Laser Welding of Tailored Blanks Made of Al-Si-coa

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:2691–2704
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-10921-4
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Laser welding of tailored blanks made of Al‑Si‑coated 22MnB5 steel

using a filler wire and a variable energy distribution laser optics
Donato Coviello1 · Jana von der Heydt2 · Lorenzo Rullo3 · Michael Keßler2 · Mariarosaria De Vito3 ·
Antonio D’Angola1 · Donato Sorgente1
Received: 13 August 2022 / Accepted: 14 January 2023 / Published online: 25 January 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
Laser welding of Al-Si-coated steels for hot stamping in automotive applications is problematic due to the mixing of the
coating layers inside the molten pool that weakens the resulting weld seam. In this case, the most common welding procedure
to overcome this issue consists in removing the Al-Si layer through laser ablation prior to the joining. This method continues
to be the most widely used by major producers of tailor welded blanks, although in situ ablation of the Al-Si coating can
be costly and time consuming. In this work, a novel approach consisting in joining as-received (i.e., not decoated) materi-
als using a filler wire and an innovative variable energy distribution laser optics is introduced and tested on tailor welded
blanks made of 22MnB5. Tensile tests of specimens obtained from a 33 full factorial design of experiment have shown an
average value of ultimate tensile strength of 1523 MPa, which is much higher than the one usually observed in as-received
welded then hot-stamped conditions and aligned with hot-stamped base material values. Hardness test results (494–543
HV0.5) were in the typical hot-stamped base material range of values as well, while SEM–EDS analyses detected no ferrite
inclusions inside the fusion zone. Variations of the main process parameters have been considered on an iso-thickness and
iso-material configuration, empirically demonstrating the stability and reliability of the proposed methodology as well as
its suitability for production purposes.
Keywords Tailor welded blanks (TWB) · Al-Si-coated 22MnB5 steel · Laser welding · Press hardened steel · Laser
ablation
1 Introduction the energy usage in order to guarantee longer ranges of

