MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LEC)

Chapter 3: Cells and Tissue

PART I: CELLS ➢ DNA is necessary for cell

- Cells are the structural units of all living reproduction
things - Three regions:
- The human body has 50 to 100 trillion 1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
cells 2. Nucleolus
3. Chromatin
❖ Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
● Nuclear Envelope (Membrane)
● The Cell Theory - Consists of a double membrane that
1. A cell is the basic structural and bounds the nucleus
functional unit of living organisms - Contains nuclear pores that allow for
2. The activity of an organism depends on exchange of material with the rest of the
the collective activities of its cells cell
3. According to the principle of - Encloses the jellylike fluid called the
complementarity, the biochemical nucleoplasm
activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy) which determines ● Nucleolus
their function (physiology) - Nucleus contains one or more
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis dark-staining nucleoli
- Sites of ribosome assembly
➔ Most Cells are composed of four elements: - Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
1. Carbon through nuclear pores to serve as the
2. Hydrogen site of protein synthesis
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen ● Chromatin
- Composed of DNA wound around
➔ Cells are about 60% water histones (proteins)
- Scattered throughout the nucleus and
➔ In general, a cell has three main regions or present when the cell is not dividing
parts: - Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies
1. Nucleus called chromosomes when the cell
2. Cytoplasm divides
3. Plasma membrane
❖ The Plasma Membrane
❖ The Nucleus - Transparent barrier for cell contents
- Control center of the cell - Contains cell contents
- Contains genetic material known as - Separates cell contents from surrounding
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA environment
➢ DNA is needed for building - Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
proteins ➢ Two layers of phospholipids arranged
“tail to tail”
 ➢ Cholesterol and proteins ● Main Types of Cell Junctions
scattered among the
phospholipids ➔ Tight Junctions
➢ Sugar groups may be attached - Impermeable junctions
to the phospholipids, forming - Bind cells together into leak proof
glycolipids sheets
- Phospholipid arrangement in the - Plasma membranes fuse like a
plasma membrane zipper to prevent substances from
➢ Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar passing through extracellular
“heads” are oriented on the inner space between cells
and outer surfaces of the
membrane ➔ Desmosomes
➢ Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) - Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that
nonpolar “tails” form the center prevent cells from being pulled
(interior) of the membrane apart as a result of mechanical
○ This interior makes the plasma stress
membrane relatively - Created by buttonlike thickenings
impermeable to most of adjacent plasma membranes
water-soluble molecules
- Role of proteins ➔ Gap Junctions (communicating
➢ Responsible for specialized junctions)
membrane functions: - Allow communication between
○ Enzymes cells
○ Receptors for hormones or - Hollow cylinders of proteins
other chemical messengers (connexons) span the width of the
○ Transport as channels or abutting membranes
carriers - Molecules can travel directly from
- Role of sugars one cell to the next through these
➢ Glycoproteins are branched channels
sugars attached to proteins that
abut the extracellular space ❖ The Cytoplasm
➢ Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, - The cellular material outside the
sugar-rich area on the cell’s nucleus and inside the plasma
surface membrane
- Site of most cellular activities
● Cell Membrane Junctions - The three major component of the
- Cells are bound together in three cytoplasm includes cytosol, inclusions,
ways: and organelles
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act
as an adhesive or cellular glue ● Cytosol
2. Wavy contours of the membranes - Fluid that suspends other elements and
of adjacent cells fit together in a contains nutrients and electrolytes
tongue-and-groove fashion ● Inclusions
3. Special cell membrane junctions - Chemical substances, such as stored
are formed, which vary structurally nutrients or cell products, that float in the
depending on their roles cytosol
● Organelles - Detoxification of drugs and
- Metabolic machinery of the cell that pesticides
perform functions for the cell
- Many are membrane-bound, allowing ➔ Golgi Apparatus
for compartmentalization of their - Appears as a stack of flattened
functions membranes associated with tiny
vesicles
➔ Mitochondria - Modifies and packages proteins
- “Powerhouses” of the cell arriving from the rough ER via transport
- Mitochondrial wall consists of a vesicles
double membrane with cristae on - Produces different types of packages
the inner membrane ➢ Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
- Carry out reactions in which ➢ In-house proteins and lipids
oxygen is used to break down food (pathway 2)
into ATP molecules ➢ Lysosomes (pathway 3)

➔ Ribosomes ➔ Lysosomes
- Made of protein and ribosomal - Membranous “bags” that contain
RNA digestive enzymes
- Sites of protein synthesis in the cell - Enzymes can digest worn-out or
- Found at two locations: nonusable cell structures
➢ Free in the cytoplasm - House phagocytes that dispose of
➢ As part of the rough bacteria and cell debris
endoplasmic reticulum
➔ Peroxisomes
➔ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
- Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that ➢ Detoxify harmful substances such
carry substances within the cell as alcohol and formaldehyde
- Continuous with the nuclear ➢ Break down free radicals (highly
membrane reactive chemicals)
- Two types: ➢ Free radicals are converted to
➢ Rough ER hydrogen peroxide and then to
➢ Smooth ER water
- Replicate by pinching in half or
➢ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum budding from the ER
- Studded with ribosomes
- Synthesizes proteins ➔ Cytoskeleton
- Transport vesicles move - Network of protein structures that
proteins within cell extend throughout the cytoplasm
- Abundant in cells that make - Provides the cell with an internal
and export proteins framework that determines cell shape,
supports organelles, and provides the
➢ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum machinery for intracellular transport
- Lacks ribosomes - Three different types of elements form
- Functions in lipid metabolism the cytoskeleton:
 1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments ● Cells that cover and line body organs
3. Microtubules (smallest) ➔ Epithelial cell
- Packs together in sheets
➔ Centrioles - Intermediate fibers resist tearing during
- Rod-shaped bodies made of nine rubbing or pulling
triplets of microtubules
- Generate microtubules ● Cells that move organs and body parts
- Direct the formation of mitotic ➔ Skeletal Muscle and Smooth Muscle Cells
spindle during cell division - Contractile filaments allow cells to
shorten forcefully
❖ Cell Extensions
- Surface extensions found in some cells ● Cell that stores nutrients
➔ Fat Cells
● Cilia - Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
- move materials across the cell surface
- Located in the respiratory system to ● Cell that fights disease
move mucus ➔ White Blood Cells, such as the
macrophage (a phagocytic cell)
● Flagella - Digests infectious microorganisms
- propel the cell
- The only flagellated cell in the human ● Cell that gathers information and controls
body is sperm body functions
➔ Nerve Cell (Neuron)
● Microvilli - Receives and transmits messages to
- are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the other body structures
plasma membrane
- Increase surface area for absorption ● Cells of reproduction
➔ Oocyte (female)
❖ Cell Diversity - Largest cell in the body
- The human body houses over 200 - Divides to become an embryo upon
different cell types fertilization
- Cells vary in size, shape, and function ➔ Sperm (male)
➢ Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of - Built for swimming to the egg for
an inch to over 1 yard (nerve cells) fertilization
➢ Cell shape reflects its specialized - Flagellum acts as a motile whip
function
❖ Cell Physiology
● Cells that connect body parts - Cells have the ability to:
➔ Fibroblast ➢ Metabolize
- Secretes cable-like fibers ➢ Digest food
➔ Erythrocyte (red blood cell) ➢ Dispose of wastes
- Carries oxygen in the bloodstream ➢ Reproduce
➢ Grow
➢ Move
➢ Respond to a stimulus
❖ Membrane Transport ● Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration

