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CHAPTER 3 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION.

3.1 INTRODUCTION. This section explains magnetic particle inspection, its purposes, and capabilities. This method is used for detecting discontinuities in ferromagnetic parts. The part is magnetized by using an electrical current that induces a magnetic field in the part. A discontinuity, which crosses the magnetic field, creates north and south poles on either side of the defect area. When magnetic particles are applied to the part, the poles attract the particles and an indication of the discontinuity is formed. Magnetic field characteristics are described, as well as the various techniques and equipment used to magnetize and demagnetize components under inspection. 3.1.1 Purpose Of MPI.

NOTE
The terms MPI, MPT and MT are used interchangeably in this chapter. Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) or magnetic particle testing (MPT or MT) is a nondestructive inspection method used to reveal surface and near sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. It consists of three basic steps: a. b. c. Establish a suitable magnetic field in the part. Apply magnetic particles to the surface of the part. Examine and evaluate any particle accumulations on the surface of the part.

3.1.2 Limitation of Magnetic Particle Inspection. Magnetic particle inspection can detect discontinuities only in parts made of ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic particle inspection method will detect surface discontinuities, including those that are too fine to be seen with the naked eye and those that lie slightly below the surface. 3.1.3 Discontinuity versus Defect. Discontinuities may exist in raw materials, be formed during processing or fabrication of parts, or result from service use. Discontinuities are considered defects only if their existence is detrimental or harmful to the usefulness of the parts. 3.1.4 Magnetization. a. A part is said to be magnetized when it is ferromagnetic and contains a magnetic field. An electric current can be used to create or induce magnetic fields in ferromagnetic materials. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetizing current. The current direction is selected to induce a magnetic field that is transverse to the orientation of a suspected discontinuity. The strength and distribution of the field are varied by the changing the nature of the magnetizing current. Understanding how different types of current can change the magnetization within a part is necessary for the proper application of magnetic particle testing.

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b. When a surface or near-surface discontinuity interrupts the magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material, some of the field is forced out into the air above the discontinuity resulting in a leakage field. The size and strength of the leakage field depend on the size and proximity to the surface of the discontinuity. The discontinuity is detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles that are applied to a parts surface and are attracted to the leakage field. This collection of particles indicates the presence and location of the discontinuity.

3.1.5 Basic Terminology. The following terms and definitions are basic to an understanding of the MPT method. a. Coercive Force. The negative or reverse applied magnetizing force (H) necessary to reduce the residual magnetizing force (B) to zero in a ferromagnetic material, after magnetic saturation has been achieved. The magnitude and direction of this force are represented by the line OG in Figure 3-16. Direct Contact Magnetization. Use of current passed through the part via contact heads or prods to produce a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic. A term that describes a material that exhibits both magnetic hysteresis and saturation, and whose magnetic permeability is dependent on the magnetizing force present. In magnetic particle testing, we are concerned only with ferromagnetic materials. Field, Circular Magnetic. The magnetic field surrounding the flow of electric current. For magnetic particle testing, this refers to current flow in a central conductor or the part itself. It is best characterized as having no magnetic poles present. Field, Longitudinal Magnetic. A magnetic field that results in magnetic poles. An example would be the field that exists in a bar magnet. Field, Magnetic. The term used to describe the volume within and surrounding either a magnetized part or a current-carrying conductor wherein a magnetic force is exerted. Field, Magnetic Leakage. The magnetic field outside of a part resulting from the presence of a discontinuity, a change in magnetic permeability, or a change in the parts cross-section. Flux Density, Magnetic (B). The strength of a magnetic field, expressed in flux lines per unit crosssectional area. Flux Lines or Lines of Force. A conceptual representation of magnetic flux that can be illustrated by the line pattern produced when iron filings are sprinkled on paper laid over a permanent magnet Hysteresis, Magnetic. The behavior of ferromagnetic materials that results from both the retentivity and the coercive force being greater than zero. Induced Current Magnetization. Use of current induced in a part to produce a magnetic field. Magnetizing Current (I). The flow of either alternating or direct current used to induce magnetism into the part being inspected. The magnetizing field applied to a ferromagnetic material to induce

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

k. l.

m. Magnetizing Force (H). magnetization. n.

