CHAPTER

14
Muscular and Glandular
System and Biological
Behaviour
The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces movement. The
endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body
activities. These two system together manipulate and direct the biological motives,
emotions and behaviour
of humans in significant manner.

Muscular
The
System
muscular system is an organ system, involved majorly in the movement of the
body. There are about 700 muscles that are connected to the bones of the skeletal
system, which roughly make up half of the human body weight. Every muscle is a
different organ made up of skeletal muscle, tissue, blood vessels, nerves and
tendons. Muscle tissues are found in the heart, blood vessels and digestive system.

Types of Muscles
There are three kinds of muscle tissues namely cardiac, visceral and skeletal.
(i) Cardiac Muscle This muscle is present only in heart and
responsible for
supplying blood to all over the body. It is also an involuntary muscle since it
cannot be controlled. When brain signals adapt the rate of contraction,
cardiac muscle stimulates by itself to contract. The natural pace of the heart
is made up of cardiac muscle tissue and it stimulates other cardiac muscle
cells to shrink. The cardiac muscle cells are straight which reveals that the
seem to have dark and light stripes when seen under a mnicroscope. The
protein fibers arrangement within the cells is respornsible for these dark and
light stripes.
(ii) Visceral Muscle These muscles are found in the organs like intestines, blood C Inthis Chapter
vessels and stomach. It is the weakest of all muscle tissues and makes oreame Muscular System
contract to move substances through the organ. It is said to be involuntary Glandular System
muscle because it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. It is Biological Basis of Motivation
also known as smooth muscle since it has a very smooth, uniform appearance " Biological Basis of Emotions
when viewed under the microscope. " Genetics and Behaviour
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Muscular and Glandular System and Biological Behaviour
involves the use of the
Gii) Skeletal Muscle lt is the only voluntary muscle tissue (V) Respiration Breathing dome-shaped
that can be controlled in conscious condition. Every diaphragm muscle. The diaphragm is a diaphragm
physical action that a human does (e.g. walking, muscle located below the lungs. When the
the chest
writing) needs skeletal muscle. The skeletal muscle is contracts, it pushes downward, causing When
with air.
responsible for moving the body parts that are cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill
air out of the
connected to the bone. Skeletal muscles from many the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushesmore deeply, it
ancestor cells lump themselves together to produce lungs. When someone wants to breathe
those in
straight, long fibers. These skeletal muscles are strong requires help from other muscles, including
just like cardiac muscles. The name is derived from the the abdomen, back and neck.
gastrointestinal or
fact that these are connected to the skeleton in atleast (vi) Digestion Smooth muscles in the stretches from
one region. GI tract control digestion. The GI tract
the mouth to the anus. Food moves through the
called
Functions of Muscular Systemn digestive system with a wave like motion
peristalsis. Muscles in the walls of the hollow organs
The main functions of the muscular system are as follows contract and relax to cause this movement,
which
(i) Mobility The muscular system's main function is to pushes food through the esophagus into the stomach.
allow movement. When muscles contract, they allow food
The upper muscle in the stomach relaxes to
movement. Gross
contribute to gross and fine to enter, while the lower muscles mix food particles
movement refers to large, coordinated motions and with stomach acid and enzymes. The digested food
includes: walking running, swimming. Fine movement moves from the stomach to the intestines by
involves smaller movements, such as writing, speaking, peristalsis. From here, more muscles contract to pass
facial expressions. the food out of the body as stool.
The smaller skeletal muscles are usually responsible for (vii) Urination The urinary system comprises both smooth
this type of action. Most muscle movement of the and skeletal muscles, including those in the bladder,
body is under conscious control. However, some kidneys, ureter and urethra. The muscles and nerves
movements are reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand must work together to hold and release urine from the
from a source of heat. bladder. Urinary problems, such as poor bladder
and
(ii) Stability Muscle tendons stretch over joints the
control or retention of urine, are caused by damage to
contribute to joint stability. Muscle tendons in the nerves that carry signals to the muscles.
crucial in
knee joint and the shoulder joint are (vii) Childbirth Smooth muscles in the uterus expand and
in the
stabilisation. The core muscles are those contract during childbirth. These movements push the
the
abdomen, back and pelvis and they also stabilise baby through the vagina. Also, the pelvic floor muscles
body and assist in tasks, such as lifting weights.
help to guide the baby's head down the birth canal.
the body in the
(ii) Posture Skeletal muscles help keep sitting or standing.
(ix) Vision Six skeletal muscles around the eye control its
correct position when someone is movements. These nmuscles work quickly and precisely
relies on strong,
Thisis known as posture. Good posture contribute and allow the eye to
flexible muscles. Stiff,weak or tight muscles
of the body. Long Maintain a stable inmage
to poor posture and misalignment muscle pain in the Scan the surrounding area
term,bad posture leads to joint and " Track moving objects
shoulders, back, neck and elsewhere. Damage to the eye muscles can cause impaired vision.
muscle that pumps blood
(1V) Circulation The heart is a the heart is (x) Organ Protection Muscles in the torso protect the
throughout the body. The movement of internal organs at the front, sides and back of the body.
it contracts
Outside of conscious control and The bones of the spine and the ribs provide further
signals.
automatically when stimulated by electrical further protection. Muscles also protect the bones and organs
a
Smooth muscle in the arteries and veinstheplays
body. These by absorbing shock and reducing friction in the joints.
around
role in the circulation of blood
and circulation in the (xi) Temperature Regulation Maintaining normal body
muscles martain blood pressure
They expand to temperature an important function of the muscular
event of blood loss or dehydration. intense exercise
of system. Almost 85% of the heat a person generates in
increase blood flow during times their body comes from contracting muscles. When
when the body requires more oxygen. body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal
 234
UGC NET Tutor "
Psychology
muscles increase their activitv to nmake heat.
is one example of this Shivering stimulating hormones. The hypothalamus also secreter
mechanism. MuScles
blood vessels also contract to maintain body the
in hormone called somatostatin, which causes the
Bodv temperature can be brought back within heat. gland to stop the release of growth hormone. pituitary
range through the relaxation of smooth musclenormalin the
blood vessels. This action increases blood flow
and
Pituitary Gland
releases excess heat through the skin. The pituitary gland is located at the base of the hrai
beneath the hypothalamus and is no larger than a pea, Ir is
often considered the most important part of the
endocrine
system because it produces hormones that control man.
functions of other endocrine glands. When the pituitary
Glandular System
The endocrine system, along with the
gland does not produce one or more of its hormones
enough of them, it is called hypopituitarism.
or not