● Solution ➔ Diffusion
- homogeneous mixture of two or more - Molecule movement is from high
components concentration to low concentration,
down a concentration gradient
➔ Solvent - Particles tend to distribute themselves
- dissolving medium present in the evenly within a solution
larger quantity; the body’s main - Kinetic energy (energy of motion)
solvent is water causes the molecules to move about
randomly
➔ Solute - Size of the molecule and temperature
- components in smaller quantities affect the speed of diffusion
within a solution - Molecules will move by diffusion if any
of the following applies:
● Intracellular Fluid ➢ The molecules are small enough to
- Nucleoplasm and cytosol pass through the membrane’s
- Solution containing gases, nutrients, pores (channels formed by
and salts dissolved in water membrane proteins)
➢ The molecules are lipid-soluble
● Extracellular Fluid (Interstitial Fluid) ➢ The molecules are assisted by a
- Fluid on the exterior of the cell membrane carrier
- Contains thousands of ingredients,
such as nutrients, hormones, ★ Types of Diffusion
neurotransmitters, salts, waste products
➢ Simple Diffusion
➔ The plasma membrane is a selectively - An unassisted process
permeable barrier - Solutes are lipid-soluble or small
- Some materials can pass through, enough to pass through
while others are excluded membrane pores
- For example:
➢ Nutrients can enter the cell ➢ Osmosis
➢ Undesirable substances are kept - simple diffusion of water across a
out selectively permeable membrane
- Highly polar water molecules easily
● Two Basic Methods of Transport cross the plasma membrane
through aquaporins
1. Passive Processes - Water moves down its
- substances are transported across concentration gradient
the membrane without any input - (A Closer Look):
from the cell ○ Isotonic solutions have the
2. Active Processes same solute and water
- the cell provides the metabolic concentrations as cells and
energy (ATP) to drive the transport cause no visible changes in the
process cell
 ○ Hypertonic solutions contain more - Material is carried in a
solutes than the cells do; the cells membranous sac called a
will begin to shrink vesicle that migrates to and
○ Hypotonic solutions contain fewer combines with the plasma
solutes (more water) than the cells membrane
do; cells will plump - Contents of vesicle are
emptied to the outside
➢ Facilitated Diffusion - Exocytosis docking process
- Transports lipid-insoluble and large ○ Docking proteins on the
substances vesicles recognize
- Glucose is transported via plasma membrane
facilitated diffusion proteins and bind with
- Protein membrane channels or them
protein molecules that act as ○ Membranes corkscrew
carriers are used and fuse together

➔ Filtration ➔ Endocytosis
- Water and solutes are forced - Extracellular substances are enclosed
through a membrane by fluid, or (engulfed) in a membranous vesicle
hydrostatic, pressure - Vesicle detaches from the plasma
- A pressure gradient must exist that membrane and moves into the cell ▪
pushes solute containing fluid Once in the cell, the vesicle typically
(filtrate) from a high-pressure area fuses with a lysosome
to a lower-pressure area - Contents are digested by lysosomal
- Filtration is critical for the kidneys to enzymes
work properly - In some cases, the vesicle is released
by exocytosis on the opposite side of
● Active Processes the cell
- ATP is used to move substances across
a membrane ★ Types of Endocytosis
- Active processes are used when:
➢ Substances are too large to travel 1. Phagocytosis
through membrane channels - “cell eating”
➢ The membrane may lack special - Cell engulfs large particles such as
protein carriers for the transport of bacteria or dead body cells
certain substances - Pseudopods are cytoplasmic
➢ Substances may not be extensions that separate
lipid-soluble substances (such as bacteria or
➢ Substances may have to move dead body cells) from external
against a concentration gradient environment
- Phagocytosis is a protective
➔ Exocytosis mechanism, not a means of
- Mechanism cells use to actively getting nutrients
secrete hormones, mucus, and
other products
 2. Phagocytosis ○ Guanine (G) always bonds with
- “cell drinking” cytosine (C)
- Cell “gulps” droplets of ➢ For example, TACTGC bonds with new
extracellular fluid containing nucleotides in the order ATGACG
dissolved proteins or fats
- Plasma membrane forms a pit, ● Events of Cell Division
and edges fuse around droplet
of fluid ➔ Mitosis
- Routine activity for most cells, - division of the nucleus
such as those involved in - Results in the formation of two
absorption (small intestine) daughter nuclei

3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis ➔ Cytokinesis

- Method for taking up specific - division of the cytoplasm
target molecules - Begins when mitosis is near completion
- Receptor proteins on the - Results in the formation of two
membrane surface bind only daughter cells
certain substances
- Highly selective process of ● Events of Mitosis
taking in substances such as
enzymes, some hormones, ➔ Prophase
cholesterol, and iron - Chromatin coils into chromosomes;
identical strands called chromatids are
❖ Cell Division held together by a centromere
- Cell life cycle is a series of changes the - Centrioles direct the assembly of a
cell experiences from the time it is mitotic spindle
formed until it divides - Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have
- Cell life cycle has two major periods broken down
1. Interphase (metabolic phase)
- Cell grows and carries on ➔ Metaphase
metabolic processes - Chromosomes are aligned in the
- Longer phase of the cell cycle center of the cell on the metaphase
2. Cell division plate (center of the spindle midway
- Cell reproduces itself between the centrioles)
- Straight line of chromosomes is now
● Preparations: DNA Replication seen
- Genetic material is duplicated and
readies a cell for division into two cells ➔ Anaphase
- Occurs toward the end of interphase - Centromere splits
- Process of DNA replication - Chromatids move slowly apart and
➢ DNA uncoils into two nucleotide toward the opposite ends of the cell
chains, and each side serves as a - Anaphase is over when the
template chromosomes stop moving
➢ Nucleotides are complementary
○ Adenine (A) always bonds with
thymine (T)
 ➔ Telophase - For example, a DNA sequence of AAA
- Reverse of prophase specifies the amino acid phenylalanine
- Chromosomes uncoil to become
chromatin ● The Role of DNA
- Spindles break down and - Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of
disappear proteins, are located in the cytoplasm
- Nuclear envelope re-forms around - DNA never leaves the nucleus in
chromatin interphase cells
- Nucleoli appear in each of the - DNA requires a decoder and a messenger
daughter nuclei to carry instructions to build proteins to
ribosomes
● Cytokinesis - Both the decoder and messenger
- Division of the cytoplasm functions are carried out by RNA
- Begins during late anaphase and (ribonucleic acid)
completes during telophase
- A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of ➔ How does RNA differ from DNA?
microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells - RNA is single-stranded
into two parts - RNA contains ribose sugar instead of
- Two daughter cells exist deoxyribose
- RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of
➔ In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis thymine (T)
occur together
➔ In some cases, the cytoplasm is not ● Three Varieties of RNA
divided
- Binucleate or multinucleate cells result ➔ Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- Common in the liver and skeletal - Transfers appropriate amino acids to
muscle the ribosome for building the protein