autonomy per battery charge [3–7]. For these reasons, the
In the last decades, automotive manufacturers are facing the development of lightweight solutions for the vehicle body-
very hard challenge to design more and more comfortable in-white through the application of both more strength mate-
and safe cars preserving the vehicle overall weight [1, 2]. rials and tailored blanks technologies is mandatory nowa-
Weight reduction is the key factor for the decrease in fuel days [8–10]. Consequently, the use of advanced
consumption which is fundamental for all kinds of vehicles, high-strength steels (AHSS), and in particular its subfamily
both with internal combustion engines and with electric of ultra-high-strength steels (UHSS), is growing much more
ones. Indeed, if the former have to satisfy more and more than forecast due to the capability of these grades of steel to
restrictive regulations for environmental pollution and reach lightweighting targets without the critical issues of
greenhouse gas emissions, the latter have to fully optimize other alternative materials (e.g., aluminum, magnesium, tita-
nium) [11–18]. Typical UHSS problems related to limited
formability and significant springback at room temperature
* Donato Sorgente have been overcome for press hardened steels (PHS) thanks
[email protected] to hot stamping, which takes advantage of the high formabil-
1
School of Engineering, Università degli Studi della ity properties of the austenitic phase at high temperatures
Basilicata, Via Ateneo Lucano, 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy [19]. While the as-delivered PHS at room temperature con-
2
Baosteel Tailored Blanks GmbH, Duisburg, Germany sists of ferrite and pearlite with iron in a body-centered cubic
3 (BCC) lattice, the heating at a temperature between 900 and
Baosteel Tailored Blanks Srl, Tito Scalo, PZ, Italy
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
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2692 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:2691–2704
950 °C makes the steel completely austenitized and charac- the laser beam properties required by the ablation step are
terized by a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice. Finally, the so different from those for the welding process that are
stamping/quenching step ensures the transformation of the impossible to obtain by the same laser source. In other simi-
steel microstructure into full martensitic one [20]. The use lar approaches, the use of Ni foils as an interlayer between
of PHS by carmakers has spread out in the last few years, the two sheets to be joined [36–38] or as an additive coating
and the demand will continue to increase according to future layer on the sheets [39] has been evaluated. Ni is a strong
forecasts [20]. The most commonly employed PHS is austenite-stabilizer element, acting in this way similarly to
22MnB5, which is a low-carbon steel grade with manganese carbon filler wire. However, the application of interlayered
and boron alloying. PHS are widely used with an Al-Si coat- foils does not allow direct control of the FZ geometry since
ing layer, necessary to protect the austenitized sheet from the variation of thickness of Ni foils has not a significant
oxide scale formation and decarburization at the surface dur- influence on the shape of welded joints [37]. Moreover, the
ing the hot stamping heat treatment [21, 22]. For the optimal solution of an additive Ni surface layer, which has been
exploitation of the lightweight potential of these steel grades, tested only in bead-on-plate tests [39], could be difficult and
their use as tailored welded blanks (TWB, i.e., two or more time-consuming on butt joints for real industrial applica-
sheets of different materials and/or thicknesses joined tions. Other approaches have been developed trying to elimi-
through a laser beam before stamping) is a viable solution. nate the Al-Si layer without a real decoating procedure but
TWB guarantee also an optimized employment of material through a preheating treatment [40] or the application of a
usage [23, 24]. However, it is well known that Al-Si coating colloidal graphite coating [41, 42]. The former consists in
causes issues in the laser welding process since Al contami- heating the steel sheet prior to laser welding reaching a tem-
nates the molten pool causing the presence of ferrite into the perature of 800 °C that allows the evaporation of Al-Si coat-
martensite microstructure of the hot-stamped fusion zone ing but preserves the underlying Fe-Al intermetallic layer
(FZ) that weakens the strength of the weld seam [23, 25–29]. [40]. Although it is effective, this method is time-consuming
Up to now, several different methodologies have been tested and implies anyway an additional step in the manufacturing
in an attempt to solve this problem both with and without the process. In addition, the oxidative effects of a preheating
Al-Si layer removal. In industrial applications, the most used treatment of large portions of steel could represent an issue
method consists in removing the Al-Si coating by means of in the following heating for the hot stamping that has not
ablation before welding through a specific Q-switched been investigated yet. The latter method uses a colloidal
pulsed laser. This method can preserve efficaciously the graphite additional coating on the steel that serves both as
underlying Fe-Al intermetallic layer that faces the steel sub- an austenite stabilizer and an agent for in situ ablation of the
strate, continuing to guarantee minimum protection of the molten Al-Si coating. Indeed, the additional coating, having
treated area against oxidation [30]. Nevertheless, the popu- a vaporization temperature higher than Al-Si coating, brings
larity of laser ablation does not imply necessarily that it is an increase of pressure of the underlying coating that finally
the most efficient way to resolve this issue [23]. Generally, explodes. This method is effective for bead-on-plate joints
coating removal is to be considered not desirable because it with the highest considered thicknesses of graphite coating
entails additional steps and equipment increasing times and [41]. Nevertheless, as already observed before, the applica-
costs of the manufacturing process. For these reasons, the tion and measurement of a coating thickness in the order of
latest attempts are all oriented toward methods that avoid 10−4 ÷ 10−5 m could be difficult in a real production process
ablation as well as any other decoating procedure. Some of with butt joint configuration of different thicknesses sheets.
these are based on the addition of filler material in the form Moreover, the final appearance of the areas adjacent to the
of a wire inside the FZ [31–35]. The results reported in the weld seam should be investigated since violent spurts of the
literature have shown an effective improvement of the molten Al-Si coating ejected from the weld pool have been
mechanical properties of the joints with filler wire compared observed with the application of the graphite coating. Other
to those welded without in hot-stamped condition. The addi- interesting approaches consist in enlarging the laser spot on
tion of filler wire also allows better control of the weld seam the workpiece surface through beam defocusing [43], the use
geometry thanks to the possibility to properly adjust the wire of optics with higher focal length [44], with particular beam
feeding speed. It could be noticed that by using filler mate- modules, e.g., collateral dual-beam module [45], or with a
rial, the cost of processing will likely increase due to two laser beam oscillation [46, 47]. In addition, a characteristic
main reasons: first, the direct cost of consumables needed Y-shaped weld section, instead of the common X-shaped (or
for the joining process; and second, the additional capital hourglass-shaped) FZ, could be achieved through beam
cost of acquiring the filler wire feeding equipment for the defocusing [43] or setting the process parameters in the nar-
laser welding station. However, these costs result much row range of values that allows to weld in the particular
lower than the capital cost of acquiring and powering the closed (or blind) keyhole condition [48, 49]. Indeed, the
additional laser source for the Al-Si layer ablation. Indeed, weld pool resulting from laser welding with closed keyhole
13