functions in the regulation of body activities.nervous system,

The endocrine The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the
system acts through chemical messengers called hormones lobe and the posterior lobe.
anterior
that influence growth, development and
metabolic
activities. The action of the endocrine system is measured The anterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are
in regulated by the hypothalamus
minutes, hours or weeks and is more generalised than the
action of the nervous system. Growth Hormone Stimulates growth of bone and tissue.
Its deficiency in adults results in problems in
There are two major categories of glands in the body exocrine and proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone maintaining
endocrine. is also involved in emotional
mass. It
well-being.
Exocrine Glands Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. The lack of
Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their thyroid hormones either because of a defect in the
product to a surface. These glands include thesecretory
sweat, pituitary or the thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.
sebaceous and mammary glands arnd the glands that secrete
digestive enzymes. Adrenocorticotropin
the adrenal gland to
Hormone (ACTH) Stimulates
produce several related steroid
hormones.
Endocrine Glands Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating
The endocrine glands do not have ducts to Hormone (FSH) Control sexual function and
carry
product to a surface. They are called ductless glands. their
The production of the sex steroids,
word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms 'endo,' in females or estrogen and progesterone
meaning within and 'krine,' meaning to separate or testosterone in males.
" Prolactin Hormone Stimulates milk production in
The secretory products of endocrine glands aresecrete. called females.
hormones and are secreted directly into the blood and then
carried throughout the body where they influence only The posterior lobe produces the following
regulated by the hypothalamus hormones, which are not
those cells that have receptor sites for that hormone.
" Antidiuretic
Various endocrine glands present in the body are Hormone
loss by the kidneys. (vasopressin) Controls water
Hypothalamus Oxytocin Contracts the uterus during childbirth ana
The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of stimulates milk production.
the The hormones secreted by the
brain. This part of the brain is important in
regulation
satiety, metabolism and body temperature. In addition, it
of actually produced in the brain and posterior
carried
pituitary ac
to the pituitary
secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the gland through nerves. They are stored in the
hormones in the pituitary gland.
release of pituitary gland.
Many of these hormones are releasing Thyroid Gland
hormones, which are
secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal portal system) that
The thyroid gland is located in the
lower front part of ne
neck. It produces thyroid hormones that
carries them directBy to the pituitary gland. In the pituitary
gland, these releasing hormones signal secretion of metabolism. It also plays a role in regulate
bone
the body
development of the brain and nervous system growth anu
in children.
 235
Muscular and Glandular System and Biological Behaviour

thyroid The Main Hormone Systems in the Human Body

The pituitary gland controls the release of Main Actions
hormones. Thyroid hormones also help maintain normal
Endocrine Gland Hormone(s)
and Adapts the body to
blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle tone Adrenal conlex Glucocorticoids
(including cortisol and long-term stress
reproductive functions. Cortisone)
Adrenal Medulla Adrenaline Increases sympathetic
Parathyroid Glands (Epinephrine)
arousal and stimulates
the breakdown of
glands
The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small gycogen
embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland, one pair on Ovaries Oestrogen and Female sexual

each side. They release parathyroid hormone, which plays a progesterone development and
Control of the menstrual
bone
role in regulating calcium levels in the blood and cycle
metabolism. Insulin and glucagon Involved in regulation of
Pancreas gland blood sugar
Adrenal Glands Pineal gland Melatonin Control of circadian
rhythms
The two adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located Vasopressin and Control of water
on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands are made up of
Pituitary gland
oxytocin balance and female
and the (anterior part)
two parts. The outer part is called the adrenal cortex sexual behaviour

