~

II
...
.. --
tic••
- - ~ - ~ ••
••fllL
. ,• • p • t
ar . . .
*•'IIAt .I1h.I. . .:.-
Jk ISi
. . . . . ,21zsln11 It , ilw14._._ ... ,u111 we• ..-.
INT 01ztlllrt.vw~, c-an111t•1u a..• . , , , a11111t ...... •
..... ,, fis.nl-\
.tl6

l!kAPl'UCATIONI OF CAI IUJE MY 01Cl8 LOICfOIII

Soalf oi the important arplicatiom of cathodt ray < . a ~ ~ an :
.,..t:Eledric DWMllfflMnts. This imtrument can measure ~ INlpitudt of a..c. • k
voll-tV current can be measured indirectly b y ~ it thnJugh a mown r1m111u N • •
_,,ring the voltage (using ohm's law) KT<m the resistance.
~ v .;" ~Visul. display and qualitative study of waveforms. One
- ~ application of C.RO. is to present the ,•;ave shape of the
signal on the screen. This is possible only if the signal to be displayed i.1
applied on the vertical plates and voltage from sweep generator is
applied on the horizontal plates, we get.the exact pattern of the signal.
..,..~ Measurement of frequency.Jhe frequency which is to be
measured is applied in vertical plates and known frequency is applied
on horizontal p!at~ By adjusting the various contro_ls a pattern is
obtained on the screen. .
Let the pattern obtained be as shown in the Fig. 1.18. Let frequency
applied on horizontal plates f tt = 3000 Hz. Draw a horizontal and Fig. 1.18
vertical lines (dotted lines in the figure). We find that one loop is cut by
ba•~t; line and three loops are cut by v~al ~e. !,. , I., f
'O:\•cq_.Q_ • Vv No. of l~o~;~ut by ~ ! ~ 1 iine t
.., -Vtt -
- No. of loops cut by v-ertiatl line = 3
t.? '; z1; ~ I ell
1 .
:.. VV = J X 300() = 1()()() Hz.

.·.. Unkno\\~ frequency = 1000 Hz

~ CompmsC>n of frequencies. \\1len two simple harmonic motions are acting on a
particle along h\·o mutually perpendicular lines, the resultant path traced by the particle ii
Clled a Lissajous figure. The exact pattern depends on the frequencies, amplitude and pt:· rt
~ oI the t\\-o inputs-
C■ 1 L Ld u., ccnsider h\-o 5imrle harmonic osciJJatior\1 ha,~ same r • F■ l1 ii . t
....._ aq,litude along X-&xis and )-a.US- If the motion aJon& Y--wl ii Jlsssd ti . . . .
.._ X.... b, I pha.,t I, dwn
 11wt11,■ 1t,r ■ s n .•
.., •..• •..~ • • , , . r u( l.1 ') _. C U lt
, , . ~ (1 -
a, ,1111N1& 2

Plum eq. (1.19) ! = si n•

II

:. coscot
Putting the value of sin mt and
cos cot
= J1 -s in2 mt = K
in equation (1.2l), we get

.Y.. = ! cos +
b a
♦ J1-~ sin ♦,
or
. .
1t_
. b __
. X · X
a cosdl.,,_ = · 1 --
g.
· •
a2 ·sm<
a
' .. '

. I>
Squaring both sides
.

~:+::cos2 ♦ -~6cos ♦ - (1-::)sm2 ♦

2 2
or ~ + : 2 (cos2 ♦+sin2 ♦) - 2:: cos ♦ -sll\2 •
♦ - 0

or • x2 y2 2xy. .•
- +
a2 b2- -ab - cosct,-sm2 (\) - 0
... (1.22)
This is the equation of an ellips
inclination depends on the va e wh ose size depends on the value
lue of ct,. The ellipse is within of a and b and wbme
2b along X and Y axis respecti a rectangle whose sides are 2a and
vely.
Special cases
I. When ♦ =O
So, Equation (1.22) becomes

t+
,r1 b2i- ~
ab -o
-
or
(¼-tY ·- 0
•
•
-
• ·I
.,_ 4!1 J1
,: ,; Jin 1
......... - ~...- • 1'j
,· t· ,ff, 41