❖ Protein Synthesis ➔ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

- DNA serves as a blueprint for making - Helps form the ribosomes where
proteins proteins are built
- Gene: DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein or ➔ Messenger RNA (mRNA)
polypeptide chain - Carries the instructions for building a
- Proteins have many functions protein from the nucleus to the
➢ Fibrous (structural) proteins are the ribosome
building materials for cells
➢ Globular (functional) proteins can ● Two Major Phases of Protein Synthesis
act as enzymes (biological
catalysts) ➔ Transcription
- DNA information is coded into a - Transfer of information from DNA’s
sequence of bases base sequence to the complementary
- A sequence of three bases (triplet) base sequence of mRNA
codes for an amino acid - DNA is the template for transcription;
mRNA is the product
 - Each DNA triplet corresponds to an PART II: BODY TISSUES
mRNA codon
- If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG,
❖ Tissues
then the mRNA corresponding
- Groups of cells with similar structure and
codons are UUA-GCA-AGC
function
- Four primary types:
➔ Translation
1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
- Base sequence of nucleic acid is
2. Connective tissue
translated to an amino acid
3. Muscle tissue
sequence; amino acids are the
4. Nervous tissue
building blocks of proteins
- Occurs in the cytoplasm and
❖ Epithelial Tissues
involves three major varieties of
- Locations:
RNA
➢ Body coverings
- Steps (step 1 covers transcription)
➢ Body linings
➢ Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus
➢ Glandular tissue
and attaches to ribosome, and
- Functions:
translation begins
➢ Protection
➢ Step 3: incoming tRNA
➢ Absorption
recognizes a complementary
➢ Filtration
mRNA codon calling for its
➢ Secretion
amino acid by temporarily
binding its anticodon to the
● Hallmarks of Epithelial Tissues
codon
- Cover and line body surfaces
➢ Step 4: as the ribosome moves
- Often form sheets with one free surface,
along the mRNA, a new amino
the apical surface, and an anchored
acid is added to the growing
surface, the basement membrane
protein chain
- Avascular (no blood supply)
➢ Step 5: released tRNA reenters
- Regenerate easily if well nourished
the cytoplasmic pool, ready to
be recharged with a new
● Classification of Epithelia
amino acid
- Number of Cell Layers
➢ Simple
- One layer
➢ Stratified
- More than one layer
- Shape of Cells
➢ Squamous
- Flattened, like fish scales
➢ Cuboidal
- Cube-shaped, like dice
➢ Columnar
- Shaped like columns
● Simple Epithelia - Single layer, but some cells are shorter
- Functions in absorption, secretion, and than others giving a false (pseudo)
filtration impression of stratification
- Very thin (so not suited for protection) - Location: respiratory tract, where it is
ciliated and known as pseudostratified
➔ Simple Squamous Epithelium ciliated columnar epithelium
- Single layer of flat cells - Functions in absorption or secretion
- Locations—usually forms
membranes ● Stratified Epithelia
➢ Lines air sacs of the lungs - Consist of two or more cell layers
➢ Forms walls of capillaries - Function primarily in protection
➢ Forms serous membranes
(serosae) that line and cover ➔ Stratified Squamous Epithelium
organs in ventral cavity - Most common stratified epithelium
- Functions in diffusion, filtration, or - Named for cells present at the free
secretion in membranes (apical) surface, which are squamous
- Functions as a protective covering
➔ Simple Cuboidal Epithelium where friction is common
- Single layer of cubelike cells - Locations—lining of the:
- Locations ➢ Skin (outer portion)
➢ Common in glands and their ➢ Mouth
ducts ➢ Esophagus
➢ Forms walls of kidney tubules
➢ Covers the surface of ovaries ➔ Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
- Functions in secretion and - two layers of cuboidal cells; functions in
absorption; ciliated types propel protection
mucus or reproductive cells
➔ Stratified Columnar Epithelium
➔ Simple Columnar Epithelium - surface cells are columnar, and cells
- Single layer of tall cells underneath vary in size and shape;
➢ Goblet cells secrete mucus functions in protection
- Locations
➢ Lining of the digestive tract from ➔ Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar are rare
stomach to anus in human body, found mainly in ducts of
➢ Mucous membranes (mucosae) large glands
line body cavities opening to
the exterior ● Transitional Epithelium
- Functions in secretion and - Composed of modified stratified squamous
absorption; ciliated types propel epithelium
mucus or reproductive cells - Shape of cells depends upon the amount
of stretching
➔ Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium - Functions in stretching and the ability to
- All cells rest on a basement return to normal shape
membrane - Location: lining of urinary system organs
● Glandular Epithelia ● Two Main Elements of the Extracellular Matrix
- One or more cells responsible for
secreting a particular product 1. Ground Substance
- Secretions contain protein molecules in - mostly water, along with adhesion
an aqueous (water-based) fluid proteins and polysaccharide molecules
- Secretion is an active process 2. Fibers
- Collagen (white) fibers
➔ Two major gland types develop from - Elastic (yellow) fibers
epithelial sheets - Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)

➢ Endocrine Glands ● Types of Connective Tissue

- Ductless; secretions (hormones) - From most rigid to softest, or most fluid:
diffuse into blood vessels ➢ Bone
- Examples include thyroid, ➢ Cartilage
adrenals, and pituitary ➢ Dense connective tissue
➢ Loose connective tissue
➢ Exocrine Glands ➢ Blood
- Secretions empty through ducts
to the epithelial surface ➔ Bone (Osseous Tissue)
- Include sweat and oil glands, - Composed of:
liver, and pancreas (both ➢ Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in
internal and external) lacunae (cavities)
➢ Hard matrix of calcium salts
❖ Connective Tissue ➢ Large numbers of collagen fibers
- Found everywhere in the body to - Functions to protect and support the body
connect body parts
- Includes the most abundant and ➔ Cartilage
widely distributed tissues - Less hard and more flexible than bone
- Functions - Found in only a few places in the body
➢ Protection - Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major
➢ Support cell type
➢ Binding - Types:
➢ Hyaline cartilage
● Characteristics of Connective Tissue ➢ Fibrocartilage
- Variations in blood supply ➢ Elastic cartilage
➢ Some tissue types are well
vascularized ➢ Hyaline Cartilage
➢ Some have a poor blood supply or - Most widespread type of cartilage
are avascular - Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
- Extracellular matrix glassy, rubbery matrix
➢ Nonliving material that surrounds - Locations
living cells ○ Trachea
○ Attaches ribs to the breastbone
○ Covers ends of long bones
○ Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
 ○ Epiphyseal (growth) plates in - Can soak up excess fluid (causes
long bones edema)

➢ Elastic Cartilage ➢ Adipose Connective Tissue

- Provides elasticity - An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat)
- Location: supports the external cells dominate
ear - Functions
○ Insulates the body
➢ Fibrocartilage ○ Protects some organs
- Highly compressible ○ Serves as a site of fuel storage
- Location: forms cushionlike discs - Locations
between vertebrae of the ○ Subcutaneous tissue beneath the
spinal column skin
○ Protects organs, such as the kidneys
➔ Dense Connective Tissue (Dense Fibrous ○ Fat “depots” include hips, breasts,
Tissue) and belly
- Main matrix element is collagen fiber
- Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers ➢ Reticular Connective Tissue
- Locations - Delicate network of interwoven fibers
➢ Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to with reticular cells (like fibroblasts)
bone - Forms stroma (internal framework) of
➢ Ligaments—attach bone to bone organs
at joints and are more elastic than - Locations
tendons ○ Lymph nodes
➢ Dermis—lower layers of the skin ○ Spleen
○ Bone marrow
➔ Loose Connective Tissue
- Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers ➔ Blood (Vascular Tissue)
than other connective tissues (except - Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix
blood) known as blood plasma
- Types: - Soluble fibers are visible only during
➢ Areolar clotting
➢ Adipose - Functions as the transport vehicle for
➢ Reticular the cardiovascular system, carrying:
○ Nutrients
➢ Areolar Connective Tissue ○ Wastes
- Most widely distributed connective ○ Respiratory gases
tissue
- Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs” ❖ Muscle Tissue
- Functions as a universal packing - Function is to contract, or shorten, to
tissue and “glue” to hold organs in produce movement
place - Three types of muscle tissue
- Layer of areolar tissue called 1. Skeletal
lamina propria underlies all 2. Cardiac
membranes 3. Smooth
- All fiber types form a loose network
● Skeletal Muscle Tissue ➢ Support cells called neuroglia insulate,
- Packaged by connective tissue sheets protect, and support neurons
into skeletal muscles, which are
attached to the skeleton and pull on ❖ Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
bones or skin - Occurs in two ways:
- Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
- Produces gross body movements or 1. Regeneration
facial expressions - Replacement of destroyed tissue
- Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells by the same kind of cells
➢ Striations (stripes) 2. Fibrosis
➢ Multinucleate (more than one - Repair by dense (fibrous)
nucleus) connective tissue (scar tissue)
➢ Long, cylindrical shape
➔ Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs
● Cardiac Muscle Tissue depends on:
- Involuntarily controlled 1. Type of tissue damaged
- Found only in the heart 2. Severity of the injury
- Pumps blood through blood vessels
- Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells ➔ Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully
➢ Striations than ragged tears of the tissue
➢ One nucleus per cell
➢ Short, branching cells ● Events of Tissue Repair
➢ Intercalated discs contain gap
junctions to connect cells together ➔ Inflammation sets the stage
- Capillaries become very permeable
● Smooth (Visceral) Muscle Tissue - Clotting proteins migrate into the area
- Involuntarily controlled from the bloodstream
- Found in walls of hollow organs such as - A clot walls off the injured area
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
- Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a ➔ Granulation tissue forms
typical activity - Growth of new capillaries
- Characteristics of smooth muscle cells - Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and
➢ No visible striations fibroblasts
➢ One nucleus per cell - Rebuild collagen fibers
➢ Spindle-shaped cells
➔ Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
❖ Nervous Tissue repair
- Function is to receive and conduct - Scab detaches
electrochemical impulses to and from - Whether scar is visible or invisible
body parts depends on severity of wound
➢ Irritability
➢ Conductivity ● Tissues that regenerate easily
- Composed of neurons and nerve - Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous
support cells membranes)
- Fibrous connective tissues and bone
● Tissues that regenerate poorly
- Skeletal muscle