inner part is called the adrenal medulla. The outer part Pituitary gland Master control of other Wide range of
produces hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the endocrine glands. Also functions. Growth and
(posterior part) protein synthesis. Mik
produces growth
bodv's metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the hormone and prolactin production
inner
body, the immune system and sexual function. The Testes Testosterone Male sexual
part or adrenal medulla, produces hormones called development and
behaviOur
catecholamines (e.g. adrenaline). These hormones help the Increases metabolic
body cope with physical and emotional stress by increasing Thyroid gland Thyroxine and
triodothyronine rate
the heart rate and blood pressure.
Pineal Gland
The pineal body or pineal gland, is located in the middle of
the brain. It secretes a hormone called melatonin, which may
help regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the body.
Biological Basis of
Reproductive Glands
Motivation
are the main source of sex Biological theory of motivation savs that motivational level
The reproductive glands are regulated by neural pattern recognition events. The
hormones. In males, the testes, located in the scrotum,
biological motives are embedded in physiological state of
secrete hormones called androgens; the most important of body. There are many such biological motives like hunger,
which is testosterone. These hormones affect many male
characteristics (e.g. sexual development, growth of facial thirst, sleep, desire for sex, pain avoidance and need of
hair and pubic hair). In females, the ovaries, located on both Oxygen. Few of the biological motives are discussed below.
sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as Hunger Motivation
well as eggs. These hormones control the development of role
Temale characteristics (e.g. breast growth) and they are also The hypothalamus region of brain plays an important two
Ihvolved in reproductive functions (e.g. menstruation, is done by
in regulation of hunger motivation. This
pregnancy). regions of hypothalamus-lateral and ventromedial.
Lateral hypothalamus is an excitatory region for hunger
Pancreas
The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back motivation. Within the hypothalamus are nerve cell, which
so by
when activated produces sensation of hunger. They do
Y
producing two protein that cause hunger: Neuropeptide
Or the abdomen behind the stomach. The pancreas has
igestive and hormonal functions. One part of the pancreas,
(NPY) and Agouti-Related Peptide (AgRP).
he exocrine pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes. The
other part of the pancreas, the endocrine pancreas, secretes Ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in cessation of
of protein
omones called insulin and glucagon. These hormones eating i.e. satiety. They do so by two different kind
regulate the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. that inhibits hunger: Cocaine and Amphetamine-Regulated
 236 UGC NET Tutor " Psychology

Transcript (CART) and Melanocyte Stimulating Homone Long-Term Regulation of

(MSH). These two sets of nerve cells initiate and send
hunger signal to other area of hypothalamus. So, a person's
Hunger and Food Intake
hunger at any moment depends on balance of the activity Hunger regulation is a complex process
between these two sets of neuron. gastrointestinal tract, hormones and both central
autonomic nervous systems. Effectors and sensors
involving
Work to
Short-Term Regulation of regulate hunger in long term.
Hunger and Food Intake Effector
Short-term regulation of hunger and food intake involves The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, is the main
neural signals from the GI tract, blood levels of nutrients, GI
tract hormones and psychological factors. regulatory organ for the human hunger. Many brain
neurotransmitters affect appetite, especially dopamine and
Neural Signals from the GI Tract serotonin. Dopamine acts primarily through the reward
centers of the brain, whereas serotonin primarily actsS
The brain evaluates the contents of the gut through vagal through effects on Neuropeptide Y (NPY))Agouti-Related
nerve fibers that carry signals between the brain and the
Peptide (AgRP) [stimulate appetite] and
Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Stretch receptors work to
inhibit appetite upon distention of the GI tract by sending Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) [induce satiety] neurons
located in the arcuate nucleus. Simnilarly, the hormones
signals along the vagus nerve afferent pathway and leptin and insulin suppress appetite through effects on
inhibiting the hunger center. AgRP and POMCneurons.
Nutrient Signal Hypothalamocortical and hypothalamolimbic projections
Blood levels of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids provide contribute to the awareness of hunger and the somatic
a constant flow of information to the brain that may be processes controlled by the hypothalamus include vagal
linked to regulating hunger and energy intake. Nutrient tone (the activity of the parasympathetic autonomic
signals that indicate fullness and therefore inhibit hunger nervous system), stimulation of the thyroid (thyroxine
include rising blood glucose levels, elevated blood levels of regulates the metabolic rate), the
amino acids and blood concentrations of fatty acids. hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and a large number of
other mechanisms. Opioid receptor-related processes in the
Hormone Signals nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum affect the
The hormones insulin and Cholecystokinin (CCK) are palatability of foods.
released from the GI tract during food absorption and act to The Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) is the area of the brain that
suppress feeling of hunger. CCK helps in suppressing coordinates neurotransmitter, opioid and endocannabinoid
hunger because of its role in inhibiting neuropeptide Y. signals to control feeding behaviour.
Glucagon and epinephrine levels rise during fasting and
stimulate hunger. Ghrelin, a hormone produced by the The few important signalling molecules inside the NAc shell
stomach, is a hunger stimulant. Leptin, a hormone modulate the motivation to eat and the
produced by adipose tissue acts as hunger suppressant. for food. These molecules include affective reactions
the dopamind.
Acetylcholine, opioids and cannabinoids and their acto
Psychological Factors receptors inside the brain, DA, muscarinic and MOR a
Two psychological processes appear to be involved in CB1 receptors respectively.
regulating short-term food intake: liking
Liking refers to the palatability or taste of the and wanting,
food, which is
Sensor
reduced by repeated consumption. The hypothalamus senses external stimuli mainly through a
number of hormones such as leptin, ghrelin, PYY 3-36,
Wanting is the motivation to consume the food, which is orexin and cholecystokinin; all modify the hypothalamic
also reduced by repeated
consumption of a food and may be
due to change in memory-related response. They are produced by the digestive tract and
triggered by a variety of processes. Wanting can be adipose tissue (leptin). Systemic mediators, such astumor
of a food may intrude onpsychological processes. Thoughts necrosis factor-alpha (TNFo), interleukins 1 and b
consciousness and be elaborated
on, for instance, as when one
desirable food.
sees a commercial or smells a Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) influence
appetite negatively; this mechanism explains whyill people
often eat less.
 237
Muscular and Glandular System and Biological Behaviour

