Lab Experiment No: 1 The Use of Diodes in Electronics

Objective:
To understand the basic characteristics and applications of diodes in electronics,
including rectification, voltage regulation,
Equipment Required:
 Breadboard  Diodes (4x1N4007)  Resistors (1kΩ, 10kΩ)  Capacitor (100µF) 
Power supply (0-15V DC)  Multimeter  Oscilloscope  Function generator 
Connecting wires
Theory:
Semiconductor Diode: A semiconductor diode is a two-terminal device made
from a PN junction, where the P-side contains an excess of holes (positive charge
carriers) and the N-side contains an excess of electrons (negative charge
carriers). When forward biased (positive voltage applied to the P-side), the diode
allows current to flow as the depletion region at the junction narrows, permitting
the movement of charge carriers. In reverse bias, the depletion region widens,
preventing the flow of current. The diode's unique property of allowing current to
flow in one direction makes it essential in various electronic applications.
Half-Wave Rectifier: A half-wave rectifier is a simple circuit that uses a single
diode to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). During the
positive half of the AC signal, the diode conducts and allows current to pass
through, while during the negative half, the diode blocks the current. This results
in a pulsating DC output where only the positive half of the waveform is utilized,
with the negative half being eliminated.
Full-Wave Rectifier: A full-wave rectifier uses multiple diodes (typically four in
a bridge configuration) to convert both the positive and negative halves of an AC
waveform into DC. During both halves of the AC signal, diodes are arranged to
direct the current in the same direction across the load, effectively doubling the
output frequency and producing a smoother DC signal compared to a half-wave
rectifier. This makes the full-wave rectifier more efficient and suitable for
applications requiring a more stable DC output.,

Part A: Diode I-V Characteristics

Diode I-V Characteristics
Objective:
To measure the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a standard PN junction
diode and plot the I-V curve.
Procedure:
1. Setup:
o Connect the diode in series with a 1kΩ resistor and a DC power
supply.
 o Set the multimeter to measure voltage and place it across the
diode.
o Set another multimeter to measure current, or use the one in series
with the diode.
2. Voltage Input:
Vary the input voltage from the power supply from 0V to 5V in increments
of 0.2V. For each voltage step, record the voltage across the diode and the
current flowing through the circuit.
3. Measurement Table:

Input Voltage across Current

Voltage (V) Diode (V) (mA)

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.2 0.15 0.05

0.4 0.35 0.15

0.6 0.55 0.55

0.8 0.70 1.30

1.0 0.75 2.00

1.2 0.78 3.10

1.4 0.80 4.50

4. Plot the I-V Curve:

Plot the diode's I-V curve using the recorded data, with the voltage across
the diode on the x-axis and the current through the diode on the y-axis.
The I-V curve for a typical PN junction diode will show:
o Before 0.7V: A very small current, as the diode is not conducting.

o After 0.7V (threshold voltage): A sharp rise in current, indicating

the diode is forward biased and conducting.
Part B: Half-Wave Rectifier

Measuring AC Input and Rectified Output Waveform using an

Oscilloscope
Objective: To measure the input AC waveform and the rectified output
waveform using an oscilloscope and calculate the DC output voltage.
Procedure:
1. Half-Wave Rectifier Setup:
o Connect the PN junction diode in series with a 1kΩ resistor and an
AC power source (5V peak) on the breadboard.
o Connect the oscilloscope probes across the input (AC source) and
the output (across the resistor).
2. Measuring the Input AC Waveform:
o Set the oscilloscope to measure the AC signal from the power
source.
o Observe the input waveform on the oscilloscope screen. For a 5V
peak AC signal, the waveform will appear as a sinusoidal wave,
alternating between +5V and -5V.
 3. Measuring the Rectified Output Waveform:
o Connect the oscilloscope probe to measure the output across the
resistor.
o Observe the rectified waveform. In a half-wave rectifier, the
negative half of the AC waveform is blocked by the diode, so only
the positive half of the wave will appear on the output. The output
waveform will appear as a series of half sine waves.
4. Observations:
o Input Waveform: A standard sinusoidal wave ranging from +5V to
-5V.
o Output Waveform: A pulsating DC signal where only the positive
half of the waveform remains, with no signal during the negative
half.

This shows the advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave rectifier in

terms of output efficiency and voltage.
What Happens to the Negative Half of the AC Signal?
In a half-wave rectifier, the negative half of the AC signal is blocked by the
diode. This is because a diode only allows current to flow in one direction
(forward bias), which corresponds to the positive half of the AC cycle. When the
AC signal goes negative, the diode becomes reverse biased and prevents current
from passing through. As a result, during the negative half of the AC cycle, no
current flows, and the output voltage is zero.
How Does the Output Compare to the Input Waveform?
 Input Waveform:
 o The input is a standard sinusoidal AC waveform, oscillating between
positive and negative voltages (e.g., +5V and -5V peak).
 Output Waveform (Half-Wave Rectifier):
o The output waveform consists only of the positive half of the input
signal.
o The negative half is blocked, resulting in a series of half sine waves.

o The output is a pulsating DC signal with a significant gap (no signal)

during the negative half of the input cycle.
In summary, the output of a half-wave rectifier is a DC-like waveform where the
negative portion of the input AC signal is eliminated, leaving only the positive
half. This results in a pulsating DC signal with a lower average voltage compared
to the AC input

Part C: Full-Wave Rectifier

Objective: To design and analyze a full-wave rectifier circuit using four diodes
Measuring Ripple Voltage with and Without the Capacitor
Ripple Voltage Definition:
Ripple voltage refers to the small fluctuations or "ripples" remaining in the DC
output after rectification. The goal of adding a capacitor is to smooth out the
output, reducing these ripples.