● Tissues that are replaced largely with scar

tissue
- Cardiac muscle
- Nervous tissue within the brain and
spinal cord

❖ Developmental Aspects of Cells and

Tissues
- Growth through cell division continues
through puberty
- Cell populations exposed to friction
(such as epithelium) replace lost cells
throughout life
- Connective tissue remains mitotic and
forms repair (scar) tissue
- With some exceptions, muscle tissue
becomes amitotic by the end of
puberty
- Nervous tissue becomes amitotic
shortly after birth
- Injury can severely handicap amitotic
tissues
- The cause of aging is unknown, but
chemical and physical insults, as well as
genetic programming, have been
proposed as possible causes

● Neoplasms
- both benign and cancerous, represent
abnormal cell masses in which normal
controls on cell division are not working

● Hyperplasia (increase of size)

- of a tissue or organ may occur when
tissue is strongly stimulated or irritated

● Atrophy (decrease of size)

- of a tissue or organ occurs when the
organ is no longer stimulated normally
MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LEC)
Chapter 4: Skin and Body Membranes

❖ Body Membranes ➔ Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)

- Functions: - Moist membranes
➢ Cover body surface - Line all body cavities that open to the
➢ Line body cavities exterior body surface
➢ Form protective sheets around - Adapted for absorption or secretion
organs - Construction:
- Classified according to tissue types ➢ Epithelium type depends on site
➢ Loose connective tissue (lamina
★ Epithelial Membranes propria)
➔ Cutaneous membranes
➔ Mucous membranes ➔ Serous Membranes (Serosae)
➔ Serous membranes - Line open body cavities that are closed to
the exterior of the body
★ Connective Tissue Membranes - Occur in pairs, separated by serous
➔ Synovial membranes fluid, with a visceral and parietal layer
- Construction:
● Epithelial Membranes ➢ Simple squamous epithelium
- Epithelial membranes are simple ➢ Areolar connective tissue
organs
- Also called covering and lining
➔ Specific Serous Membranes
membranes
➢ Peritoneum
- These membranes contain:
- Abdominal Cavity
➢ Epithelial tissue layer
➢ Pleura
➢ Connective tissue layer
- Around the Lungs
➢ Pericardium
➔ Cutaneous Membranes
- Around the Heart
- Skin
- Dry Membrane
○ -Itis - inflammation illness
- Outermost protective boundary
Ex.
- Construction:
- Pericardium - Pericarditis
➢ Epidermis is composed of
- Pleura - Pleuritis
keratinized stratified squamous
- Peritoneum - Peritonitis
epithelium
➢ Dermis is mostly dense irregular
● Connective Tissue Membranes
(fibrous) connective tissue
➔ Synovial Membranes
- Loose areolar connective tissue only
(no epithelial tissue)
- Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
➢ Line bursae
➢ Line tendon sheaths
 - Secrete a lubricating fluid to - Composed mostly of adipose tissue
cushion organs moving against - Serves as a shock absorber and
each other during muscle activity insulates deeper tissues

❖ Integumentary System ● Epidermis

- Consists of the: - outer layer of the skin
➢ Skin (cutaneous membrane) - Capable of being hard and tough
➢ Skin appendages - Stratified squamous epithelium
➢ Sweat glands - Keratinocytes (the most common cell)
➢ Oil glands produce a fibrous protein called
➢ Hair keratin
➢ Nails - Avascular
- Composed of five layers (strata)
➔ Functions of the Integumentary ➢ Stratum basale
System ➢ Stratum spinosum
- Insulates and cushion deeper ➢ Stratum granulosum
body organs ➢ Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin
- Protects the entire body from: only)
➢ Mechanical damage (bumps ➢ Stratum corneum
and cuts)
➢ Chemical damage (acids and ➔ Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinativum)
bases) - Deepest layer of epidermis
➢ Thermal damage (heat or - Lies next to dermis
cold) - Wavy borderline with the dermis
➢ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation anchors the two together
(sunlight) - Cells undergoing mitosis
➢ Microbes (bacteria) - Daughter cells are pushed upward to
➢ Desiccation (drying out) become the more superficial layers
- Aids in loss or retention of body
heat as controlled by the nervous ➔ Stratum Spinosum
system - Cells become increasingly flatter and
- Aids in excretion of urea and uric more keratinized
acid
- Synthesizes vitamin D ➔ Stratum Granulosum

★ Structure of the Skin ➔ Stratum Lucidum

- Two kinds of tissue compose the skin - Formed from dead cells of the deeper
➢ Epidermis strata
➢ Dermis - Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the
palms of hands and soles of feet
➔ Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)
- Anchors the skin to underlying ➔ Stratum Corneum
organs - Outermost layer of epidermis
- Not technically part of the - Shingle-like dead cells are filled with
integumentary system keratin (protective protein prevents
water loss from skin)
 ➢ Melanin ➢ Reticular Layer
- Melanin is a pigment produced by - deepest skin layer
melanocytes - Blood vessels
- Melanocytes are mostly in the - Sweat and oil glands
stratum basale of the epidermis - Deep pressure receptors (lamellar
- Color is yellow to brown to black corpuscles)
- Melanin accumulates in
membrane-bound granules called ➔ Other Dermal Features
melanosomes ➢ Cutaneous sensory receptors
- Amount of melanin produced ➢ Phagocytes
depends upon genetics and ➢ Collagen and elastic fibers
exposure to sunlight ➢ Blood vessels

➢ Epidermal Dendritic Cells ★ Skin Color

- Alert and activate immune cells to
a threat (bacterial or viral invasion) ● Three Pigments Contribute to Skin Color

➢ Merkel Cells 1. Melanin

- Associated with sensory nerve - Yellow, reddish brown, or black
endings pigments
- Serve as touch receptors called
Merkel discs 2. Carotene
- Orange-yellow pigment from some
● Dermis vegetables
- Connective tissue
- Underlies the epidermis 3. Hemoglobin
- Red coloring from blood cells in
➔ Two Layers of the Dermis dermal capillaries
- Oxygen content determines the extent
➢ Papillary Layer of red coloring
- upper dermal region
- Contain projections called dermal ● Redness (Erythema)
papillae - due to embarrassment, inflammation,
- Indent the epidermis above hypertension, fever, or allergy
- Many projections contain capillary
loops, and others house pain and ● Pallor (Blanching)
touch receptors - due to emotional stress (such as fear),
- On palm and sole surfaces, anemia, low blood pressure, impaired
papillae increase friction and blood flow to an area
gripping ability
- Fingerprints are identifying films of ● Jaundice (Yellow Cast)
sweat - indicates a liver disorder

