearance, and,
when it is handled by the fingers for some time, they are quite as it
were silvered over. It is, therefore, probably a kind of lead-earth or
an earth mixed with iron-glimmer.

The ladies in Canada are generally of two kinds: some come over
from France, and the rest natives. The former possess the politeness
peculiar to the French nation; the latter may be divided into those of
Quebec and Montreal. The first of these are equal to the French
ladies in good breeding, having the advantage of frequently
conversing with the French gentlemen and ladies, who come every
summer with the king’s ships, and stay several weeks [281]at Quebec,
but seldom go to Montreal. The ladies of this last place are accused
by the French of partaking too much of the pride of the Indians, and
of being much wanting in French good breeding. What I have
mentioned above of their dressing their head too assiduously, is the
case with all the ladies throughout Canada. Their hair is always
curled, even when they are at home in a dirty jacket, and short
coarse petticoat, that does not reach to the middle of their legs. On
those days when they pay or receive visits, they dress so gayly, that
one is almost induced to think their parents possessed the greatest
dignities in the state. The Frenchmen, who considered things in their
true light, complained very much that a great part of the ladies in
Canada had got into the pernicious custom of taking too much care
of their dress, and squandering all their fortunes, and more, upon it,
instead of sparing something for future times. They are no less
attentive to have the newest fashions; and they laugh at each other,
when they are not dressed to each other’s fancy. But what they get
as new fashions, are grown old, and laid aside in France; for the
ships coming but once every year from thence, the people in Canada
consider that as the new fashion for [282]the whole year, which the
people on board brought with them, or which they imposed upon
them as new. The ladies in Canada, and especially at Montreal, are
very ready to laugh at any blunders strangers make in speaking; but
they are very excusable. People laugh at what appears uncommon
and ridiculous. In Canada nobody ever hears the French language
spoken by any but Frenchmen; for strangers seldom come thither;
and the Indians are naturally too proud to learn French, but oblige
the French to learn their language. From hence it naturally follows,
that the nice Canada ladies cannot hear any thing uncommon
without laughing at it. One of the first questions they propose to a
stranger is, whether he is married? The next, how he likes the ladies
in the country; and whether he thinks them handsomer than those
of his own country? And the third, whether he will take one home
with him? There are some differences between the ladies of Quebec
and those of Montreal; those of the last place seemed to be
generally handsomer than those of the former. Their behaviour
likewise seemed to me to be somewhat too free at Quebec, and of a
more becoming modesty at Montreal. The ladies at Quebec,
especially the unmarried ones, are not very industrious. A girl of
[283]eighteen is reckoned very poorly off, if she cannot enumerate at
least twenty lovers. These young ladies, especially those of a higher
rank, get up at seven, and dress till nine, drinking their coffee at the
same time. When they are dressed, they place themselves near a
window that opens into the street, take up some needle-work, and
sew a stitch now and then; but turn their eyes into the street most
of the time. When a young fellow comes in, whether they are
acquainted with him or not, they immediately lay aside their work,