Procedure for Measuring Ripple Voltage:

1. Setup:
o Complete the rectifier circuit (either half-wave or full-wave).

o Connect an oscilloscope across the load resistor to monitor the

output waveform.
2. Without the Capacitor:
o Run the circuit without the 100µF capacitor.

o Observe the rectified output waveform using the oscilloscope. You

will see clear fluctuations in the voltage after rectification.
o Measure the ripple voltage:

 The ripple voltage is the difference between the maximum

(peak) voltage and the minimum (valley) voltage on the DC
output waveform.
 On the oscilloscope, use the peak-to-peak voltage
measurement function to record the ripple voltage.
3. With the Capacitor:
o Now, connect the 100µF capacitor across the load resistor.
 o The output waveform will become smoother due to the capacitor's
charging and discharging effect.
o Measure the ripple voltage again using the peak-to-peak
function on the oscilloscope.
o You will notice a significant reduction in the ripple voltage after
adding the capacitor.

Observations:
1. Without Capacitor:
o Ripple Voltage: The waveform will show large fluctuations
between peaks and valleys, indicating a high ripple voltage.
o For a half-wave rectifier, the ripple is especially pronounced due to
the large gaps between the active portions of the waveform.
2. With Capacitor:
o Ripple Voltage: The capacitor smooths the waveform, reducing
the ripple voltage significantly.
o The waveform will appear flatter, and the voltage remains closer to
the peak for a longer duration.
o This indicates that the capacitor is successfully maintaining a more
stable output by discharging during voltage dips.

Example Results:
 Without Capacitor:
o Ripple Voltage: 1.5V (measured peak-to-peak)

 With Capacitor (100µF):

o Ripple Voltage: 0.2V (measured peak-to-peak)

This demonstrates the capacitor's smoothing effect, reducing ripple voltage from
1.5V to 0.2V.

Effect of Smoothing:
The capacitor plays a crucial role in reducing the ripple voltage by smoothing the
output waveform. The larger the capacitor, the smaller the ripple voltage,
leading to a more stable DC output.

How does the full-wave rectifier utilize both halves of the AC waveform?
1. Utilization of Both Halves of the AC Waveform
A full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the AC waveform by employing a
bridge rectifier configuration or a center-tap transformer with diodes. Here’s how
it works:
 Bridge Rectifier: This configuration uses four diodes arranged in a bridge
format. During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, two diodes conduct
(forward-biased), allowing current to flow through the load in one
direction. During the negative half-cycle, the other two diodes conduct,
reversing the direction of current flow through the load. As a result, both
halves of the AC waveform are converted to a pulsating DC output.
 Center-Tap Rectifier: In this configuration, a center-tap transformer is
used. The two ends of the secondary winding connect to two diodes.
During the positive half-cycle, one diode conducts, allowing current to flow
through the load. During the negative half-cycle, the other diode conducts,
again allowing current to flow through the load in the same direction. This
method also utilizes both halves of the AC waveform.

What is the advantage of using a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave rectifier?

. Advantages of Full-Wave Rectifier Over Half-Wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier has several advantages compared to a half-wave rectifier:
 Higher Efficiency: A full-wave rectifier produces a higher average output
voltage since it utilizes both halves of the AC waveform. In contrast, a half-
wave rectifier only uses one half of the waveform, resulting in a lower
output.
 Smoother Output: The output voltage of a full-wave rectifier is less
pulsating and more continuous than that of a half-wave rectifier. This
makes it easier to filter and smooth the output for use in DC applications.
 Reduced Ripple Voltage: Since full-wave rectifiers provide a more
continuous flow of current, the ripple voltage is lower. This means less
effort is required for filtering to obtain a smoother DC voltage.
 Better Transformer Utilization: Full-wave rectifiers can use smaller
transformers, as they utilize the entire secondary winding of the
transformer, leading to better transformer efficiency.
What role does the capacitor play in the circuit?
Role of the Capacitor in the Circuit
The capacitor in a rectifier circuit serves a crucial role:
 Smoothing the Output: After rectification, the output voltage is
pulsating DC, which still has ripples. A capacitor is used in parallel with the
load to smooth out these ripples. It charges during the peaks of the
voltage and discharges when the voltage drops, providing a more stable
output voltage.
  Energy Storage: The capacitor acts as an energy storage device, helping
to maintain a more constant voltage level across the load. When the
output voltage falls below a certain level, the capacitor discharges,
supplying current to the load and reducing voltage fluctuations.
 Improving Efficiency: By smoothing out the output voltage, the
capacitor helps improve the efficiency of the DC power supply, making it
more suitable for powering electronic circuits that require stable voltage
levels.
Overall, the combination of a full-wave rectifier and a smoothing capacitor
significantly enhances the performance of power supply circuits, making them
more effective for various applications.