● Bruises (Black and Blue Marks)

- hematomas
 - Release sweat that also contains
★ Appendages of the Skin fatty acids and proteins (milky or
yellowish color)
➔ Cutaneous Glands (all exocrine glands) - Play a minimal role in body
➢ Sebaceous Glands temperature regulation
➢ Sweat Glands
➔ Hair ● Hair
➔ Hair Follicles - Produced by hair follicle
➔ Nails - Root is enclosed in the follicle
- Shaft projects from the surface of the
● Cutaneous Glands scalp or skin
- Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
➔ Sebaceous (Oil) Glands - Melanocytes provide pigment for hair
- Located all over the skin except for color
palms and soles - Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in
- Produce sebum (oil) stratum basale
○ Makes skin soft and moist
○ Prevents hair from becoming ➔ Hair Anatomy
brittle - Central medulla
○ Kills bacteria - Cortex surrounds medulla
- Most have ducts that empty into - Cuticle on outside of cortex
hair follicles; others open directly ○ Most heavily keratinized region of
onto skin surface the hair
- Glands are activated at puberty
● Hair Follicle
➔ Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands - Associated Hair Structure
- Produce sweat - Composed of an epithelial root sheath
- Widely distributed in skin and fibrous sheath
- Dermal region provides a blood supply
➢ Two Types of Sudoriferous Glands to the hair bulb (deepest part of the
follicle)
1. Eccrine Glands - Arrector pili muscle connects to the
- Open via duct to sweat pores hair follicle to pull hairs upright when
on the skin’s surface we are cold or frightened
- Produce acidic sweat
○ Water, salts, vitamin C, ● Nails
traces of metabolic waste - Heavily keratinized, scalelike
- Function in body temperature modifications of the epidermis
regulation - Stratum basale extends beneath the
nail bed, which is responsible for
2. Apocrine Glands growth
- Ducts empty into hair follicles in - Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
the armpit and genitals
- Begin to function at puberty ➔ Parts of a Nail
- Free edge
- Body is the visible attached portion
 - Nail folds are skin folds that ● Burns
overlap the edges of the nail; - Tissue damage and cell death caused
the cuticle is the proximal edge by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
- Root of nail is embedded in skin chemicals
- Growth of the nail occurs from - Associated dangers
nail matrix ○ Protein denaturation and cell
death
❖ Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin ○ Dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance
● Infections and Allergies ○ Circulatory shock
- Result in loss of body fluids and
➔ Athlete’s Foot infection from the invasion of bacteria
- Caused by fungal infection (Tinea
pedis) ➢ Rules of Nines
- Itchy, red peeling skin between the - Extent of a burn is estimated using
toes the rule of nines
○ Body is divided into 11 areas for
➔ Boils (Furuncles) and Carbuncles quick estimation
- Caused by inflammation of hair ○ Each area represents about 9
follicles percent of total body surface
- Carbuncles are clusters of boils area
caused by bacteria ■ The area surrounding the
genitals (the perineum)
➔ Cold Sores (Fever Blisters) represents 1 percent of
- Caused by human herpesvirus 1 body surface area
- Blisters itch and sting
➔ First-Degree Burn (Superficial Burn)
➔ Contact Dermatitis - Only epidermis is damaged
- Caused by exposure to chemicals - Skin is red and swollen
that provoke allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and swelling of ➔ Second-Degree Burn (Partial-Thickness
the skin Burn)
- Epidermis and superficial part of
➔ Impetigo dermis are damaged
- Caused by bacterial infection - Skin is red, painful, and blistered
- Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions - Regrowth of the epithelium can
around mouth/nose occur

➔ Psoriasis ➔ Third-Degree Burn (Full-Thickness Burn)

- Triggered by trauma, infection, - Destroys epidermis and dermis;
hormonal changes, or stress burned area is painless
- Red, epidermal lesions covered - Requires skin grafts, as regeneration
with dry, silvery scales that itch, is not possible
burn, crack, or sometimes bleed - Burned area is blanched
(gray-white) or black
 ➔ Fourth-Degree Burn (Full-Thickness - Lesions appear as shiny,
Burn) dome-shaped nodules that
- Extends into deeper tissues develop a central ulcer
(bone, muscle, tendons)
- Appears dry and leathery ➢ Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- Requires surgery and grafting - Believed to be induced by UV
- May require amputation exposure
- Arises from cells of stratum
➢ Criteria for Deeming Burns Critical spinosum
(if any one is met): - Lesions appear as scaly, reddened
- Over 30 percent of body has papules that gradually form
second-degree burns shallow ulcers
- Over 10 percent of the body has - Early removal allows a good
third- or fourth-degree burns chance of cure
- Third- or fourth-degree burns of the - Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
face, hands, or feet, or genitals removed
- Burns affect the airways
- Circumferential (around the body ➢ Malignant Melanoma
or limb) burns have occurred - Most deadly of skin cancers, but
accounts for only 5 percent of skin
● Skin Cancer cancers
- Most common form of cancer in - Arises from melanocytes
humans - Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and
- Most important risk factor is blood vessels
overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) - Detection uses ABCDE rule for
radiation in sunlight and tanning beds recognizing melanoma
○ A = Asymmetry
➢ Cancer can be Classified in Two Ways - Two sides of pigmented
mole do not match
1. Benign ○ B = Border irregularity
- means the neoplasm (tumor) - Borders of mole are not
has not spread smooth
○ C = Color
2. Malignant - Different colors in
- means the neoplasm has pigmented area
invaded other body areas ○ D = Diameter
- Spot is larger than 6 mm in
➢ Most Common Types of Skin Cancer diameter
○ E = Evolution
➢ Basal Cell Carcinoma - One or more of the ABCD
- Least malignant and most characteristics is evolving
common type of skin cancer
- Arises from cells in stratum
basale that are altered so that
they can no longer make
keratin
★ Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body
Membranes

● Lanugo
- a downy hair, covers the body by
the fifth or sixth month of fetal
development but disappears by
birth

● Vernix Caseosa
- an oily covering, is apparent at
birth

● Milia
- small white spots, are common at
birth and disappear by the third
week

➔ Acne may appear during

adolescence
➔ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well
hydrated
➔ With aging, skin loses elasticity and
thins
➔ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin
exposed to excessive sunlight
➔ Balding and/or graying occurs with
aging; both are genetically
determined; other factors that may
contribute include drugs
MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LEC)
Chapter 5: The Skeletal System

★ Parts of the Skeletal System ➔ Long Bones

- Typically longer than they are wide
● Bones (Skeleton) - Shaft with enlarged ends
● Joints - Contain mostly compact bone; spongy
● Cartilages bone at ends
● Ligaments - All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist,
ankle, and kneecap bones) are long
★ Two Subdivisions of the Skeleton bones
- Examples:
1. Axial Skeleton ○ Femur
2. Appendicular Skeleton ○ Humerus