Magnetic Permeability (). The ease with which a ferromagnetic part can be magnetized. It is equal to the ratio of the flux density (B) produced to the magnetizing force (H) inducing the magnetic field. It

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changes in value with changes in the strength of the magnetizing force. A metal that is easy to magnetize, such as soft iron or low carbon steel, has a high permeability or is said to be highly permeable. o. Residual Magnetism. The magnetic field that remains in the parts when the external magnetizing force has been reduced to zero. Retentivity. The property of a material to remain magnetized after the magnetizing force has been removed. Metals, such as hard steel with its high percentage of carbon, which retain a strong magnetic field after removal of the magnetizing current have high retentivity, or are said to be highly retentive. Saturation, Magnetic. The level of magnetism in a ferromagnetic material where the magnetic permeability is equal to 1. This is characterized as that level where an increasing in magnetizing force (H) results in no greater increase in magnetic field (B) than would occur in a vacuum or air.

p.

q.

3.1.6

Magnetic Field Characteristics.

3.1.6.1 Horseshoe Magnet. A familiar type of magnet is the horseshoe magnet as shown in (See Figure 3-1). This is a permanent magnet and possesses only residual magnetism. It will attract ferromagnetic materials to its ends or poles between which a leakage field occurs. By convention, these ends are commonly called north and south poles, indicated by N and S on the diagram. Continuous magnetic flux lines, or lines of force in leakage fields, flow from the north to the south pole. These same flux lines continue through the magnet. In an ideal horseshoe magnet, the flux lines leave only at the poles and consequently an external magnetic force capable of attracting magnetic materials exists only at the poles. This is an example of a longitudinal magnetic field. In a real horseshoe magnet very small discontinuities are distributed throughout creating small, weak and very localized leakage fields distributed over the surface of the magnet.

Figure 3-1. Horseshoe Magnet. 3.1.6.1.1 If the shape of an ideal horseshoe magnet is changed as shown in Figure 3-2, the ends will still attract other magnetic materials. However, if the ends of the magnet are fused or welded into a continuous ring as shown in Figure 3-3, the magnet will no longer attract or hold exterior magnetic materials. This is because the north and south poles no longer exist; thus a large leakage field does not exist. The magnetic field will remain as shown by the arrows, but there is no attraction for external ferromagnetic materials. This is an excellent example of a circular magnetic field. The change in magnetic field from longitudinal to circular by fusing the ends of the magnet is caused by the elimination of the large north and south poles present in the horseshoe magnet.

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Figure 3-2. Horseshoe Magnet with Poles Close Together.

Figure 3-3. Horseshoe Magnet Fused into a Ring. 3.1.6.1.2 A transverse crack in the fused magnet or circularly magnetized part (see Figure 3-4) will create a leakage field with north and south poles on either side of the crack. Some of the magnetic flux (lines of force) will exit the metal and form a leakage field. Magnetic materials or particles will be attracted by the leakage field created by the crack, forming an indication of the discontinuity in the metal part. This is the principle whereby magnetic particle indications are formed.

Figure 3-4. Crack in Fused Horseshoe Magnet.

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3.1.6.2 Bar Magnet. 3.1.6.2.1 If the shape of the magnet is straightened, as shown in Figure 3-5, a bar magnet is created. The bar magnet has poles at either end and magnetic lines of force that flow through the length of it and return around the outside of it. Magnetic particles will be attracted only to the poles (in the ideal case). Such a piece is said to have a longitudinal field, or to be longitudinally magnetized.

Figure 3-5. Horseshoe Magnet Straightened to Form a Bar Magnet. 3.1.6.2.2 A transverse slot or discontinuity in the bar magnet that crosses the magnetic flux lines will create north and south poles on either side of the discontinuity (see Figure 3-6). The resulting leakage field will attract magnetic particles. In a similar manner, a crack, even though it is very fine, will create magnetic poles as indicated in Figure 3-7. These poles will also produce a leakage field that can attract magnetic particles. The strength of the leakage field will be a function of the number of flux lines (i.e. the strength of the internal field), the depth of the crack, and the width of the air gap at the surface. The strength of this leakage field, in part, determines the number of magnetic particles that will be gathered to form indications. Clear indications are found at strong leakage fields, while weak indications are formed at weak leakage fields.

Figure 3-6. Slot in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles.

Figure 3-7. Crack in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles.