41'-tet lllt....,. ,nlr.tf· ~-~r.i. 1 ~(•\

•. ----- .. ,
Prnm .-qu,ttnn n .22,

. ,,
1'2
2•2 = 1
..?
Thi8 ,._ the t-quatton of an ellipse "ith its axis rarallel to co-ordinate axis 4'~ shown in
fig. t.19 (iii).
3tt
IV.When ♦ • 4
From equation (1.22)

x2 1£.
fi.xy 1
;"+ b2 + ab = 2
This is again the equation of an oblique ellipse as shown in Fig. 1.19 (iv).
V. When ♦ =7t
From equation (1.22)
x2 y2 2xy
;+b2"+ab = 0
• 2
(xa + Y)
b .
=O

X y
or a+b = o
or b
y = - -x
a
This equation represents a pair of concident straight lines passing through the origin
lying in ~Nld 4th quadrants as shown in Fig. 1.19 (v).

(i) (tij (tit) (IV) (v)

Fig. 1.19. Lissajous figw-es on screen of CRT.
Ca11e 11. \\'hen frequencies are in the ratio of 1: 2.
l.ct ·a
:r = sin-«JI.- _ (1.2))
~ == b sin f2«< + •; - Ill)
. '; ii .

-&. llllllllt11C■01 • -•f Nill

- •ta• ...,n.e • &fl ,«uu111 11ft "'Mh mall.I uw ~ ill AW"'•"''"'.. ~ ma ■
._. &.4:1•1'' ri1 ltt rift tmn lllrN'"- It f"'"' ...~ • , ,~u•I ,_,.,e1m 1.11~ cwf •It ctrkal
111-1 a. Wifd 111 n.ually ,~u• .,.,ne lohar,rs .n.t tt.1 m.1le me,1<111ttnwnt m ltwm.
i
-4f.
1
WW ii 11w diffnfflce Nlwttn a CRT and CRO 1 . f_PN~ U. 20U) tP.U,
lP'VUI
A& tlw ,alhode ray O!,OIJO!,('(tpe (CRO) is an l'l«troni c dl'nl-e which 19 capable ol
,·&MY.I indication of a &ignal 1''a,·eform .
A cathode ray tube, is the major component of CRO, i.e., it is the heart of the osdllOICop&
CRT ii baSl-d upon the properties that fast moving electrons can be deflecte d by e1ectdr
and magnetic fields. When these electrons strike the flourescent screen, they produce
~illatio ns. ~
Q. 3. How does CRT convert an electrical signal into a visual one ?
Ans. The cathode of cathode ray tube applies a large amount of electron s when it is heated to
a high temperature. These electrons acquire very high speed after passing through
various electrodes and form a high velocity beam of electrons, called cathode ray, which
is projected into the Cacuum space of the tube until it.strikes the screen of the tube
which is coated with a phospho r (Willemite, .Cadmium, Tungsta te etc.) which gives
light. The colour of the light-depends upon the phospho r.
Q. 4. What are the uses of CRO ? •
Or
Name two applications of a CRO.
Ans. Following are the uses of CRO:
1. To measure voltage and current.
2. Vis.ual display of electrical waveforms.
3. Mea~ure ~ent of time and frequency i.e., the frequenc y of the time-varying voltage
tha! IS dISplayed on the screen can be measure d by using the calibrati on of the
honzont al scale. .
4. It can mea~ure the relative phase angle between two sinusoidal volta es of the
same amplitud e and frequency. g
5. C~O is used f~r the producti on of television pictures .
6. It IS used for VISual presenta tion of radar indicatio ns.
Q. 5. ~at are the essentials of a cathode ray tube ? Explain.
Au.
(d !!: ~:It produces, accelerates and focuses the emitted elecln:Jnl lnlo •