❖ Functions of the Bones ➔ Flat Bones

- Support the body - Thin, flattened, and usually curved
- Protect soft organs - Two thin layers of compact bone sandwich
○ Skull and vertebrae protect brain a layer of spongy bone between them
and spinal cord - Examples:
○ Rib cage protects thoracic cavity ○ Most bones of the skull
organs ○ Ribs
- Attached skeletal muscles allow ○ Sternum
movement
- Store minerals and fats ➔ Short Bones
○ Calcium and phosphorus - Generally cube-shaped
○ Fat in the internal marrow cavity - Contain mostly spongy bone with an outer
- Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) layer of compact bone
- Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone
❖ Classification of Bones that form within tendons (patella)
- The adult skeleton has 206 bones - Examples:
- Two basic types of osseous (bone) ○ Carpals (wrist bones)
tissue ○ Tarsals (ankle bones)
1. Compact Bone
○ Dense, Smooth, and Homogenous ➔ Irregular Bones
2. Spongy Bone - Irregular shape
○ Small needle like pieces of bone - Do not fit into other bone classification
○ Many open spaces categories
- Bones are classified on the basis of - Examples:
shape into four groups ○ Vertebrae
○ Long ○ Hip bones
○ Flat
○ Short
○ Irregular
❖ Structure of Bone ● Bone Markings
- Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons,
● Long Bone Anatomy and ligaments
- Passages for nerves and blood vessels
➔ Diaphysis (shaft)
- Makes up most of bone’s length ➔ Categories of Bone Markings
- Composed of compact bone - Projections or processes—grow out
from the bone surface
➔ Periosteum ○ Terms often begin with “T”
- Outside covering of the diaphysis - Depressions or cavities—indentations
- Fibrous connective tissue ○ Terms often begin with “F”
membrane
- Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure
periosteum to underlying bone

➔ Epiphysis (ends)
- Composed mostly of spongy bone
enclosed by thin layer of compact
bone

➔ Articular Cartilage
- Covers the external surface of the
epiphyses
- Made of hyaline cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint surfaces

➔ Epiphyseal Line
- Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
- Seen in adult bones

➔ Epiphyseal Plate
- Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen
in young, growing bone
- Causes lengthwise growth of a long
bone

➔ Endosteum
- Lines the inner surface of the shaft
- Made of connective tissue

➔ Medullary Cavity
- Cavity inside the shaft
- Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
- Contains red marrow for blood cell
formation in infants until age 6 or 7
● Microscopic Anatomy of Spongy Bone ➢ Bone is relatively lightweight and resists tension
- Composed of small, needlelike pieces and other forces
of bone called trabeculae and open
spaces ➢ Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone
- Open spaces are filled by marrow, make bone flexible and have great tensile
blood vessels, and nerves strength

● Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone ➢ Calcium salts deposited in the bone make
bone hard to resist compression
➔ Osteocytes
- Mature bone cells situated in bone ❖ Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling
matrix
● Bone Formation and Growth
➔ Lacunae - Ossification is the process of bone
- Cavities in bone matrix that house formation
osteocytes - Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or
fibrous membranes
➔ Lamellae - Long bone growth involves two major
- Concentric circles of lacunae phases
situated around the central
(Haversian) canal ➔ Two major phases of ossification in long
bones
➔ Central (Haversian) Canal
- Opening in the center of an osteon 1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover
(Haversian system) hyaline cartilage model with bone
- Runs lengthwise through bone matrix
- Carries blood vessels and nerves 2. In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is
digested away, opening up a
➔ Osteon (Haversian System) medullary cavity
- A unit of bone containing central
canal and matrix rings ➔ By birth, most cartilage is converted to
- Structural and functional unit of bone except for two regions in a long bone
compact bone 1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates
➔ Canaliculi
- Tiny canals ➔ New cartilage is formed continuously on
- Radiate from the central canal to external face of these two cartilages
lacunae
- Form a transport system connecting ➔ Old cartilage is broken down and
all bone cells to a nutrient supply replaced by bony matrix

➔ Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canal ● Appositional Growth

- Canal perpendicular to the central - Bones grow in width
canal - Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone
- Carries blood vessels and nerves matrix to the outside of the diaphysis
 - Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove ➢ Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
bone from the inner surface of the immobilization
diaphysis - Closed Reduction: bones are manually
coaxed into position by physician’s hands
➔ Bone growth is controlled by hormones, - Open reduction: bones are secured with
such as growth hormone and sex pins or wires during surgery
hormones
➢ Healing time is 6-8 weeks
➔ Bones are remodeled throughout life in
response to two factors ➔ Repair of bone fractures involves four
1. Calcium ion level in the blood major events
determines when bone matrix is to
be broken down or formed 1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the bruise) is formed
skeleton determines where bone 2. Fibrocartilage callus forms
matrix is to be broken down or - Cartilage matrix, bony matrix,
formed collagen fibers splint the broken
bone
● Calcium ion regulation 3. Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage
callus
➔ Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- Released when calcium ion levels migrates in
in blood are low 4. Bone remodeling occurs in response to
- Activates osteoclasts mechanical stresses
(bone-destroying cells)
- Osteoclasts break down bone and
release calcium ions into the blood

➔ Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium

levels) prompts calcium storage to
bones by osteoblasts

❖ Bone Fractures
- Fractures: break in a bone

● Types of Bone Fractures

➔ Closed (Simple) Fracture ★ AXIAL SKELETON

- A break that does not penetrate - Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
the skin - Divided into three parts:
1. Skull
➔ Open (Compound) Fracture 2. Vertebral Column
- A broken bone that penetrates 3. Bony Thorax
through the skin
❖ Skull ● Hyoid Bone
- Two sets of bones for the skull - Closely related to mandible and temporal
1. Cranium Bones—enclose the brain bones
2. Facial Bones - The only bone that does not articulate with
○ Hold eyes in anterior position another bone
○ Allow facial muscles to express - Serves as a movable base for the tongue
feelings - Aids in swallowing and speech
- Bones are joined by sutures
- Only the mandible is attached by a ❖ Vertebral Column (Spine)
freely movable joint - Vertebral column provides axial support
○ Extends from skull to the pelvis
➔ 8 Cranial Bones protect the brain
○ 1 Frontal bone ➔ 26 vertebral bones are separated by
○ 2 Occipital bone intervertebral discs
○ 3 Ethmoid bone ○ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
○ 4 Sphenoid bone ○ 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
○ 5, 6 Parietal bones (pair) region
○ 7, 8 Temporal bones (pair) ○ 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
➔ 14 Facial Bones ○ Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
○ 1, 2 Maxillae (pair) vertebrae)
○ 3, 4 Palatine bones (pair) ○ Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5
○ 5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) vertebrae)
○ 7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
○ 9, 10 Nasal bones (pair) ● Primary Curvatures
○ 11 Vomer bone - Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and
○ 12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) sacral regions
○ 14 Mandible - Present from birth
- Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns
● Paranasal Sinuses
- Hollow portions of bones surrounding ● Secondary Curvatures
the nasal cavity - Spinal curvatures of the cervical and
- Functions of paranasal sinuses lumbar regions
○ Lighten the skull - Develop after birth
○ Amplify sounds made as we speak - Form an S-shaped curvature in adults

➔ 4 Paranasal Sinuses ➔ Parts of a Typical Vertebra

○ Frontal Sinus ○ Body (centrum)
○ Ethmoid Sinus ○ Vertebral arch
○ Sphenoid Sinus - Pedicle
○ Maxillary Sinus - Lamina
○ Vertebral foramen
○ Transverse processes
○ Spinous process
○ Superior and inferior articular processes
❖ Thoracic Cage ○ Coronoid process and olecranon
- Bony Thorax, or Thoracic Cage, articulate with the humerus
protects organs of the thoracic cavity
- Consists of Three Parts 2. Radius
1. Sternum - lateral bone in anatomical position
2. Ribs - Proximal end articulation
○ True ribs (pairs 1–7) ○ Head articulates with the capitulum
○ False ribs (pairs 8–12) of the humerus
○ Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae ● Hand