Leptin, hormone secreted exclusively by adipose cells in Double-Depletion Hypothesis

dehvdration
esponse to an increase in body fat mass, is an important According to it, thirst is triggered by cellularvolume). The
Componentinthe regulation of long tern hunger and food
body's
and hypovolemia (reduction of ofblood blood volume results
intake. Leptin serves as the brain's indicator of the dehvdration of cells and reduction
in the osmoreceptors (nerve
rotal energy stores. When leptin levels rise in generation of nerve impulses by
These nerve
hloodstream thev bind to receptors in ARC. The functions of cells in anterior or front of hvpothalamus).
can he
lptin are to impulses act as a signal for thirst. This thirst
Suppress the release of Neuropeptide Y (NPY), which in Osmotic Thirst
turn prevents the release of appetite enhancing orexins sodium chloride
from the lateral hvpothalamus. This decreases appetite Body fluids contain asmall amount of
intake affect the
and food intake, promoting weight loss. (NaCl or table salt). Increase in salt concentration
extracellular fluids first, so that the NaCl
Stimulate the expression of Cocaine and Amphetamine concentration
Regulated Transcript (CART). outside the cells becomes greater than the
concentration creates a
inside the cells. This greater NaCl
Though rising blood levels of leptin do promote weight loss inside the cells, the
the body against higher osmotic pressure outside than to deerease the
to some extent, its main role is to protect pressure draws water from the cells
factors therebv
weight loss in times of nutritional deprivation. Other concentration of NaCl in the extracellular fluid,
food
also have been shown to affect long-term hunger and resulting cellular
equalising the osmotic pressure. The work to restore
addition, the
intake regulation including insulin. In hypothalamus) dehydration activates two processes that
biological clock (which is regulated by the normal intracellular water levels.
stimulates hunger. and the animal becomes
The kidneys concentrate the urine
from the limbic bv
thirst caused
Processes from other cerebral loci, such as thirsty and drinks fluids. The tvpe of
on the levels in
Svstem and the cerebral cortex, project
increased osmotic pressure because of increased salt
in
hypothalamus and modify appetite. This explains why
change
the extracellular fluid is called
osmotic thirst.
clinical depression and stress, energy intake can
quite drastically. Hypovolemic Thirst
extracellular
Hypovolemic thirst, occurs, when we lose
Thirst Motivation fluids. Fluid loss results from sweating during exercise
fluids are lost),
Several different conditions can
produce thirst and (sweat is salty because both salts and heavy
caused
thirst is often diarrhea or bleeding, either from an injury or from
motivate drinking behaviour. Although menstrual flow. Like osmotic thirst, hypovolemic thirst
hunger, also result from a
by a biological need, it can, like have been given to describe retention
activates internal changes that cause both water
Psychological need. Two theories
and increased fluid intake.
thirst motivation.
Sleep Motivation
The Dry Mouth Theory
Cannon proposed that we become thirsty Sleeping is a compulsory biological activity of hunan life
In 1934, Walter B
our mouth is dry and that wetting
the processes. Its psychological implications are of great
and drink, when importance for understanding human behaviour.
thirst. Although this may
Ssue of the mouth quenches the evidence does not support
emto be a good hypothesis, the eliminate a dry mouth, Stages of Sleep
it. For Just afew sips of water
example
t We usually drink much more
to satisfy our thirst. Sleep is divided into two broad tvpes: non-rapid eye
glands, movement (non-REM or NREM), sleep and rapid eye
the removal of the salivarynor
addition, neitherpermanently the movement (REM) sleep. Non-REM and REM sleep are so
which causes dry mouth,
a
that cause excessive
salivation haye different that physiologists identify then: as distinct
administration of
drugs
nfluence on the amount of water consumed, when behavioural states. Non-REM sleep oCcurs first. It is
which an animal drinks, followed by a transitional period sleep called slow-wave sleep
thirsty. Sham drinking studies, in stomach,
but ththe water does not reach its indlicate that or deep slep. During this phase, body temnperature and heart
rate fall and the brain uses less energy. REM sleep, also
reduces thirst. Thus,
Wetting the mouth only temporarilyappear to determine
the known as paradoxical sieep, represents a smaller portion of
factors other than a dry mouth
aMount of water we drink.
total sleep time. It is the main occasion for dreams (or
238 UGC NETTutor " Psychology
nightmares) and is associated with desynclhronised and fast brain waves.
eve movements, loss of muscle tone and suspension of homeostasis. Physiological
The sleep cycle of alternate NREM and REM sleep takes an average of 90 Mechanism of Sleep
minutes, occurring 4-6 times in a good night's sleep. Neurons in the brain and brainstem produce
a variety of neurotransmitters which control
There are five stages of sleep: Non-REM sleep (stage 1, 2,3 and 4) and whether one is asleep or awake. When the
REM sleep. Periods of wakefulness occur before and intermittently alerting areas of the brain are most active
throughout various sleep stages or as one shifts sleeping position. Wake is they send arousal signals to the cerebral
the period when brain activityis at its highest and muscle tone is active. cortex while at the same time inhibiting
EEGs play an important role in scientific study of sleep. The stages of sleep activity in other areas of the brain that are
are responsible for promoting sleep, resulting in a
period of stable wakefulness. When the
Stage Characteristics
Stage 1
sleep-promoting areas of the brain are most
Light sleep; transition between waking and sleep: person can be awakened active, they inhibit activity in areas of the
easily: eyes move slowly and muscle activity slows.
Stage 2 Eye movement stop, brain waves become slower and occasional bursts of brain responsible for promoting wakefulness.
rapid waves called sleep spindles. resulting in a period of stable sleep.
Stage 3 Extremely slow brain waves called delta waves are interspersed with smaller The Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus (VLPO
and faster waves.
Stage 4 Brain produces delta waves exclusively and sleep lasts for approximately 30 or VLPN) of the hvpothalamus is one area of