 ,.,,,_,..::1•aP ....... ,..tflllltlJIII-
·-----••-tl• flltffMIIIII III,_.
illllt~ s
--·
1 l9Zr 11
].
3tlf . . •la
,-. n ,,1111 ••• • •1••••1•••• •-flllllll•fllt
177 I sr•
• ll•r ■ rra sr•:•••• 1ana t •••1tl1 zz all ■ ss std111••.._..
trsz t 1 ,1r.,...ta1tpllldligN .
Nrn1 • ••u 111111111 111 art11f1lz . . . _.•talc• ,.,1a11• "1 •••
AJw1wa• ..,,,_, UMlff
1. wa s tie (Zinc lilicllf 1.11 SiO,l Gmn
1 Cldmium tur.ptate (CdWO.J Blue
3. Caldwn tunptate (u WO.J . Blue-violet
4. ZJnc oxide Blue
S. Zinc sulphide (ZnS) Blue-\\·hite
6. Zinc berylium silicate Yellow
Q. 7. Why Willemite 11 most 1uitable coating material for the SCfftn of CRT ?
(HJ>.U. 2003)
Ans. An important consideration in the selection of fluorescent material is persistence of its
glow after the electro~ have cea~ to bombard the scree~. ~t is desirable to ~ a
fluorescent material which has persIStance less than 0.1 sec. This 1s necessary for rapidly
changing images, such a~ those displayed o~ television. Willemite is one of the suitable •
fluorescent material for such purposes. •
Q.8. What is Aquadag coating ? What is _its use ? •
Ans. The glass walls of the tube between the anode and fluroescent ~reen are coated with
Aquadag- a conducting layer of carbon particles. It is necessary to remove the electrons
striking the flourescent screen and return these to the cathode because, if the_ electrons
striking the screen are not removed from it, these will repel the arriving electrons. A
stage comes when negative charge on the screen becomes so large that no more electron
can strike the screen.
The Aquadag is not directly connected to the screen. However, it collects secondary
electrons emitted by the screen when electron beam strikes on it and return these to
cathode.
Q. 9. What is time base (or sweep) circuit? What is its function?
Ans. If a sinusoidal voltge is applied on the vertical plates, the luminous spot will move
vertically up and down and a vertical line is traced on the screen. To get the exact
pattern of the signal, it is necessary to displace the spot horizontally also by applying a
voltage across X-plates. Besides, the voltage across the X-plates must be propotional to
time so that a time-axis is provided along the horizontal direction. An ideal for waveform
of this type is the saw tooth. This voltage increases linearly for a certain time t and then
suddenly drops to zero. It again repeats its linear rise for the same time to again drop to
~- The time to fall from the peak_value t? the zero level is called theflybtd timt and
1t 1S extremelr small_ as compared~~ the time to rise form zero to the peak value. Such
a waveform 1S obtained from a orcwt known as a timt-bast circuit and is m c 11 !dill
component of the oscillograph.
N1 ■ 1 llld explain variout controla of CRO.
(I) lal•ltJ Conlrol; It aff«tl the el«bon bf.m ~ t y . U,wpth~ lw on .....
ii incfl ''"'- ttw intallity l.t.. ~ ol dw lpOI dfa,r N(Y..