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:2691–2704 2693
experiences less fierce flows than the one with open keyhole Table 2 Specification of cutting and welding laser systems
due to the tighter width of the flow channel around the lower Cutting laser Welding laser
part of the keyhole. This results in a contamination of the
weld pool due almost entirely to the top coating and Laser welding source Trumpf TruDisk Laserline LDF
6001 disk laser 9000–40 diode
restricted to the upper portion of the FZ [48]. However, the
laser
mechanical properties of these kinds of weld in butt joint
Laser wavelength (nm) 1030 900–1080
configuration and hot-stamped conditions, i.e., those of a
Beam parameter product, 4 40
final TWB press-hardened part, should be better investi- BPP (mm·mrad)
gated. In this work, a novel patent-pending method for the
laser welding of as-received Al-Si-coated PHS combining
the use of a characteristic filler wire with an innovative laser 2 Materials and methods
beam optic module is presented and evaluated. This original
approach is in the running to be a valid alternative to current 2.1 Materials and specimen preparation
procedures since it simplifies the entire production process
of TWB for hot stamping avoiding any additional decoating Laser welding tests were carried out on 1.5-mm-thick
step before welding. The reliability of this procedure is MBW 1500 PHS steel sheets provided by ThyssenKrupp.
tested considering butt joint (i.e., not bead-on-plate) con- This is a 22MnB5 steel coated with an Al-Si protective
figurations between two metal sheets of the same material layer with an average thickness of 30 µm (chemical com-
and the same thickness. It is important to notice that almost positions of both steel and coating in Table 1). Rectan-
the whole of TWB production for automotive purposes is gular sheet samples of 220 × 150 m m 2 were cut on one
obtained by the joint of sheets made of different materials of the longer sides with a Trumpf TruDisk 6001 disk
and/or with different thicknesses, i.e., with different mechan- laser whose beam was oriented to obtain a cut angle of
ical responses of the joined parts. Therefore, the evaluation 9° (Fig. 1a). Butt-joint configurations, wherein the laser
of the strength of a weld seam in an iso-material and iso- cut sides were pulled together with no gap (Fig. 1b), were
thickness butt-welding configuration should be more signifi- joined with a Laserline LDF 9000–40 diode laser with
cant since it represents the most challenging case for the no shield/assisting gas. The specifications of both cutting
welded joint. The main results of mechanical and chemical and welding lasers are listed in Table 2. The peculiarity
investigations of a wide experimental campaign are analyzed of this laser welding process lies in using both a filler
in order to find the optimal combination of process param- wire and an innovative variable energy distribution (VED)
eters. The testing with slight variations of the main process optic module. The former is a 1.0-mm-diameter austenite
parameters allows to verify the stability of this welding pro- stabilizing filler wire (chemical composition in Table 1)
cedure, as well as its suitability to be employed for produc- and is fed to the molten pool in front of the laser beam
tion purposes. Indeed, little alterations of optimal process with a feeding angle of 30° and at a feeding height of
parameters due to unexpected events should be borne on 1.2 mm from the workpiece surface (Fig. 2). The latter is
production lines without irremediably compromising the a multi-spot laser optics (focusing length: 250 mm) that
weld quality. splits the laser beam in an inner circular spot with higher
Table 1 Chemical compositions [Weight %] C Mn Si S P Ni Cr Ti Al B Mo Fe

of base material and protective
coating MBW 1500 0.22 1.28 0.23 0.01 0.01 – 0.23 0.06 0.31 0.005 max 0.01 Bal
base material
Al-Si coating – – 11.12 – – – – – 87.73 – – 1.14
Filler wire 0.05–0.4 0–3.0 0–2.0 – – 5–12 4–25 – – – 0–0.5 Bal
Fig. 1 Schemes of laser cut 9°

on sheet samples (a) and their
positioning for laser welding (b) (a) (b)
(dimensions in mm)
1.5 1.5
150 300
13

power densities and an outer squared one with lower power

densities (black dashed circle and white dashed square in
Fig. 3, respectively). In order to simulate the hot-stamp-
ing heat treatment, TWB samples were heated to a tem-
perature of 910 °C for 7 min in a Carbolite Gero CWF
13/65 furnace and quenched for 28 s in a Schütz + Licht
ZS1200CN hydraulic press equipped with a room tem-
perature running-water-cooled tool that ensures a cooling
rate of 27 °C/s.
2.2 Experimental plan and test procedures
A 3 3 full factorial design of experiment (DoE) was