minutes. Stage 3 and 4 are known as deep sleep stages where there is no the brain that is particularlv involved in the
eye niovement or muscle activity. Switch between wakefulness and sleep.
REM sleep Breathing becomes rapid, iregular and shallow; eyes jerk rapidly and limb
muscles are temporarily paralysed.
Neurons in this small area help to promote
sleep by inhibiting activitv in areas of the
Awake brainstem that maintain wakefulness.
Likewise, in a process of 'mutual inhibition'.
during waking hours, those areas of the brain
Alpha activity Beta activity that are active in maintaining wakefulness bv
Stage 1 Sleep
stimulating the cerebral corte alsowork to
inhibit the neurons of the VLPO. Thus,the
Theta activity VLPO is often referred to as the sleep
Switch',
Stage 2 Sleep
Following neurotransmitters are involred in
Sleep driving wakefulness and sleep
spindie K complex Seconds " Histamine sometimes referred to as the
'master waketulness-promoting
Stage 3 Sleep neurotransmitter, exhibits high activity
during wakefulness, decre asing activity
during non-REM sleep and its lowest levels
Delta act1vity
during REM sleep.
" Serotonin wakefulness.
Stage 4 Sleep promotes
increases sleep-onset latencv (the length ot
time it takes to fall asleep) and decrases
REM sleep.
" Acetylcholine activity in the reticular
Delta act1vity brainstem
activating systenm of the
REM Sleep stimulates activity in the forebrain nd
cerebral cortex, encouraging alertness and
be
Theta activity Beta activity wakefulness, although it also appearsto
EEG Recording During Sleep active during REM sleep.
 239
Muscular and Glandular System and BiologicalBehaviour
amount
Dopamine promotes waketulness and sometimes sleep Duringnight, after the body has received a certain
of restorative non-REM sleep, adenosine levels
start to
(it is also involved in the process of dreanming). so its role responsible for
is stilltar from clear. decline. At this point, the systems
Orexin (also called yporetin) regulates arousal, wakefulness start to become more active (i.e. become less
waketulness and appetite. Activation of orexin triggerS inhibited by adenosine) and conditions gradually become
wakefulness, while low levels of orexin at night serve to more favourable to awakening.
drive sleep. A deticiencv of orexin results in sleep-state Towards the end of the night, the secretion of the stress
instabilitv. leading to many short awakenings and hormone cortisol begins to increase in preparation for the
mixed-up REM and non- REM sleep states typical of anticipated stress of theday, usually capped by a particularly
sleep disorders like narcolepsv. large increase (upto 50%) about 20-30 minutes after waking,
Melatonin, also called sleep hormone, is converted from known as the cortisol awakening response.
serotonin in the pineal gland in the brain, under directions
from the bodv's internal circadian clock. Melatonin Sexual Motivation
production increases in the evening, themically causing Sexual behaviour is considered a biological motive as it
drowsiness and helping to lower body temperature and depends on physiological conditions. The following
then decreases back to its normal negligible daytime levels characteristics of serual motivation differentiates it from other
bv the early morming. biological drives
When sleep is called for, the normal signals of wakefulness Sex is not necessary for an individual's survival.
are intermupted at the thalamus, which serves as the Sexual behaviour is not aroused by lack of substances in
gatekeeper' to the cerebral cortex, effectively the body.
disconnecting the cortex from most internal and external In higher animals, sexual motivation is under the
signals. It is largely the thalamus that imparts the regular influence of sensory information from environment.
slow brain waves of deep slow-wave sleep to the cortex, Masters and Johnson divided sexual response into four
rather than the more unsynchronised cortical firing typical phases excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution. The
of the waking state and REM sleep. intensity of sexual urge is dependent upon ser hormones; extennal
REM sleep in particular isregulated in the pons region of stimuli and cultural learning.
the brainstem, where a population of neurons are
selectively active during REM sleep. At the same time as Sex Hormones
acetylcholine neurotransmitters activate this part of the The organisational and activational role of sex hormones are
brainstem, two other areas in the pons are simultaneously responsible for sexual motivation.
inhibited in order for REM sleep to occur.
Grganisational Role of sex Hormones
Inhibitory signals are also sent from the pons tothe spinai It refers to the effect of sex hormones on the structure of the
cord to bring about the temporary atonia or muscle
paralysis that is characteristic of REM sleep. As a result of body and the brain especially the regions of hypothalamus
this, the release of neurotransmitters such as that regulate hormone release. While a person's sex is '
norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine, which normally inherited, the organisation of the body and brain as either
stimulate motor neurons to create muscle activity, is male or female depends on presence of appropriate sex
completely shut down. hormones during early life in womb.
The switching between non-REM and REM sleep during Genes on sex chromosomes start sexual development off in
each sleep cycle is regulated by several complex interactions one direction or the other. Under their influence, a fetus
between various 'REM-on' and 'REM-off neurons, with female sex chromosomes will develop ovaries which
employing different neurotransmitters in various different secrete estrogen (female sex hormone) while a fetus with
regions of the mid-brain and hind-brain, all of which are male sex chromosome will develop testes which secrete
hecessary for the various characteristics of REM sleep to play testosterone (male sex hormone). These hormones then
Out. direct further sexual developnent of body and brain. Later
Ihe homeostatic pressure to sleep is largely regulated by a in life, the sex organs grow rapidly and hornmone release
neurotransmitter and neuromodulator called adenosine, increases markedly. Secondary sexual characteristics like
Which builds up throughout the day and acts to inhibit breast development, body shape, pitch of voice and amount
many of the processes associated with wakefulness. and texture of facial hair etc. develop under influence of
estrogens or testosterone at puberty.
 UGC NET Tutor
240