.. ....
.,. :-:,•,'j
,. , •:=:.-::~:»•~• ~•:,,:a;:i~:-.~:_'a•:.::
 -
ti
..........
. . .._.dp ■ 11t
.. .. .. .. _

; al .I t«
I 7 ,,. ._
.an If •II ......
e1111rn:s\
...,...,....
ID the .. .., _~ 9 ' Li ju lil . Il a ttd lc~ ~ '14. .. :: -
a. uw. a 11 7
_. .. •• •
. . . .al.. .
Q.11. O..W._W.&tif41
□ af aCltO.
AM.
CRT
HuilzWellJ
..
V8l1lcll
Input Vertical
Amplifier
INT
Ext Trigger

Triggering Sync Sweep

Circuit Generator • • Horizontal
, Input

Fig.
Block diagram of a CRO.
Q. 12. What is deflection
sensitivity of CRT ?
Ans. The deflection sensit . - . • • •_ - • • •
ivity of CRT is defined as •• • ·_
un it change in voltage ac shift of th e sp ot of lig ht on
ross the deflection plates. th e ~e en per _
• . •. . : Sp ot de fle cti on
_ ~, Deflection sens1tiv1ty
= Ap pl ied vo lta ge
Q. 13. On what factors do
es the deflection sensitivit
Ans. The deflection sen y of CRT de pe nd ?
sitivity is directly, propor
tional to
(i) length of deflection pla
tes
(ii) length of beam from
centre of deflecting plates
sensitivity is inversely prop to the. sc re en an d th e de
ortional to (iii) velocity of flection
deflection plates. electons (iv) sp ac in g be tw
ee n
Q. 14. What are Lissajou
s figures ? Ho w can they
Ans. In general, a pa th tra be di sp lay ed on a &CJtt
ced ou t by a particle \\·hen n1
harmonic motions at right an it is acted simultaneously by
gle to each other is called a I tw o Mmpl
• U "·e pl ~ simple ~ jv ,aj ou r figw:e..
~ motions ag a~ t tim
So. to disp~~ the lis.s.ajous e, thi.1' gh·e ~u so id .u co
pattern on the !< re m "·e n6 gu r• ■
the X an d ~ ·in pu ts of a ca
thode ray ~~. ap ply the s.inu..Vli<bl Jd ll' if I•
Q. 15 . Draw the I iss ;jous
6g,uH fo f fff qu mc y ratio 1
&12. : t : : 1 w t 1 : l far I i I sr 1

; t
••
 --•& .....
... tn.,, . .
ti

0 L ·w.t do you tnNn 1')' ,·alftk'"'t ~nJ, ~"'"tiM Mnd and fettt.Nt" . . ?4P.U. NII)
.u.. ,·.,;. .,,._yt,.z,.J: 1k rus~~tt\i~i(~'\'ll'~"l 1'v t~\\\lt"t"-~'"''i1\n~i5l~lk'd,·a~~
...---~t.u.th.'rt ltezrtJ: l'he t'n'l'~· h:lnJ is ,allt'-1 ,'\,r"-i\1'1k,, N1".t
f,.,,.NJJ.,..,, ~•lf.' : The ~'1:\lrati,'1\ ~,h,·t""-'t\ l'\'1,,iu"11,,n l'\u'\\t a1'\\i Yalt'tl\~ ~M ~ called
"' r ' ,
k'"'id,ii~ t'C\\"~Y ~ap. '"
Q. 2. \\'hit do you me-tn t-y semkonJuct\,rs ?
Ans. lb.~ su~taI'\\"\;"S ,,·hk·h have th~ir '-'-'nductivity in~m,t,ii,\re °t't'h''"'" \"\,1'\i\~1'.,rs a1'l1
lll$ulat\.,rs al'\' callt,t St'll\k'\,1,du('t\.)rs i.e., the resisthity at l\'\,n\ ten,perature is in the
r~~ '-'f 10-S t\.) 10' 11 n,. The f\,rbid.dt"t\ gap f\,r C, C,e and Si at OK is 5.48 eV. 0.74 eV and
1.17 eV and at 3l.\l ~ S.-l7 eV, O.~ eV and 1.12 eV rt'Spectively. Thus in tenns of energy
hli.'\J, ~uk"Onducb)r 1uay ~ defint,i as tilt)Se 1naterials "·hich ha,·e aln,~t an enlpty
l"\'1\\.iuction hind and aln,ost filled v,llen\.'e ~~nd "'ith very nam.)\V ene~,' gap(= leV)
Stl'll''1ting then,·'-~
~ ~ How does a semiconductor behave at OK ?
Aft5' It ~haves like an i.nsulat\.1r.
Q..&.. \\1lat is enel'8.V gap in insulators?
~ In insulators the conduction band and the valence band are separated by a \\ride gap
t.g., fur d.i.axuond the ent'rgy gap is 6 eV.
Qr«'l\"hat are the essential characteristics of a semiconductor? (G.ND.U. 2013)
AM.. 1~ ~nucondu(tt)r ha,·e a nt'gatiYe tenlperature coefficient of resistance i.e., the electrical
ronJucti\ity of th~ senuC\,nJuctor increases \\ith rise in temperature.
~- The elt.'\."tri~al C\)nductiYity of the st"mironductor is increased by adding a small
am",unt of suitable in,rurity.
3' Its n~~ti,·itv. varit.~ from 10-.s to 10' 0 m.
.&, A jW'\\..--ti.0n nuJ~ f:'t,n,·t.~n a r-~-re ~mironJuctor and n•t)-pe semiconductot ~
n.,~'1ti""' rn'f''t't)·.
5.. 5'.~'\.ru\l\."'t\.'CS h.lv~ ~h L,ml\.'t'lt'\.'trk l'l\\'ff \\it.~ sign~~ pl"lSiti,-e and nepti\'f
. rcl.ltive to .i ~h--."'n mt~.i.l.
0-C ~do'"" ... m~u ~v ~n ,~triMi( M'1ftironJ"'1or !
Ml. To""'~...~ L~ ~~~t\lh ".. a ~~..."'n!U\.~~ 1 ~a ~'Unt fl w•,+lir --~~)
(: t (I."\ r .. .t f:'\'tn ~:-J ,,r St."t pX!r <..i ?~-,d~ b!'~) i, aJJfd. Tht,
,alwd d,,r~~, ~nu th~ M·~1,,'\.-\Ju,°t,'f , l~t.t.~~?'~ impunt\~ i'I ,al 1ft • r