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3.1.6.3 Electricity and Magnetism. Electric current can be used to create or induce magnetic fields in parts made of ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic lines of force are always aligned at right angles (90) to the direction of electric current flow. It is possible to control the direction of the magnetic field by controlling the direction of the magnetizing current. This makes it possible to induce magnetic lines of force so that they intercept defects at right angles. 3.1.6.4 Magnetic Attraction. Magnetic attraction can be explained using the concept of flux lines or lines of force. Each flux line forms a closed continuous loop, which is never broken. For a circularly magnetized object, the flux lines are wholly contained in the object (ideal case). No external magnetic poles are present and therefore there is no attraction for other ferromagnetic objects. For a longitudinally magnetized object, the flux lines leave and enter at magnetic poles. The flux lines always leave a ferromagnetic material at right angles to the surface. They always seek the path of least resistance, i.e. maximum permeability and minimum distance. When a piece of soft iron is placed in a magnetic field it will develop magnetic poles. These poles will be attracted to the poles of the magnetic object that created the initial field. As it approaches closer to the source original field, more flux lines will flow through the piece of iron, thus creating stronger magnetic poles and further increasing the attraction. This concentrates the lines of flux into the easily traversed (high permeability) iron path rather than the alternative low permeability air paths. This is magnetic attraction and is the reason magnetic particles concentrate at leakage fields. The leakage field is established across an air gap of relativity low permeability at the discontinuity. Since they offer a higher permeability path for the flux lines, the magnetic particles are drawn to the discontinuity and bridge the air gap to the extent possible. 3.1.6.5 Effects Of Flux Direction. The magnetic field must be in a favorable direction, with respect to a discontinuity, to produce an indication. When the flux lines are parallel to a linear discontinuity, the indications formed will be weak. The best results are obtained when the flux lines are perpendicular (at right angles) to the discontinuity. Note: When an electrical magnetizing current is used, the best indications are produced when the path of the magnetizing current is parallel to the discontinuity. 3.1.6.6 Circular Magnetization. A circular magnetic field always surrounds a current carrying conductor, such as a wire or a bar (see Figure 3-8). The direction of the magnetic lines of force (magnetic field) is always at right angles to the direction of the magnetizing current. An easy way to remember the direction of magnetic lines of force around a conductor is to imagine that you are grasping the conductor with your right hand, so that the extended thumb points parallel to the electric current flow. The fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. Conversely, if the fingers point in the direction of current flow, the extended thumb points in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. This is called the right hand rule.

Figure 3-8. Magnetic Field Surrounding an Electrical Conductor. 3.1.6.6.1 Since metals are conductors of electricity, an electric current passing through a metallic part creates a magnetic field as shown in Figure 3-9. The magnetic lines of force are at right angles to the direction of the current. This type of magnetization is called circular magnetization because the lines of force, which represent the direction of the magnetic field, are circular within the part.

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Figure 3-9. Magnetic Field in Part used as a Conductor.

3.1.6.6.3 Circular Magnetization with Inspection Equipment. One method of creating or inducing a circular field in a part with stationary MPT equipment is to clamp the part between two contact plates and pass current through the part as indicated in Figure 3-10. A circular magnetic field is created within the part. If a longitudinally aligned crack or discontinuity exists within the part, a leakage field will be established at the site of each crack or discontinuity. The leakage field will attract magnetic particles to form an indication of the discontinuity.

Figure 3-10. Creating a Circular Magnetic Field in a Part 3.1.6.6.3.1 For hollow or tube-like parts, it is important to inspect both the inside and outside surfaces. When such parts are circularly magnetized by passing the magnetizing current through the part, the magnetic field on the inside surface is negligible. To understand this, consider that a circular field exists externally to the net current flow only, not internally as well. To produce a magnetic field on both surfaces of the part, a separate conductor, such as a copper rod, is positioned inside the hollow part. Since a circular magnetic field surrounds such conductors when an electric current is passed through them, it is possible to induce a satisfactory magnetic field that is strongest on the hollow parts inside surface. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3-11 and Figure 3-12.

Figure 3-11. Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize a Cylinder.

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Figure 3-12. Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize Ring-Like Parts. 3.1.6.7 Longitudinal Magnetization. Electric current can also be used to create a longitudinal magnetic field in a test part with a current carrying encircling coil. Application of the right hand rule to any segment of a coiled conductor will show that the field within the coil consists of contributions from each turn of the coil and is aligned lengthwise as indicated as shown in Figure 3-13.