planned centering the plan from a process configuration
with the following input data: welding speed v W of 6 m/
min, wire speed v F of 4 m/min (adimensional ratio v W/
v F = 1.5), laser power P L of 6.2 kW (heat input Q = P L/
v W = 62 J/mm), and defocusing distance 3.0 mm. This
configuration was selected after a preliminary experi-
mental campaign aimed at achieving welds that do not
show visual defects, e.g., undercut and concavity of the Fig. 3 Example of a laser beam configuration with the VED optic
module: inner circular spot (black dashed circle) and outer squared
weld seam. The considered factors for DoE were vW, vW/
one (white dashed square)
vF, and Q, while no changes were made on laser defocus-
ing. Table 3 shows the levels considered for each factor
for the experimental plan. For each configuration, three based on the displacement measurements of the movable
replications were made for a total of 81 overall welded crosshead rather than on extensometer measurements.
samples, and none of them showed macroscopic defects of Although it gives approximate absolute elongation val-
the weld seam. Tensile specimens with the centered trans- ues since it takes into account also the machine jaws and
versal weld seam and dimensions indicated in Fig. 4 were crosshead deformations, this method was considered more
sheared from TWB as-quenched samples and mechani- reliable in order to have comparable results between all
cally side-grinded to eliminate any crack starting point. tensile tests of the experimental campaign. Indeed, failures
For the comparison between DoE configurations, three inside the tensile specimen parallel length (120 mm) but
tensile tests for each configuration were carried out on outside the gauge length of the extensometer (87.5 mm)
an Instron 5982 universal testing machine at a speed of happened affecting the strain measurement comparabil-
2 mm/min. Elongation results for DoE comparisons were ity with the extensometer for those tests. Nevertheless,
beyond the comparison between all DoE configurations,
additional tensile tests were carried out in the same condi-
tions but with more precise absolute strain measurements
with an extensometer for the most relevant configurations.
Welding direction Ultimate tensile strength (UTS, MPa), elongation to UTS
(δUTS, mm), and elongation to failure (δf, mm) results were
Laser analyzed in order to evaluate the mechanical behavior of
beam welded joints in a wide range of process parameters. Fur-
Filler wire ther metallographic analyses comprising macrographs,
feeder Filler hardness tests, and chemical analyses were made on the
wire
Feeding Defocusing Table 3 Levels for each factor of the 33 full factorial DoE
height distance vW (m/min) vW/vF Q (J/mm)
Feeding angle
Level 1 5.5 1.25 56
Level 2 6.0 1.50 62
Level 3 6.5 1.75 70
Fig. 2 Scheme of the welding configuration with filler wire
13

total of 5 areas analyzed per cross-section, as schematized

in Fig. 5a. Hardness analyses ( HV0.5) based on three test
series of 30 hardness points for each one (i.e., a total of 90
hardness points evaluated for each weld bead section) were
conducted on the hardness tester Qness Q30 A + following
the scheme of Fig. 5b.
3 Results and discussion
Fig. 4 Tensile specimen from TWB samples with dimensions (mm) 3.1 Statistical analyses on tensile test results
Figure 6 shows scatterplots related to UTS and elongation

configurations with the best and the worst mechanical results of the tensile testing campaign. The first important
results. For all these analyses, cross-sections were cut consideration is that UTS values are all above 1400 MPa
transversally to the as-quenched weld seam with a pre- with an average value of 1523 MPa that is much higher than
cision cutting machine (Struers Secotom-50), mounted those observed in the literature in as-received welded then
with the mounting press Struers CitoPress-30, and then hot-stamped (ARWHS) conditions (1129 ± 75 MPa) and
ground and polished with the automatic polisher Struers aligned with those of hot-stamped base material (HSBM)
Tegramin-25. Finally, specimens were etched with a 2% (1527 ± 26 MPa) [23]. Scatterplots show also a good lin-
Nital solution for 5–10 s. Cross-sections were observed by ear correlation between UTS and elongation values (Pear-
the Nikon Eclipse MA200 optical microscope for macro- son correlation coefficient ρ = 0.75 between UTS and δUTS,
graphic analysis. High-magnification images and elemen- ρ = 0.69 between UTS and δf); for this reason, the latter will
tal analyses with a secondary electron detector (SED) were be neglected in the following analyses for the identification
conducted on the scanning electron microscope (SEM) of the most optimal configuration. In Table 4, the process
with energy dispersive spectroscope (EDS) JEOL JSM- parameters of the experimental plan are reported together
IT500HR, using a landing voltage of 20 kV in high-vac- with the results of UTS averaged on the three tensile test rep-
uum mode. SEM–EDS analyses were performed in the lications per configuration. Figure 7 shows boxplots of UTS
most critical zones for the ferrite formation in the FZ for a results considering the variations of DoE factors. For all of
Fig. 5 Schemes of position of (a) (b)

SEM–EDS investigated areas
(upper left (UL), upper right UL UR
(UR), central zone (C), lower
left (LL), lower right (LR)) (a)
and hardness test series (b) on a C
generic cross-section
LL LR
Fig. 6 Scatterplots of ten-

a 10 b
sile tests overall results of 9
UTS − δUTS (a) and UTS − δf (b) 8.5 = 0.75