★ APPENDICULAR SKELETON ➔ Carpals

- Composed of 126 Bones - wrist bones
○ Limbs (appendages) - 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4
○ Pectoral Girdle bones in each hand
○ Pelvic Girdle
➔ Metacarpals
❖ Bones of the Shoulder Girdle - palm bones
- Also called pectoral girdle - 5 per hand
- Composed of two bones that attach
the upper limb to the axial skeletal ➔ Phalanges
1. Clavicle - fingers and thumb
2. Scapula - 14 phalanges in each hand
- Light, poorly reinforced girdle - In each finger, there are 3 bones
- Allows the upper limb a exceptional - In the thumb, there are only 2 bones
flexibility
❖ Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
❖ Bones of the Upper Limbs - Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
- Composed of three pairs of fused bones
● Humerus 1. Ilium
- Forms the arm 2. Ischium
- Single bone 3. Pubis
- Proximal end articulation - Pelvic girdle — two coxal bones, sacrum
○ Head articulates with the glenoid - Pelvis — two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
cavity of the scapula - The total weight of the upper body rests on
- Distal end articulation the pelvis
○ Trochlea and capitulum articulate - Pelvis protects several organs
with the bones of the forearm ○ Reproductive organs
○ Urinary bladder
● The Forearm has Two Bones ○ Part of the large intestine

1. Ulna ➔ The Female’s Pelvis

- medial bone in anatomical position - Inlet is larger and more circular
- Proximal end articulation - Shallower, on the whole, and the
bones are lighter and thinner
 - Ilia flare more laterally ● Foot
- Sacrum is shorter and less curved
- Ischial spines are shorter and farther ➔ Tarsals
apart; thus, the outlet is larger - 7 bones
- Pubic arch is more rounded - Two largest tarsals are the:
because the angle of the pubic ○ Calcaneus (heel bone)
arch is greater ○ Talus

❖ Bones of the Lower Limbs ➔ Metatarsals

- 5 bones form the sole of the foot
● Femur
- thigh bone ➔ Phalanges
- The heaviest, strongest bone in the - 14 bones form the toes
body
- Proximal end articulation ★ JOINTS
○ Head articulates with the - Joints are articulations
acetabulum of the coxal (hip) ○ Occur where two or more bones meet
bone - Functions of joints
- Distal end articulation ○ Hold bones together securely
○ Lateral and medial condyles ○ Allow for mobility
articulate with the tibia in the lower - Two ways joints are classified
leg ○ Functionally
○ Structurally
● The Lower Leg has Two Bones
❖ Functional Joint Classification
1. Tibia
- shinbone; larger and medially ➔ Synarthroses
oriented - Immovable Joints
- Proximal end articulation
○ Medial and lateral condyles ➔ Amphiarthroses
articulate with the femur to - Slightly Movable Joints
form the knee joint
- Distal end articulation ➔ Diarthroses
○ Medial malleolus forms the inner - Freely Movable Joints
part of the ankle
❖ Structurally Joint Classification
2. Fibula
- thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia ➔ Fibrous Joints
- Has no role in forming the knee joint - Generally Immovable
- Distal end articulation
○ Lateral malleolus forms the ➔ Cartilaginous Joints
outer part of the ankle - Immovable or Slightly Immovable

➔ Synovial Joints
- Freely Movable
● Fibrous Joints ➔ Tendon Sheath
- Bones are united by fibrous tissue - Elongated bursa that wraps around a
- Types tendon
○ Sutures
- Immobile ➢ Types of Synovial Joints based on Shape
○ Syndesmoses ○ Plane joint
- Allow more movement than ○ Hinge joint
sutures but still immobile ○ Pivot joint
- Found on the distal ends of tibia ○ Condylar joint
and fibula ○ Saddle joint
○ Gomphoses ○ Ball-and-socket joint
- Immobile
- Found where the teeth meet ★ Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
the facial bones
● Birth to Adulthood
● Cartilaginous Joints - First “long bones” of a fetus are hyaline
- Bones are connected by fibrocartilage cartilage
- Types - Earliest “flat bones” of the fetal skull are
○ Synchrondosis fibrous membranes
- Immobile - As fetus grows, all bone models are
- Found in epiphyseal plates of converted to bone
growing long bone
○ Symphysis ● Fetal Skull
- Slightly movable - Fontanels are fibrous membranes
- Found in the pubic symphysis, connecting the cranial bones
intervertebral joints ○ Known as “soft spots”
○ Allow skull compression during birth
● Synovial Joints ○ Allow the brain to grow during later
- Articulating bones are separated by a pregnancy and infancy
joint cavity ○ Usually ossify by 2 years of age
- Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
- Four distinguishing features of synovial ➢ Growth of cranium after birth is related to brain
joints growth
1. Articular Cartilage ○ Increase in size of the facial skeleton
2. Articular Capsule follows tooth development and
3. Joint Cavity enlargement of the respiratory
4. Reinforcing Ligaments passageways

➔ Bursae ➔ Size of cranium in relationship to body

- flattened fibrous sacs ○ 2 years old—skull is three-fourths the size
- Lined with synovial membranes of adult skull
- Filled with synovial fluid ○ 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult in
- Not actually part of the joint size and proportion
○ Between ages 6 and 11— the face
grows out from the skull
➔ Skeletal Changes
- At birth, the head and trunk are
proportionately much longer than
the lower limbs
- During puberty:
○ Female pelvis broadens
○ Entire male skeleton becomes
more robust
- By the end of adolescence:
○ Epiphyseal plates become fully
ossified

➔ Older Adults
○ Osteoporosis
- Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
■ 50 percent of women over
age 65
■ 20 percent of men over age
70
- Disease makes bones fragile,
and bones can easily fracture
- Vertebral collapse results in
kyphosis (also known as
“dowager’s hump”)
- Estrogen aids in health and
normal density of a female
skeleton
MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LEC)
Chapter 6: The Muscular System
● Skeletal Muscle
❖ The Muscular System - Most skeletal muscle fibers are
- Muscles are responsible for all types attached by tendons to bones
of body movement - Skeletal muscle cells are large,
- Three basic muscle types are found cigar-shaped, and multinucleate
in the body - Also known as striated muscle because
1. Skeletal Muscle of its obvious stripes
2. Cardiac Muscle - Also known as voluntary muscle
3. Smooth Muscle because it is the only muscle tissue
subject to conscious control
❖ The Muscle Types
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells ➔ Skeletal muscle cells are surrounded
are elongated (muscle cell = and bundled by connective tissue
muscle fiber)
- Contraction and shortening of ➢ Endomysium
muscles are due to the movement - Encloses a large muscle fiber
of microfilaments
- All muscles share some terminology ➢ Perimysium
○ Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to - Wraps around a fascicle
“muscle” (bundle) of muscle fibers
○ Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”
➢ Epimysium
- Covers the entire skeletal
muscle

➢ Fascia
- On the outside of the
epimysium
 ➔ The epimysium of skeletal muscle ❖ Muscle Functions
blends into a connective tissue - Whereas all muscle types produce
attachment movement, skeletal muscle has three
other important roles:
➢ Tendons ○ Maintain posture and body position
- cordlike structures ○ Stabilize joints
- Mostly collagen fibers ○ Generate heat
- Often cross a joint because of
their toughness and small size ❖ Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

➢ Aponeuroses ● Banding Pattern of Myofibrils

- sheetlike structures
- Attach muscles indirectly to ➔ I Band
bones, cartilages, or - light band
connective tissue coverings - Contains only thin filaments
- Z disc is a midline interruption
● Smooth Muscle
- No striations ➔ A Band
- Involuntary—no conscious control - dark band
- Found mainly in the walls of hollow - Contains the entire length of the
visceral organs (such as stomach, thick filaments
urinary bladder, respiratory passages) - H zone is a lighter central area
- Spindle-shaped fibers that are - M line is in center of H zone
uninucleate
- Contractions are slow and sustained

● Sarcomere
- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
- Structural and functional unit of skeletal
muscle