Figure 3-13. Magnetic Lines of Force (Magnetic Field) in a Coil. 3.1.6.7.1 In Figure 3-14a. If a part is placed inside a coil; the magnetic lines of force created by the coil are aligned along the longitudinal axis of the coil. If the part is ferromagnetic, the high permeability concentrates the lines of flux within the part and induces a strong longitudinal magnetic field. 3.1.6.7.2 Longitudinal Magnetization with Inspection Equipment. Inspection of a cylindrical part using longitudinal magnetization is shown in Figure 3-14b. When a transverse discontinuity exists in the part, as in the illustration, a magnetic leakage field is formed at the crack location. This attracts magnetic particles, forming an MPI indication of the transverse discontinuity. Compare Figure 3-14b with Figure 3-10, and note that in both cases, a magnetic field has been induced in the part that is at right angles to the defect. This is the most desirable condition for reliable inspection.

Figure 3-14a. Longitudinal Magnetic Field Produced in a Part Placed in a Coil.

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Figure 3-14b. Longitudinal Field produced by the Coil Generates an Indication of Crack in Part. 3.1.6.8 Multi-Directional Magnetic Field. Two separate fields, having different directions, cannot exist in a part at the same time. However, two or more fields in different directions can be imposed upon a part sequentially in rapid succession. When this is done, magnetic particle indications can be formed when discontinuities are located favorably with respect to the directions of any of the applied fields, and will persist as long as the rapid alternations of field direction continue. This enables the detection of defects oriented in any direction in one operation. The indications must be viewed when the fields are being applied because they are weakly held after the current is discontinued and can be easily dislodged. 3.1.6.9 Parallel Current Induced Magnetic Field. If a ferromagnetic bar is placed alongside, and parallel to, a conductor carrying current, a field will be set up in the bar that is more transverse than circular (see Figure 3-15). Such a field is of very little use for magnetic particle testing. Operators have tried to use this method as a substitute for a headshot for the purpose of producing circular magnetization. The field produced is not circular and is extremely limited in the transverse direction when inspecting for defects such as seams. Furthermore, the external field around the conductor and the bar can attract magnetic particles and produce confusing backgrounds.

Figure 3-15. Field produced in a Bar by a "Parallel" Current 3.1.7 Current Sources For Generation Magnetic Field. There are specific types of current used in magnetic particle testing. They are Straight Direct Current (DC); Single Phase Alternating Current (AC); Three Phase AC; Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWRAC or HWDC); Full Wave Rectified AC; and Three-Phase Full Wave Rectified AC (commonly known as DC). Of these, three types of magnetizing current are most often used in magnetic particle inspection. Only one type is generally best suited for each type of inspection to be performed. Alternating current (AC) is preferred for the detection of surface discontinuities. Direct current (DC), full-wave direct current, or half-wave direct current (HWDC) can be used for both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

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3.1.7.1 Alternating Current (AC). Alternating current, which is single phase when used directly for magnetizing purposes, is taken from commercial power lines or portable power sources and is can be 50 or 60 Hertz. Magnetizing currents up to several thousand amperes are used, derived from step-down transformers connected to common line voltages, e.g., 115, 230, or 460 volts. 3.1.7.2 Direct Current (DC). Rectified alternating current is by far the most satisfactory source of direct current. By the use of rectifiers, commercially available single and three phase AC can be converted to a unidirectional current. Rectified three phase AC is equivalent to straight DC, but exhibits a slight ripple. 3.1.7.3 Half Wave Rectified Single Phase Alternating Current (HWDC). Half-wave rectified single phase AC results in a pattern of unidirectional current flow made up of positive half cycles of the original AC waveform. The negative (reverse) half of each cycle is completely blocked out. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current. That is, the current rises from zero to a maximum and drops back to zero (replicating the ACs half cycle), is blocked during the reverse cycle (no current flows), and then repeats the first half cycle. This type of current is also called Half-Wave Direct Current (HWDC). 3.1.7.4 Full Wave Rectified Single Phase Alternating Current (FWDC). This pulsating unidirectional current is sometimes used in MPT for certain special purpose applications. In general, however, it possesses no advantage over single-phase half-wave rectified waveforms. Because of its extreme ripple, it is not as satisfactory as rectified three phase current when DC is required. Further, it is more costly since it draws a higher average current from the AC line than does rectified half-wave AC for a given magnetizing strength. 3.1.7.5 Induced Current Magnetization. When direct current in a circuit is instantly cut off, the field surrounding the conductor collapses, or falls rapidly to zero. If an electrically conductive ferromagnetic material is present in such a field, the collapse of that field will induce a current in the material the same direction as present in the neighboring conductor before cut-off. This phenomenon can be used to solve specific magnetizing problems that have no other practical solution. A useful application of the collapsing field technique has been found in the inspection of ring-shaped parts, such as bearing races, without the need to make direct contact with the surface of the part. Regardless of the type of magnetizing current employed, whether DC, AC, or half-wave, the induced current technique is usually faster and more satisfactory than the contact method. Only one operation is required, and the possibility of damaging the part due to arcing is completely eliminated since no external contacts are made on the part. 3.1.8 Ferromagnetic Material Characteristics. All ferromagnetic materials, after having been magnetized, will retain some residual magnetic field. The strength and direction of the residual field depend upon all the magnetizing forces applied since the material was last demagnetized and the retentivity of the material. The manner in which ferromagnetic materials respond to magnetizing forces is most often portrayed in a plot of the flux density (B) as a function of the magnetizing force (H). The flux density (B) is the number of magnetic lines of flux that are formed per cross-sectional area as a result of the magnetizing force (H). For an encircling coil, the magnetizing force is the accumulative effect of each turn of the coil and the current passing through it. Therefore, H equals the current passing through the coil, multiplied by the number of turns in the coil. Figure 3-16 shows a typical B-H curve for a ferromagnetic material starting in a demagnetized condition and then cycled to saturation in two opposite directions.