.., ~ .. 1ltt ~~ \lp~ W h'J'C' ,.. &mp.a.~N ~

-..~
, ' • !.'fl' riiiiiiiiliila ~~ 11 n ~ L ' J' h ~ -. , n \9' n
 ~1111 111,.,i
lfl LIi . . . '¥, .. ~
... ... ... . ~ 4"1.... .~
_,.... .,,.~ .
0 ~
( ..,.... ...,...,

I? ...,u~
..
• ~ •"....."" lilt
,, ,11 .re@liK1nC"8.U\
'ft¥ !l'.. _,_-. ; ~ ~ with
~~
li.Jtftj:!il ~.,, - ~ •" " " ' ~ ""' ~u ttti l
. .llf.di tf f ' \ ~ fl tiW!!°~ ..,_,,._.,. ~ fill ~---fW I I ~ W\ t:Nt
.... and ,,,_ ~
('J~ '" ~ffUta, ~ ttw-
al.·
11tu.1 btJ!! m r·" "' ~ w•tTf'E
!ftf'IJ'X1"duddt.i aft ~ ' nr.utnl
Q. I. "'h at.S O,-. -.• by~ lal1 rt PWh Man ...irW l '1
A111. lnwlator- aJT ~ matrrials " ' ~ do ft(,t alkr,. · t-le\trll .... _..-. , theth.
current to~ um.~it •
INUl atcn ha,·e • number of mes lib:
(11 A!lbestos ii used for covering the ~;re in high
power~
(ir) flxmite ~ used for making CO\W S for resistance boxes.
(iii) Paper and paraffin wax are used for cable insulation
d for
when oil impregnated an
covering transformer conductors.
(iv) Shellac is used in the form of insulating varnish.
.
Q, -9. Semiconducton have negative temperature coefficien
meaning. t of resis tance. Exp l•~; ;
(G.N.D.U.
Ans. Nega tive temp eratu re coefficient of resis tance
mean s that the resis tivit y of
semicondoctors decreases rapidly with the increase .of temp
erature.
Q. 10. What do you mean by majority and minority carriers
in extrinsic semiconductors ?
Ans. We know that extrinsic semiconductors are of two
types n or p-types. In n-typ e
• semiconductor, the number of free electrons is much more
than holes. So electrons are
majority carriers and holes are minority carriers. Similarly in a p-fyp
e semiconductor, holes
are much more than electrons. So holes are majority carries
. and electrons are mino rity
earners.