= 0.69
with related Pearson correlation 9
coefficients ρ
8
7.5 8
[mm]
[mm]
7
7
UTS
6.5
6 6
5.5
5
5
4.5 4
1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
UTS [MPa] UTS [MPa]
13

them, no statistically significant differences were registered 22MnB5 has been already extensively studied [50, 51].
in UTS values considering their variations with a confidence The variation of the austenitizing temperature and/or hold
level of 95%. However, the lowest levels of both vW/vF and time results in a change of the major constituent in the coat-
Q could be preferable due to the lower scattering and higher ing from Fe2Al5 to a layered structure of FeAl, Fe3Al, and
repeatability of results. The solutions that registered respec- Fe(Al) and a variation in the thickness of the interdiffusion
tively the highest and the lowest average values of UTS, i.e., layer. In particular, the interdiffusion layer considering an
configurations “O” (1562 MPa) and “E” (1482 MPa), were austenitizing heat treatment at a temperature of 900 °C for
selected for further analyses. These configurations differ for 6.5 min (i.e., condition close to that of this study, and more
vW and Q values (both higher for configuration “O”) but generally to industrial hot stamping processes) is character-
maintain the same intermediate level for vW/vF. ized by α-Fe(Al), Fe3Al, FeAl, Fe2Al5, and a Fe-Al-Si ter-
nary intermetallic phase [50]. It was already observed that
3.2 Microstructural evolution, macrographs, the presence of the Al-Si coating promotes the formation
and SEM–EDS analysis of ferrite into the FZ [23, 25–29]. In particular, the coating
mixing is most noticeable along the fusion boundaries, i.e.,
The microstructure of the 22MnB5 steel in the as-received at the FZ-BM interface, where ferrite was formed as a con-
condition is mainly composed of ferrite, pearlite, and a tinuous structure due to the effect of Marangoni convection
small amount of martensite at the grain boundaries, while flow [27, 52, 53]. These comet-shaped segregation zones
the typical morphology of lath martensite can be observed show a single-phase F e3(Al,Si) microstructure and are char-
in the hot-stamped condition [27]. The microstructural acterized by high Al concentrations (8.24–15.10 wt.%) in
evolution at the steel-coating interface for Al-Si-coated the ARWHS condition [54]. The hot-stamping process can
Table 4 DoE experimental plan Configuration vW (m/min) vW/vF Q (J/mm) vF (m/min) PL (kW) Aver-
age UTS
(MPa)
A 5.50 1.25 56 4.40 5.13 1520

B 5.50 1.25 62 4.40 5.68 1542
C 5.50 1.25 70 4.40 6.42 1544
D 5.50 1.50 56 3.67 5.13 1540
E 5.50 1.50 62 3.67 5.68 1482
F 5.50 1.50 70 3.67 6.42 1527
G 5.50 1.75 56 3.14 5.13 1532
H 5.50 1.75 62 3.14 5.68 1550
I 5.50 1.75 70 3.14 6.42 1544
J 6.00 1.25 56 4.80 5.60 1518
K 6.00 1.25 62 4.80 6.20 1519
L 6.00 1.25 70 4.80 7.00 1531
M 6.00 1.50 56 4.00 5.60 1536
N 6.00 1.50 62 4.00 6.20 1503
O 6.00 1.50 70 4.00 7.00 1562
P 6.00 1.75 56 3.43 5.60 1533
Q 6.00 1.75 62 3.43 6.20 1536
R 6.00 1.75 70 3.43 7.00 1503
S 6.50 1.25 56 5.20 6.07 1529
T 6.50 1.25 62 5.20 6.72 1501
U 6.50 1.25 70 5.20 7.58 1521
V 6.50 1.50 56 4.33 6.07 1527
W 6.50 1.50 62 4.33 6.72 1505
X 6.50 1.50 70 4.33 7.58 1533
Y 6.50 1.75 56 3.71 6.07 1512
Z 6.50 1.75 62 3.71 6.72 1492
ZZ 6.50 1.75 70 3.71 7.58 1487
13