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Figure 3-16. Hysteresis Curve for a Ferromagnetic Material 3.1.8.1 Hysteresis Curve. The magnetic field within an unmagnetized piece of steel is zero. As the magnetizing force (H) is increased from zero, the flux density (B) within the part will also increase from zero. The curve from points A to E in Figure 3-16 illustrates this behavior. In the region of point E, the flux density increases up to a point and then tends to level off; this condition is called magnetic saturation and for a magnetically saturated ferromagnetic material, the relative permeability () is approximately equal to 1. When the magnetizing force is reduced to zero the flux density does not return to zero. Instead, the flux density returns to a value shown at point F in Figure 3-16. This is the amount of residual magnetism resulting from the applied magnetizing force (H) that reached the point E in the hysteresis curve. As the magnetizing force (H) is increased from zero in the opposite direction, the flux density (B) will decrease to zero, as shown at point G in Figure 3-16, and then start to increase to point I. The magnetizing force (H) represented by the distance OG on the H axis in Figure 3-16 is called the coercive force. It represents the strength of the magnetizing force (H) required to reduce the flux density (B) to zero in a saturated ferromagnetic material. A further increase in the magnetizing force (H) to the point I results in saturation of the material in a direction opposite to that represented by point E. Reduction of the magnetizing force (H) to zero from point I will reduce the flux density (B) to the value represented by point J. Application of a magnetizing force (H) in the original direction will change the flux density (B) as shown in the portion JK of the hysteresis curve. Increasing the magnetizing force (H) sufficiently will return the material to saturation as illustrated at point E. 3.1.8.2 Magnetic Domains. The behavior of ferromagnetic materials resulting in properties evidenced by hysteresis curves can be explained in terms of magnetic domains. Domains are small regions within a ferromagnetic material that have a permanent magnetic flux density (B) that is not equal to zero. In a completely demagnetized ferromagnetic material, the domains are randomly oriented resulting in an overall flux density of zero. When saturated, the domains are all aligned in the direction of the applied field. When the applied field is removed, after saturation, some domains return to their previous orientation but most remain aligned in the direction of the previously applied field. This results in the residual magnetism observed in ferromagnetic fields. The magnetic behavior then is a result of behavior of the domains within the ferromagnetic material. Magnetization is the alignment of domains in a single direction; demagnetization is a randomization of the alignment of the domains resulting in a zero net residual magnetism.