neurochemicals such
Psychology
Activational Role of Sex Hormones on this categorisation, as
In males, a certain level of testosteron must be present for noradrenaline and serotonin increase or
the brain's activity level to fluctuate andi
decrease,dopami n e,
causing
sexual behaviour to occur at all. Increase above this
gestures and poses.
resultingin changes
Its
threshold have little or no effect on male sexual motivation in body movement, structures include
the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala and
and behaviour. In human females, the activation of sexual
behaviour by estrogen is problematical. Some studies have
hippocampus.
The hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of
sympathetic nervous system, Wnich 1S a part of
shown a peak of sexual interest at midpoint of menstrual emotional reaction.
any
cycle when estrogen levels are high while others indicated
that greatest sexual interest occurs immediately following The thalamus serves as a sensory relay center and its
menstruation when estrogen levels are relatively low. After neurons project signals to both the amygdala and the
menopause, when there an overall reduction in amount of highercortical regions for further processing.
estrogen cirulating in blood, there is little change in The amygdala plays a role in processing emotional
women's sexual drive. information and sending that information on to cortical
structures. The left and right amygdala play a central
Internal Stimuli role in our emotional responses, including feelings like
External stimuli play an important role in activating sexual pleasure, fear, anxiety and anger. The amygdala also
motivation in higher primates and humans. Looks, dressing attaches emotional content to our memories and so plays
style, voices, odor etc. drive sexual behaviour. an important role in determining how robustly those
memories are stored.