Fig. 7 Boxplots of tensile tests

results of UTS considering the 1580 a 1580 b
variations of DoE factors: vW 1560 1560
(a), vW/vF (b), Q (c) 1540 1540
1520 1520
UTS [MPa]
UTS [MPa]
1500 1500
1480 1480
1460 1460
1440 1440
1420 1420
1400 1400
5.5 6 6.5 1.25 1.5 1.75
Vw [m/min] Vw/Vf
1580 c
1560
1540
1520
UTS [MPa]
1500
1480
1460
1440
1420
1400
56 62 70
Q [J/mm]
cause a change in the microstructure at the fusion boundary these examples. High-magnification images (Figs. 9b and
from Fe3(Al,Si) to a large amount of polygonal ferrite. In 10b) display that FZ is characterized by a smooth texture
addition, the Al from the coating layer is generally distrib- due to the martensite alloyed with filler wire. The FZ-BM
uted unevenly in the FZ, which shows martensite micro- interface regions show comet-shaped not-alloyed martensite
structure with bainite in the Al-rich zones. However, the zones, especially closer to the sheet free surfaces. These
ferrite formation both at the FZ-BM interface and in the FZ zones display the same lath texture of BM and no ferrite
in ARWHS condition is clearly due to the relatively high was detected in any sample. These results are confirmed by
Al contents in the comet-shaped segregation zones at the chemical analyses conducted in the same high-magnified
boundaries [54]. In Fig. 8, cross-section macrographs of areas. Al and Si elemental maps (Figs. 9c, d and 10c, d)
each welding replication of configurations “O” (Fig. 8a–c) prove that the long comet shapes along fusion boundaries
and “E” (Fig. 8d–f) are reported. Generally, the FZ is char- are not due to ferrite inclusions because there are no cor-
acterized by a particular light coloration, which was seen responding Al and Si concentrations peaks as observed in
also in welding cross-sections obtained with pure Ni foil/ the literature [27, 54]. Instead, a lower concentration of
layer [36, 37, 39], thanks to the introduction of the Cr-Ni- both Cr and Ni, i.e., the major chemical components of the
composed filler wire. The combined use of the filler wire filler wire, that reveals its mixing inside FZ, is detected in
and the VED laser optics brings wide hourglass-shaped related elemental maps (Figs. 9e, f and 10e, f) right at comet
weld sections. Macrographs reveal no substantial differ- shapes, demonstrating that these areas correspond to inclu-
ences in cross-section shapes both between replications sions of BM not homogeneously stirred with the molten
of the same configuration and between the configurations filler wire. In addition, complete quantitative chemical com-
“O” and “E,” except a generally wider FZ waist of about positions of examined areas are listed in Figs. 9g and 10g.
0.1 mm due to the higher heat input of the former than the Table 5 shows chemical compositions in terms of weight
latter. All these cross-sections were further investigated on percent averaged on the three replications per configura-
SEM–EDS. In Figs. 9 and 10, examples of the SEM–EDS tion. Considering the averages of all the investigated areas,
analyses conducted respectively on configuration “O” and substantially no differences are observed for Al and Si con-
“E” are reported. Figures 9a and 10a show magnified views tent between the two configurations, registering 0.65% and
of areas indicated in Fig. 8c and d taken into account for about 0.40% averaged content of Al and Si, respectively.
13

Fig. 8 Cross-section macro- (a) (b)

graphs of as-quenched welded
joints: configuration “O” (a–c);
configuration “E” (d–f)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Cr and Ni, introduced almost entirely by the filler wire in These diagrams confirm that the final microstructure of a
the weld pool, are the major alloying elements (3.84% and FZ with the element averaged weight content obtained by
1.84% averaged weight content, respectively), and, together the SEM–EDS analyses of this work is characterized by full
with Fe, represent about 98.5% of the mass of the whole FZ. martensite. Unfortunately, the use of these constitution dia-
Assuming the weld seam as a Fe–Cr-Ni alloy, the related grams is not recommended for this case since the prediction
ternary alloy phase diagram already proposed in the lit- of the weld metal microstructure can be inaccurate when the
erature [55] shows that the FZ with the element averaged cooling rate is high, e.g., in laser beam welding [57–59].
weight content obtained by SEM–EDS analyses is charac- Another empirical calculation of the Cr and Ni equivalent
terized by a full FCC microstructure (i.e., austenite with no content was used to predict the solidification mode of the
ferrite) at a temperature of 850 °C, i.e., above the Ac3 one Fe-Al-Mn-C weld [60] and employed also for the evaluation
[56]. However, the use of a ternary alloy phase diagram of laser-welded Al-Si-coated 22MnB5 steel FZs [28]. Cr
could not be exhaustive since it does not take into account and Ni equivalent contents are calculated as follows:
the effects of other chemical components, i.e., Al, Si, Mn,
Cr eq (wt.%) = 1[Cr] + 1[Mo] + 1.5[Si] + 5.5[Al];
and C, which have noticeable effects on the FZ microstruc-
Nieq (wt.%) = 1[Ni] + 30[C] + 25[N] + 0.5[Mn].
ture even in little amounts. For this reason, the use of con-
stitution diagrams, such as the Schaeffler or COHMS ones
The solidification behaviors of steels are generally cat-
[57, 58], where the Cr and Ni equivalent quantities are cal-
egorized into four modes, depending on the ratio C req/Nieq.
culated considering the presence of other elements with
The A-mode, i.e., full austenite without ferrite, is obtained
similar effects on the microstructure, could be preferable.
13

