Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code - ESC-101

Semester -

Unit 2

Model Institute of
Engineering & Technology
 Course Outcomes

Course Description Mapping with

Outcomes Program
Outcomes
CO1 Apply fundamental concepts to solve simple DC 1,2,3,4,6,12
and AC electric circuits.

CO2 Examine sinusoidal waveforms and classify 1,2,3,4,6,7,9,11,1

measuring instruments
2
CO3 Explain the construction and principle of operation 1,2,3,4,6,12
of single phase transformers and DC Machines.
CO4 Understand the characteristics of semiconductor 1,2,3,4,6,12
devices and rectifier circuits.

CO5 Interpret the principle of various transistor 1,2,3,4,6,12

configurations and characteristics.
Assessment and Evaluation Plan

Assessment Tools Evaluation

 Assignment  20 marks
 Sessionals  20 marks
 Attendance  10 marks
 External Exam  100 marks
Course Outcome 4-Delivery Plan

Course Topics Blooms

Outcomes Taxonomy

Introduction to sinusoidal waveforms Understand

CO2 Discussion of various circuits used for ac analysis Understand

Classification of measuring instruments Understand

 Course Details

Section-A
Unit 2: Representation of Sinusoidal Waveforms: Peak and RMS
values, Phasor representation, Real power, Reactive power, apparent
power, power factor. Analysis of single-phase AC circuits.
Classification of Instruments: Operating principle of Measuring
Instruments.

5
Outcomes of Today’s Lecture

 To understand sinusoidal waveforms and analysis various ac circuits

 AC Fundamentals

Alternating Voltage and Current.

Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current
Important A.C. Terminology
Important A.C. Terminology

•Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is
known
as a cycle.
•Time period (T): The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating
quantity is called its time period. It is generally represented by T.

•Frequency (f):The number of cycles that occur in one second is called the frequency
(f) of the alternating quantity. It is measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz).

•Amplitude: The maximum value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating

quantity is called its amplitude or peak value. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or
current is designated by Vm (or Em) or Im.
Alternating Voltage representation
Peak Value

• It is represented by Vm or Im
 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

The average value of alternating current (or voltage)

means half-cycle average value unless stated otherwise.
Average Value of Sinusoidal Current
R.M.S. or Effective Value

The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady

current (d.c.) which when flowing through a given resistance for a
given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same resistance for the
same time.
R.M.S. or Effective Value
R.M.S. or Effective Value
R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current
R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current
R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current
Form Factor and Peak Factor

𝑅.𝑀.𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Form Factor = = 1.11
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Peak Factor = = 1.414
𝑅.𝑀.𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Phase

A phase of a particular value of an alternating quantity is the fractional part of

time or cycle through which the quantity has advanced from the selected zero
position of reference.
Phase Difference

When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
points, they are said to have a phase difference.
Phasor Representation

The length of the phasor represents the maximum value and the angle
with axis of reference (i.e., X-axis) indicates the phase of the alternating
quantity i.e. current in this case.
Phasor Representation
Phasor Diagram of Sine Waves of Same Frequency
 Addition of Phasors

The addition of alternating currents or voltages can be

accomplished by one of the following methods :

1. Parallelogram method
2. Rectangular method
Parallelogram method
 Rectangular method

So the addition of two vectors, A and B using the previous generalised

expression is as follows:
Phasor Addition using Rectangular Form

 Voltage, V2 of 30 volts points in the reference direction along the horizontal

zero axis, then it has a horizontal component but no vertical component as
follows.
• Horizontal Component = 30 cos 0o = 30 volts
• Vertical Component = 30 sin 0o = 0 volts
This then gives us the rectangular expression for voltage V2 of: 30 + j0
Voltage, V1 of 20 volts leads voltage, V2 by 60o, then it has both horizontal
and vertical components as follows.
• Horizontal Component = 20 cos 60o = 20 x 0.5 = 10 volts
• Vertical Component = 20 sin 60o = 20 x 0.866 = 17.32 volts
Phasor Addition using Rectangular Form

This then gives us the rectangular expression for voltage V1 of: 10 + j17.32

The resultant voltage, VT is found by adding together the horizontal and

vertical components as follows.