● Cardiac Muscle ➔ Organization of the Sarcomere

- Striations - Myofilaments produce banding
- Involuntary (striped) pattern
- Found only in the walls of the heart ○ Thick filaments = myosin
- Uninucleate filaments
- Branching cells joined by gap ○ Thin filaments = actin filaments
junctions called intercalated discs
- Contracts at a steady rate set by
pacemaker
 ➢ Thick Filaments = Myosin Filaments ➔ Contractility
- Composed of the protein - ability to forcibly shorten when an
myosin adequate stimulus is received
- Contain ATPase enzymes to split
ATP to release energy for ➔ Extensibility
muscle contractions - ability of muscle cells to be stretched
- Possess projections known as
myosin heads ➔ Elasticity
- Myosin heads are known as - ability to recoil and resume resting
cross bridges when they link length after stretching
thick and thin filaments during
contraction ❖ The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential
- Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a
➢ Thin Filaments = Actin Filaments motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
- Composed of the contractile - Motor unit — one motor neuron and all the
protein actin skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that
- Actin is anchored to the Z disc neuron

➔ At rest, within the A band there is a ● When a nerve impulse reaches the axon
zone that lacks actin filaments called terminal of the motor neuron,
the H zone
➔ During contraction, H zones disappear Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium
as actin and myosin filaments overlap ions enter the axon terminal

Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some

synaptic vesicles to release acetylcholine
(ACh)

Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft

and attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma
of the muscle cell
● Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
- Specialized smooth endoplasmic Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the
reticulum sarcolemma becomes temporarily more
- Surrounds the myofibril permeable to sodium ions (Na+ )
- Stores and releases calcium - Potassium ions (K+ ) diffuse out of
the cell
❖ Stimulation and Contraction of Single - More sodium ions enter than
Skeletal Muscle Cells potassium ions leave
- Establishes an imbalance in which
● Special functional properties of skeletal interior has more positive ions
muscles (depolarization), thereby opening
more Na+ channels
➔ Irritability (also called responsiveness)
- ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus
 Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium
channels that allow sodium ions to enter
the cell
- An action potential is created
- Once begun, the action
potential is unstoppable
- Conducts the electrical impulse
from one end of the cell to the
other

Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

breaks down acetylcholine into acetic
acid and choline
- AChE ends muscle contraction
- A single nerve impulse ❖ Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding
produces only one contraction Filament Theory

● Cell returns to its resting state when, ● What causes filaments to slide?
- Calcium ions (Ca2+ ) bind regulatory
1. Potassium ions (K+ ) diffuse out of the proteins on thin filaments and expose
cell myosin-binding sites, allowing the myosin
2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium heads on the thick filaments to attach
and potassium ions back to their - Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin
original positions filaments to slide toward the center of the
sarcomere
- Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens
➔ Events of Neuromuscular Conjunction - During a contraction, a cross bridge
attaches and detaches several times
- ATP provides the energy for the sliding
process, which continues as long as
calcium ions are present

➔ Diagrammatic View of a Sarcomere

 ➔ Schematic Representation of ● Muscle Response to Increasingly Rapid
Contraction Mechanism: The Sliding Stimulation
Filament Theory
➔ Muscle Twitch
- Single, brief, jerky contraction
- Not a normal muscle function

➔ In most types of muscle activity, nerve

impulses are delivered at a rapid rate
➔ As a result, contractions are “summed”
(added) together, and one contraction is
immediately followed by another

❖ Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a

Whole

● Graded Response
- Muscle fiber contraction is
“all-or-none,” meaning it will contract
to its fullest when stimulated ➔ When stimulations become more frequent,
adequately muscle contractions get stronger and
- Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all smoother
fibers may be stimulated during the ➔ The muscle now exhibits unfused
same interval (incomplete) tetanus
- Different combinations of muscle fiber
contractions may give differing
responses
- Graded responses—different degrees
of skeletal muscle shortening

➔ Graded Responses can be Produced in ➔ Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved

Two Ways: when the muscle is stimulated so rapidly
- By changing the frequency of that no evidence of relaxation is seen
muscle stimulation ➔ Contractions are smooth and sustained
- By changing the number of muscle
cells being stimulated at one time
❖ Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit ➔ Resistance (Isometric) Exercise
- If muscle activity is strenuous and - Weight lifting
prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs - increases muscle size and strength
- Suspected factors that contribute to - Individual muscle fibers enlarge
muscle fatigue include:
○ Ion imbalances (Ca2+ , K+ ) ❖ Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names
○ Oxygen deficit and lactic acid - Follow the Five Golden Rules for
accumulation understanding skeletal muscle activity
○ Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
- After exercise, the oxygen deficit is
repaid by rapid, deep breathing

❖ Types of Muscle Contractions

● Isotonic Contractions
- Myofilaments are able to slide past
each other during contractions
- The muscle shortens, and movement
occurs
- Example: bending the knee; lifting ❖ Types of Body Movements
weights, smiling - Muscles are attached to no fewer than
two points
● Isometric Contractions 1. Origin: attachment to an immovable or
- Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but less movable bone
the muscle is pitted against an 2. Insertion: attachment to a movable
immovable object bone
- Tension increases, but muscles do not - When the muscle contracts, the insertion
shorten moves toward the origin
- Example: pushing your palms together - Body movement occurs when muscles
in front of you contract across joints

❖ Effect of Exercise on Muscles

- Exercise increases Muscle size, strength,
and endurance

➔ Aerobic (Endurance) Exercise

- Biking, jogging
- results in stronger, more flexible
muscles with greater resistance to
fatigue
- Makes body metabolism more
efficient
- Improves digestion, coordination
● Flexion ➢ Plantar Flexion
- Decreases the angle of the joint - Pointing the toes away from the head
- Brings two bones closer together
- Typical of bending hinge joints (e.g., ➢ Inversion
knee and elbow) or ball-and-socket - Turning sole of foot medially
joints (e.g., the hip)
➢ Eversion
● Extension - Turning sole of foot laterally
- Opposite of flexion
- Increases angle between two bones ➢ Supination
- Typical of straightening the elbow or - Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces
knee anteriorly
- Extension beyond 180º is - Radius and ulna are parallel
hyperextension
➢ Pronation
● Rotation - Forearm rotates medially so palm faces
- Movement of a bone around its posteriorly
longitudinal axis - Radius and ulna cross each other like
- Common in ball-and-socket joints an X
- Example: moving the atlas around the
dens of axis (i.e., shaking your head ➢ Opposition
“no”) - Moving the thumb to touch the tips of
other fingers on the same hand
● Abduction
- Movement of a limb away from the ❖ Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
midline
● Prime Mover
● Adduction - muscle with the major responsibility for a
- Opposite of abduction certain movement
- Movement of a limb toward the
midline ● Antagonist
- muscle that opposes or reverses a prime
● Circumduction mover
- Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction ● Synergist
- Common in ball-and-socket joints - muscle that aids a prime mover in a
- Proximal end of bone is stationary, and movement or reduces undesirable
distal end moves in a circle movements

➔ Special Movements ● Fixator

- specialized synergists that hold a bone still
➢ Dorsiflexion or stabilize the origin of a prime mover
- Lifting the foot so that the superior
surface approaches the shin
(toward the dorsum)
❖ Naming Skeletal Muscles
- Muscles are named on the basis of
several criteria
○ By direction of muscle fibers
■ Example: rectus (straight)
○ By relative size of the muscle
■ Example: maximus (largest)
○ By location of the muscle
■ Example: temporalis (temporal
bone)
○ By number of origins
■ Example: triceps (three heads)
○ By location of the muscle’s origin
and insertion
■ Example: sterno (on the
sternum)
○ By shape of the muscle
■ Example: deltoid (triangular)
○ By action of the muscle
■ Example: flexor and extensor
(flexes or extends a bone)