Fig. 9 Magnification of the (a) (b)

area α indicated in Fig. 8c, i.e.,
the LR part of a cross-section BM
macrograph of the configuration
“O” (a); SEM micrograph of
a more detailed zone (b) with (b)
related elemental maps of Al
(c), Si (d), Cr (e), and Ni (f),
and table of chemical composi-
tion (g) FZ
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g)
when Creq/Nieq < 1.25. This is the case of this study since was already observed that the filler wire method causes an
Creq/Nieq < 0.90 for all the SEM–EDS-analyzed weld seams. enhanced stirring of the melt pool, improving the homogene-
Generally, the results of predictive methods could be affected ity of Al distribution inside the FZ and bringing to a more
by FZ chemical compositions, heating and cooling rates, uniform ferrite distribution [31]. In addition, a high-carbon
and influences of particular elements on phase diagrams. content of filler wire could act as an austenite stabilizer, sup-
For these reasons, the experimental results of the hardness pressing ferrite formation and improving martensite fraction
and tensile tests reported in the following subsection are to in the hot-stamping heat-treated weld seam [32]. Moreover,
be considered the main proof of the absence of ferrite in laser welding with larger laser spots allows a wider melt pool
the FZ microstructure together with SEM–EDS analyses. It with enhanced flows that improve the Al mixing leading to
13

Fig. 10 Magnification of the (a) (b)

area β indicated in Fig. 8d, i.e.,
the UR part of a cross-section FZ
macrograph of the configuration
“E” (a); SEM micrograph of
a more detailed zone (b) with
related elemental maps of Al
(c), Si (d), Cr (e), and Ni (f), (b)
and table of chemical composi-
tion (g) BM
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g)
Table 5 Chemical compositions Element (wt.%) Al Si Cr Ni

with averaged values per
investigated area calculated Configuration O E O E O E O E
from EDS analyses of 3
different as-quenched welded Investigated area Upper left 0.65 0.59 0.38 0.40 3.31 4.49 1.56 2.15
joints per configuration Upper right 0.69 0.61 0.37 0.37 2.69 2.76 1.27 1.30
Center 0.73 0.78 0.43 0.43 4.84 4.85 2.31 2.32
Lower left 0.62 0.69 0.40 0.42 4.34 4.74 2.10 2.29
Lower right 0.57 0.58 0.36 0.37 2.93 3.39 1.43 1.63
Overall average 0.65 0.65 0.39 0.40 3.62 4.05 1.74 1.94
13

an increased martensitic fraction in the FZ after hot stamp- to the BM are detected in the FZ due to the presence of
ing [44]. Therefore, it is expected that the combined use of softer ferrite [27, 28, 39, 41]. In this case, the comparison
filler wire and VED optic module (which could be assumed a between BM and FZ hardness values highlights variations
laser spot enlarging method) brings to much more enhanced lower than 5% thanks to the martensitic microstructure of
stirring effects of the melt pool than those observed for each the weld seam. In addition, no significant differences can
of the two methods employed separately. A detailed evalu- be found between the two configurations. Figure 12 reports
ation of these events is quite difficult since keyhole laser the tensile curves obtained from the tests conducted with
welding is a complex multi-physical problem involving more precise absolute strain measurements carried out
several physical phenomena such as laser–material interac- with an extensometer. An example of both the configura-
tion, conduction, melting, vaporization, plasma generation, tions “O” and “E” is depicted. For the configuration “O,”
fluid flow, and surface deformation. This topic is currently a UTS value of 1567 MPa and a total elongation of 5.35%
under investigation through numerical modeling and will be were registered, while the sample of configuration “E”
detailed in further studies. performed 1494 MPa for UTS and 4.90% of total elonga-
tion. These results confirm those obtained in the compari-
3.3 Mechanical properties son between DoE configurations described before and are
substantially aligned with the same observed for HSBM
Figure 11 shows the results of hardness tests conducted on [23]. As observed for hardness values, no significant drops
samples of configurations “O” and “E.” For both configu- of UTS and total elongation values are observed as in other
rations, hardness values are included in the range 494–543 cases with ferritic FZ microstructures [27, 28, 39, 41].
HV0.5, which are aligned with the typical values for the This confirms one more time the absence of softer ferrite
22MnB5 HSBM (500–550 HV) [23]. In previous stud- in the weld seam.
ies, significant drops of hardness of about 40% compared
Fig. 11 HV0.5 hardness distribu-

tion of up (blue circles), central a
(black squares), and bottom (red 550
asterisks) series across the weld

section of configuration “O” (a)
and configuration “E” (b) with
BM/FZ zone limiters for each
Hardness HV0.5
series (dashed lines colored as 500

the respective series)
Up series
450 Bottom series
BM FZ BM
Central series
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
# hardness point
b
550
Hardness HV0.5
500
Up series
450 Bottom series
BM FZ BM
Central series
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
# hardness point
13