VHorizontal = sum of real parts of V1 and V2 = 30 + 10 = 40 volts

VVertical = sum of imaginary parts of V1 and V2 = 0 + 17.32 = 17.32 volts

 Now that both the real and imaginary values have been found the
magnitude of voltage, VT is determined by simply using Pythagoras’s
Theorem for a 90o triangle as follows.
Phasor Addition using Rectangular Form

Then the resulting

phasor diagram will
be:
 Phasor subtraction using Rectangular Form

Only change lies in:

However, all the calculations for getting VT is the same as the addition of two
vectors.
Analysis of Single-phase AC

This analysis can be done on the following AC circuits:

1. A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

2. A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Inductance Only
3. A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance Only
4. R-L Series A.C. Circuit
5. R-C Series A.C. Circuit
6. R-L-C Series A.C. Circuit
A.C. Circuit Containing resistance only

Fig. Phasor Diag.

A.C. Circuit Containing resistance only
A.C. Circuit Containing Inductance only
A.C. Circuit Containing Inductance only

As,
and

Fig. Phasor Diag.

Hence in a pure inductance, the current lags the voltage by

90º
A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance only
A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance only

As,
and

Fig. Phasor Diag.

Hence in a pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90º.

4 R-L series A.C. circuit
Fig. Phasor Diag.
Phase Angle

Thus, in an inductive circuit, current lags behind the applied voltage

 Impedance
The total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a circuit is
called impedance Z of the circuit. In R-L series circuit,

Admittance (Y).

The admittance of an a.c. circuit is its ability to pass current through it.
Admittance of an a.c. circuit is the reciprocal of its impedance i.e.
 Apparent, True and Reactive Powers

In an inductive circuit in which circuit current I lags behind the applied voltage V by
Φ°. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. below. The current I can be
resolved into two rectangular components viz.
(i) I Cos Φ in phase with V.
(ii) I Sin Φ ; 90° out of phase with V.
 Apparent, True and Reactive Powers

a.) Apparent Power

The total power that appears to be transferred between the source and load is called
apparent power. It is equal to the product of applied voltage (V) and circuit current (I)
i.e.
Apparent power,
It is measured in volt-ampers (VA).
Apparent power has two components: True power and Reactive power
 Apparent, True and Reactive Powers

b.) True Power or Real Power or Active power

The power which is actually consumed in the circuit is called true power or
real power or active power. It is the useful component of apparent power.

The product of voltage (V) and component of total current in phase with
voltage (I cos Φ) is equal to true power i.e.
 Apparent, True and Reactive Powers

c.) Reactive power

The component of apparent power which is neither consumed nor does any
useful work in the circuit is called reactive power

The product of voltage (V) and component of total current 90° out of phase
with voltage (I sin Φ) is equal to reactive power i.e.

It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). The component I Sin Φ is called

the reactive component (or wattless component) and contributes to reactive power
(i.e. VI Sin Φ)
 Power Factor

In a resistor, the current and voltage are in phase i.e. Φ = 0°. Therefore,
power factor of a pure resistive circuit is Cos 0° = 1.

Similarly, phase difference between voltage and current in a pure inductance

or capacitance is 90°. Hence power factor of pure L or C is zero. For a circuit
having R, L and C in varying, the value of power factor will lie between 0 and
1.
Thus power factor of a circuit is a measure of its effectiveness in
utilizing the apparent power drawn by it.

The greater the power factor of a circuit, the greater is its ability to utilize the
apparent power
5 R-C series A.C. circuit
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of two voltage drops i.e.
Phase Angle

Thus, in an capacitive circuit, current leads the applied voltage

6 R-L-C series A.C. circuit
Resonance in A.C. Circuits
An a.c. circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in
resonance when the circuit power factor is unity.

• Series resonance

• Parallel resonance

• Resonant frequency (fr).

Resonance in Series A.C. Circuit
A series R-L-C a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance when circuit
power factor is unity

Resonance will occur in this circuit when circuit power factor is

unity. This will happen when XL = XC.

The resonant frequency (fr) for R – L – C series a.c. circuit is

defined as the frequency at which XL = XC.
 Measuring Instrument

Measurement:
Quantity comparison between a predefine standard and given value.

Instrument:
Instrument is a device which is used to determine the preset value of a quantity
under observation
 Classification of Measuring
Instruments

Absolute Instrument :
Quantity comparison between a predefine standard and given value.

Secondary Instrument:
Instrument is a device which is used to determine the preset value of a quantity
under observation

Types of Secondary:

•Indicating
•Recording
•Integrating
Thank You