Cultural Learning The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with

Much of the variability in human sexual behaviour seems cognition. It is essentially the memory centre of our
due to people's early learning experiences. Wide variation brains. Here, our episodic memories are formed and
exist from person to person in stimuli which will activate catalogued to be filed away in long-term storage across
sexual behaviour and in ways that sexual motivation is other parts of the cerebral cortex. Connections made in
expressed. This all depends on learning experiences. the hippocampus also help us associate memories with
various senses. The hippocampus is also important for
spatial orientation and our ability to navigate the world.
The hippocampus is one site in the brain where new
neurons are made from adult stem cells. This process is
Biological Basis of called neurogenesis and is the basis of one type of brain
Emotions plasticity.
Other parts of the limbic system include the olfactory
Emotions can be explained in biological and neurological bulbs, anterior nuclei, fornix, column of fornix,
terms. The limbic system, autonomic nervous system and mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular
reticular activating system allinteract to assist the body in commissure, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyu
experiencing and processing emotions. limbic cortex and limbic midbrain areas.

The Limbic System Hormonal Regulation

The limbic system also known as paleonommalian cortex is a of Behaviour
collection of brain structures that plays a role in unconscious
bodily functions as well as emotion, learning, memory and In terms of their behaviour, one can think of humans and
behaviour. It is the part of the brain that feels and reacts and other aninmals conceptually comprising thrcee interactins
although it is generally under control of the thinking part of components
the brain, it can react to stimuli on its own. (i) input systems (sensory systems),
The limbic system is the area of the brain most heavily (in) integrators (the central nervous system) and
implicated in emotion and memory. The processes of the (111) output systems, or effectors (e.g. muscles).
limbicsysten control our physical and emotional responses to Hormones do not cause behavioural changes. Katrnet
environmental stimuli. This system categorises the experience hormones influence these three systems so that specific
in the
of an emotion as a pleasant or unpleasant mental state. Based stimuli are more likely to elicit certain responseS
appropriate behavioural or social context.
 Muscular and Glandular System and Biological Behaviour 241

Inother words, hormones change the probability that a

purticular
eituation. behaviour will bedistinction
This is a critical emited in thethatappropriante
can affect Genetics and Behaviour
how we think of hormone-behaviour relationships. Every cell of body have a genetic blueprint that enables it to
This scientific study of the interaction between performn its essential functions. This information is contained
hormones and behaviour is known as behavioural in chromosomes, thread like structures found in the nuclei of
endocrinology. nearly all cells. Chromosomes are composed of DNA,
(Deoxyribo Nucleic acid).
This interaction is bidirectional i.e. hormones can
influence behaviour and behaviour can sometimes The DNA is composed of several simpler component arranged
Chromosomes contain thousands
influence hormone concentrations. Hormones in the form of double helix.
coordinate the physiclogy and behaviour of individuals of genes, segments of DNA that serves as basic units of
bv regulating, integrating and controlling bodily heredity. Our genes working in complex combination and
functions. together with forces in the environment, ultimately determine
many aspect of our biological make up.
These are the chemical messengers released from
endocrine glands that travel through the blood system to Most cells in the human body contain 46 chromosomes
influence the nervous system to regulate behaviours existing in pair. When such cells divide, the chromosome pairs
such as aggression, mating and parenting of individuals. splits, then after the cells have separated each chromosome
replicate itself so that the full number is restored. This cell
Examples of hormones that influence behaviour include division is known as mitosis. In contrast sperm and ova, male
steroid hormones and peptide hormones. The prominent and female sex cell contains only 23 chromosomes. Thus, when
hormones that influence behaviour are they join to form a fertilised ovum, from which new human
Hormone Effect on Behaviour being will develop, the full number (46) is attained.
Steroid Hormones
Cortisol Act indirectly on the quality of maternal care by
evoking an increase in the mother's general level of
ChromosomalAnomalies
arousal, thus increasing her responsiveness to Chromosomal anomalies refers to disorders caused due to
infantgenerated cues. absence or excess or abnormal arrangements of one or more
Estrogen It is a group of primary female sex hormones chromosomes.
synthesised in the ovaries and are responsible for
sexual behaviour in females.
It also regulates general behaviour in humans as it Numerical Abnormalities
has been found to play a role in behavioural The chromosomal anomalies that occur due to absence or
inhibition and controlling dangerous or unwanted
behaviours in them.
excess of one or more chromosomes are called numerical
It promotes a sense of separateness, aggression, abnormalities.
Testosterone sexual motivation and behaviour in males,
assertiveness and self-confidence and violent, This gain or loss of chromosome occur due to failure of
criminal or psychotic behaviour. segregation of chromotids during cell division cycle.
Protein and Peptide Hormone This is called aneuploidy (an abnormal number of
Kisseptin It drives sexual behaviour by influencing sex chromosomes).The total number of chromosomes in a normal
hormone secretion. Also it regulates social human cellis 46 (23 pairs). Out of these 22 pairs are autosomes
behaviour as it acts as an antidepressant in males,
reduces fear in males, can induce or reduce anxiety and one pair of chromosomes are sex chromosome. Sometimes,
in males, increases male brain activity in processing though rarely, either an additional copy of a chromosome may
parts of the brain for sex drive and increases activity
be included in an individual or an individual may lack one of
in brain for male bonding.
any one pair of chromosomes. These situations are known as
Adrenaline It is known as the fight or tlight hormone and
trisomy or monosomy of a chromosome, respectively.
(Epinephrine) increases overall muScular function, increases
awareness, excitability, desire and emotion.
Trisomy Atrisomy, a form of aneuploidy, is a type of polysomy
Oxytocin It stimulates milk letdown and uterine contractions
during birth and promotes sOcial bonding. in which there are three copies of a particular chromosome,
Prolactin instead of the normal two. For example If an individual is born
It influences behaviour associated with parental
care.
with three 21 chromosomes rather than the ususal pair, the
individual is said tohave trisomy 21.
242 UGC NET Tutor" Psychology