Fig. 12 Examples of tensile 1600

curves of configuration “E”
(red dashed line) and configu- 1400
ration “O” (black dotted line)
butt joints, all in hot-stamped 1200
conditions
Tensile stress [MPa]

1000
800
600
400
Configuration "E"
200 Configuration "O"
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tensile strain [%]
4 Conclusions process parameters. The latter could be intended as the repre-

sentative case of a typical production process where little altera-
In this work, a novel approach for laser welding of Al-Si-coated tions of optimal process parameters due to unexpected events
22MnB5 steel for hot stamping considering the use of both a could arise. In addition, the adduced simplification of the entire
filler wire and a variable energy distribution laser optics has production process of TWB for hot stamping obtained avoiding
been developed and investigated. UTS values from a 3 3 full fac- any additional decoating step should be considered. For these
torial DoE experimental plan have been all above 1400 MPa, reasons, the proposed welding methodology is in the running to
with an average value of 1523 MPa that is much higher than be a valid alternative to laser ablation procedures thanks to its
those observed in as-received welded then hot-stamped attempts particular suitability for industrial applications.
and aligned to hot-stamped base material ones. No statistically
significant differences in UTS values have been registered con-
Funding Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi della
sidering variations of DoE factors, i.e., the main process param- Basilicata within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. The research reported
eters. Wide hourglass-shaped weld seam has been observed in in this work was partially funded by the Italian Ministry of Economic
cross-section macrographs. SEM high-magnification images Development (Project AtaBHot Cup n. B88I17001090008).
have shown the smooth texture of the fusion zone due to the
martensite alloyed with filler wire, and the presence of comet- Declarations
shaped not-alloyed martensite zones at the interface regions Ethics approval This manuscript is the authors’ own original work,
with the same lath texture of the base material. EDS analyses which has not been previously published elsewhere. The manuscript
have demonstrated that these comet shapes are not due to fer- is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. The manu-
rite inclusions because no corresponding Al and Si concentra- script reflects the authors’ own research and analysis in a truthful and
complete manner.
tion peaks have been observed, but they represent inclusions of
the base material not homogeneously stirred with the molten Consent for publication The authors give their consent for the publica-
filler wire. In addition, the overall weight averaged content of tion of the manuscript.
Al and Si inside the fusion zone is about 0.65% and 0.40%,
respectively. Hardness tests have registered values in the range Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
of 494–543 HV0.5 that are aligned with those of hot-stamped
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
base material also inside the fusion zone, i.e., no drops of hard- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
ness due to the presence of softer ferrite have been detected. tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
Tensile tests with extensometer registered UTS values of 1567 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
and 1494 MPa, with total elongations of 5.35% and 4.90%, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
respectively, confirming the strength performances obtained in included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
the DoE. The wide experimental campaign conducted in this otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
work has proven that this laser welding process is very stable the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
and reliable thanks to the good results obtained in the most criti- permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
cal configuration for a TWB (joining of the same materials with copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
the same thicknesses) and even with slight variations of the main
13

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Laser Welding of Tailored Blanks Made of Al-Si-coa

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:2691–2704

Laser welding of tailored blanks made of Al‑Si‑coated 22MnB5 steel

1 Introduction the energy usage in order to guarantee longer ranges of

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Table 1 Chemical compositions [Weight %] C Mn Si S P Ni Cr Ti Al B Mo Fe

Fig. 1 Schemes of laser cut 9°

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power densities and an outer squared one with lower power

2.2 Experimental plan and test procedures

A ­3 3 full factorial design of experiment (DoE) was

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total of 5 areas analyzed per cross-section, as schematized

3 Results and discussion

Figure 6 shows scatterplots related to UTS and elongation

Fig. 5 Schemes of position of (a) (b)

Fig. 6 Scatterplots of ten-

UTS − δUTS (a) and UTS − δf (b) 8.5 = 0.75

with related Pearson correlation 9

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A 5.50 1.25 56 4.40 5.13 1520

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Fig. 7 Boxplots of tensile tests

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Fig. 8 Cross-section macro- (a) (b)

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Fig. 9 Magnification of the (a) (b)

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Fig. 10 Magnification of the (a) (b)

Table 5 Chemical compositions Element (wt.%) Al Si Cr Ni

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Fig. 11 HV0.5 hardness distribu-

asterisks) series across the weld

series (dashed lines colored as 500

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Fig. 12 Examples of tensile 1600

Tensile stress [MPa]

200 Configuration "O"

4 Conclusions process parameters. The latter could be intended as the repre-

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References in dissimilar thickness laser welding of Ti6Al4V alloy. J Manuf

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2.2 Experimental plan and test procedures

A 3 3 full factorial design of experiment (DoE) was

3 Results and discussion

4 Conclusions process parameters. The latter could be intended as the repre-