1. Wha t is an intrinsic semi cond uctor ? Explain why

the cond uctiv ity
semiconductor increases .with temperature ? When does an
intrinsic semi
behave as in insulator ?
2. What do you understand by a semiconductor? Discu
ss some important
semiconductor.
3. Which are the most commonly used semiconductors and
why ?
4. What is the difference between metal, insulator and
semiconduct
basis of energy band gap.
.5. On the basis of band theory of solids distinguish between
me
conductors. .
6. (a) Differentiate clearly among conductors, semiconductors
of band theory.
(b) What is intrinsic semiconductor ? Explain the mec
intrinsic semiconductor.
{c) Explain why at high temp entu ft. a n ~ ~ l ....
~u cto r?
 . ..
,tTAff omca-, (8.So. ffl, Strn. ~,
--== . •. , ,,,,., . w SEMKX)NDU CTORS------ ----
- -
Since the Fermi-Dirac distribution law ii rapldl) _ , . . wllh
f ;::.::,.r;:1',;;! ••ltJ' Gf , - . In dw vall!ll<:e band a n d ~ is evident that most of the electrons in the c:ondudion bind wtD Ir In i
bottom of the conduction band. So for B ~ B, and ~ - Ee> >!J, I an lhf
... '........ , neglected , so the above equation (2.8) reduc:ee to -.
w
,· , , ,
, • • ., ' ~. ♦ _,., ••• (l.41:
ii Ill • . . . . . . . , . . ...,..., •OldudlJII depends on (1) nwnber density ~ n, ~ (2m"J'A j (E-rr~
•• - · · ......
IJ I. qi t& flrJlli1'1 iiti,
•&, ~ ~'~~-'~
,_,,.,,,, J,r 111trmlk gmunium at 300 K.
. ~.j wt l<'"f\vc,J 'h ., ~
~ Ir e>cp
kT
•
I
-- 10" "'·J •
.
• %,f •
14 "'0'9rV·4 ,--,
,.. • 0 ,. -1 v.. ,...
•
l
'
I
or > ., = i (2,n',>"2 l(E-E.>"2-.(".:;'l ".
-
. . . . . . ,....,.., " ' ~ ,,.,.,,,,,,.,u,n, ,
n, = V l (2m',)"' (E-E.l"' .,.~'rt~
""
I.,)...(~
t•■ 1• . .. . . . . . , II• liWJlf'I by
8 * ff, I <,fl, ♦ ,.,,}
..., 2• • JO"• 1.6 ,c ]0-- w(0.39 + 0.19)
111
j
J
l·:

or
E-E,
.....
• 222 u·• m·• An1. Let = X
kT
FERMI LEVEL AND CONDUCTIVITY. dE = kTdx
and (E- Ec)112 = xt/2 (kT)'/2
_ • • J Ill fl Pl ._, ■ ill ,_wd• INnd. Putting these values in eq. (2.9), we get
h • • • ~ f.l otatft11111 u, ,·ondU(~tion band let us consider that the width
•• ,., ...._-.... • ---~-,._,.t..,. ~tlh ttw wi41th of forbidden gap, And the electrons U\
4Jr (2m•e)312 exp (E'1;E)
n, = h3 !
' • lt/.1 (AT ,.,J ~r,--,OT,.
1• ._.., .._. --.• --•• ~11'1 ill'fwtten E, tt) • · .
. . ......,_ ...._..,.·-•~at•"' ttw (tlllJU('titm band is given by
! .~ i (· '

\
4Jr -
nC = ,;-s-(2m•,)3/2 exp (E•k;E,) (lT)'"' t''J •-• tb !
.. • 1• 7.(r) / (F) d E ... ':/ t' ;:)~ ~, ., _,, ... (2.5)
II ,.. i
~
,)~!•;' 'le
Using standard integral
~ , ,-·~..\ '
--...
- ., t f
n. -.-..- iii h A•lliu.·t~ tw.J arr a.umni to behave as if they are free with an
di • t4 ....._ ••* ~'.,. ~• ,..._. dw JC"t1111ty ._,t ait.tks in the conduction band as equal to tha~
j x112 e~x dx = Ji
0 2
~
1 2 4
n = ,r (2m• \3/2 exp ( EF - E,) (l:T)':J /;
~ , I ff> • r;rI ( ';f•1 • <E - EJ1,2 ... (2.6) h3
C ti lT
, I

2
,-,.__,..,_.~!tt:l• •"'llf't»y _ (2.Jrm•,kTJ~'-' (E,-E,)
or n, - 2 h2 exp -kT- -lllll
- t- J
·' ( ] • L' 1•"F ... (2.7)
i:-
,;::m) Density of holes in valence band
I •"'P ( - AT A hole means vacancy created by removal of an elc.-dron i.t. an empcy ffle'I~- lrlwl 111,-
~ .. •:~i~--. a,~"' o ~1. •'" ~ Fermi function for a hole is 1 -/ (E), where/ (E) ls the probability th.It tht ~ ,i • •c..,.., 111J
an electron. So number density of holes in valence band is givl"fl by •
-J
J ('':A:•1111 • (E-E )'ndE
• -
• · -?I•
p f 7 (E-EF ( ...(2.8) nh = l.(E)[l - /(E)] dE -0.lU
J+e>ep- '
kT The valence band is considered to have energies lying from - • to f,..