Trisomy can OCCUr in both autosomal and Sex (ii) Translocations A portion of one chromoOSome i.
chromosomes. Autosomal trisomy can be associated with transferred to another chromosome. There are two mei.
birth defects, intellectual disability and shortened life types of translocations
expectancy.The most common types of autosomal trisomy Reciprocal Translocation Segments from tyo
that survive to birth in humans are Trisomy 21 (Down different chromosomes have been exchanged.
syndrome), Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome), Trisomy l3 Robertsonian Translocation An entire
(Patau syndrome), Trisomy 9 and Trisomy 8 (Warkany chromosome gets attached to another at the
syndrome 2) Trisomy of sex chromosomes can also occur centromere. In humans these only OCCur with
and include XXX (Triple X syndrome), XXY (Klinefelter chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22.
syndrome) and XYY. Compared to trisomy of the (iv) Inversions A portion of the chromosome has broken
autosomal chromosomes, trisomy of the sex chromosomes off, turned upside down and reattached, therefore the
normally has less severe consequences. Individuals may genetic material is inverted.
show few or no symptoms and have a normal life
(v) Insertions A portion of one chromosome has been
expectancy. deleted from its normal place and inserted into another
Monosomy Monosomy is a form of aneuploidy with the chromosome.
presence of only one chromosome from a pair. Thus, there is (vi) RingsA portion of a chromosome has broken off and
a total of 45 chromosomes in each cell of the body rather formed a circle or ring. This can happen with or
than 46. When a portion of one chromosome in a pair is without loss of genetic material.
missing, it is said to be partial monosomy. Human (vii) Isochromosome Formed by the mirror image copy of
conditions due to monosomy are as follows. a chromosome segment including the centromere.
" Turner Syndrome People with Turner syndrome Chromosome instability syndromes are a group of
typically have one X chromosome instead of the usual disorders characterised by chromosomal instability
two sex chromosomes. Turner syndrome is the only full
monosomy that is seen in humans all other cases of full and breakage. They often lead to an increased
tendency to develop certain types of malignancies.
monosomy are lethal and the individual will not survive
development. Nature Nurture Theory
" Cri du Chat Syndrome A partial monosomy caused by a
deletion of the end of the short arm of chromosome 5. Our genetic destiny is not necessarily written in stone; it can
be influenced by several factor, such as social factors as well
lp36 Deletion Syndrome A partial monosomy caused as the environmental influences among which we live. Long
by a deletion at the end of the short arm of chromosome 1.
standing debates have taken place over the idea of whicn
The
factor is more inportant, genes or environment.
StructuralAbnormalities psychologist use many different method to address it. Iwo
When the chromosome's structure is altered, it can take of these, have been most useful-twin studies and adoptio
several forms which are as follows studies.
(i) Deletions A portion of the chromosome is missing or
deleted. Known disorders in humans include Twin Studies
Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial the relative rolesof
deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4 and Twin studies are helpfulin disentangling
genetic and environmental factor in a given form
Jacobsen syndrome, also called the terminal 1lq deletion behaviour. Identical twins share all the same genes wi
disorder.
fraternal twins do not. Under normal conditions, howeve
(ii) Duplications A portion of the chromosome is both kinds of twins are raised in environment that,
duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material. Known identical are very similar. The twins are raised in sa
human disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease home, attend same school and so on, Thus, if a given aspe
then
type 1A, which may be caused by duplication of the of behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic factor,closel'
more
gene encoding peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) the identical twins will resenmble each other
on chromosome 17. than fraternal twins:
Muscular and Glandular System and BiologicalBehaviour 243

Adoption Studies Adoption studies have to use adopted children as their

sample and this is a group that may not be very
Adoption studies look at the impact of nurturing on representative of other children. For one thing, these
children who are raised by parents who are not their
children have been separated from the biological parents,
biological parents. perhaps through tragic circumstances or because their
As there is no biological connection between the parent and biological parents, ´gave them up' due to difficult
the child, if the child grows up to share the parent's traits (or circumstances. Child Psychologists like John Bowlby argue
the traits of their step-brothers or step-sisters who are that children are bodly affected if they are separated from
biologically related to the parents), then these traits are their mother during a critical period in infancy. If this
probably produced by nurture. happens to adopted children, it would make them even less
represerntative of children in general.