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3.1.8.3 Demagnetization. Ferromagnetic materials subjected to magnetic particle inspection are usually demagnetized following their inspection. The problem of demagnetization may be easy or difficult depending on the type of material, part geometry, and magnetic field orientations used. Demagnetization involves subjecting a magnetized part to a continuously reversing magnetic field that gradually decreases in strength. This action reduces the strength of the residual magnetic field in the part. Although some residual magnetization will remain, this method can reduce the residual magnetic field to acceptable levels. Note that materials heated above their Curie temperature become non-magnetic, thus offering another method of demagnetization. 3.1.8.3.1 There are a number of methods of demagnetization available with varying degrees of effectiveness. They can be explained with the hysteresis loop shown in Figure 3-16. Nearly all are based on the principle of subjecting a part to a continually reversing magnetic field that gradually reduces in strength down to zero. This is illustrated in Figure 3-17. The waveform is shown at the bottom of the graph of the reversing current used to generate the hysteresis loops. As the current diminishes in value with each reversal, the loop shrinks and traces a smaller and smaller path. 3.1.8.3.2 The waveform at the upper right of Figure 3-17 represents the flux in the part as indicated on the diminishing hysteresis loops. Both current and flux waveforms are plotted against time, and when the current reaches zero the residual field in the part will also have approached zero. Precautions to be observed in the use of this principle are: a. Be certain that the magnetizing force is high enough at the start to overcome the coercive force, and to reverse the residual field initially in the part. The decrease between successive reductions of current is small enough so that the reverse magnetizing force will be able, on each cycle, to reverse the field remaining in the part from the previous reversal.

b.

Figure 3-17. Flux Waveform During Demagnetization, Projected from the Hysteresis Loop.

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3.1.8.3.3 Frequency of reversals is an important factor affecting the success of this method. With high frequency of current reversals, the field generated in the part does not penetrate deeply into the part section since penetration decreases as frequency increases. At a frequency of perhaps one reversal per second, penetration of even a large section is probably near 100%. For moderate sized parts, the 50 or 60 hertz commercial frequencies of alternating current give quite satisfactory results. 3.1.8.4 Limitations of Demagnetization. Complete demagnetization is usually not possible, even though it is often specified. All practical demagnetization methods leave some residual field in the part. Therefore, demagnetization is either the best effort that existing means permit or reduction in magnetism to a residual level considered permissible in the particular part involved. It is extremely difficult to bring the steel back to the original zero point by any magnetic manipulation. In fact, it is so difficult that for all practical purposes, it may be said that the only way to completely demagnetize a piece of steel is to heat it to its Curie temperature or above, and cool it with its length directed east and west in order to avoid magnetization by the earths field. This method of demagnetization is never used because it is not only impractical but such heating will alter the properties of the part. 3.1.8.4.1 It must be remembered that the earths magnetic field can determine the lower limit of practical demagnetization. Long parts, or assemblies of long parts, such as welded tubular structures, are especially likely to remain magnetized, at a level determined by the earths field, in spite of the most careful demagnetization technique. 3.1.8.4.2 Many articles and parts become quite strongly magnetized from the earths field alone. Handling of parts, such as transporting from one location to another, may produce this effect. Long bars, demagnetized at the point of testing, have been found magnetized at the point of use. It is not unusual to find that steel aircraft parts are magnetized after having been in service for some time, even though they may never have been near any intentionally produced magnetic field. Parts may also become magnetized by being near electric lines carrying heavy currents, or near some form of magnetic equipment. 3.1.8.4.3 The limits of demagnetization may be considered to be either the maximum extent to which the part can be demagnetized by available procedures, or the level to which the terrestrial (earths) field will permit it to become demagnetized. These limits may be further modified by the practical degree or limit of demagnetization that is actually desired or necessary. 3.1.9 Magnetizing Equipment.

3.1.9.1 General. Selection of magnetic particle inspection equipment must consider the type of current to be used and the location and nature of inspection. Magnetic particle inspection equipment must provide a rapid and convenient means for magnetizing each part in a reliable and reproducible manner. 3.1.9.2 Stationary Equipment. A variety of stationary, bench-type MPT units are available, with many characteristics that fit different testing requirements. The smaller size units are used for small parts easily transported and handled on the unit by hand. The larger ones are used for heavy parts such as long engine crankshafts, where handling must be by crane. Such units are made to deliver AC or DC with various types of current control. 3.1.9.3 Mobile Equipment. Mobile magnetic particle equipment delivering AC or half-wave DC magnetizing currents up to 6000 amperes are available. Such equipment is used when it is necessary to conduct inspections in another shop area or in the field. This type of equipment is sturdy and well suited for both fabrication and overhaul inspections.

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3.1.9.4 Portable Equipment.

CAUTION
Contact prods shall not be used on aerospace components or parts, and SHALL be labeled: NOT FOR AIRCRAFT USE. Portable MT units are manufactured in a variety of sizes, shapes, voltages, and current outputs. Portable equipment operates on the same principle as stationary equipment. However, the compactness allows areas to be inspected where larger equipment may prohibit access. Portable equipment is usually operated on 110 or 220 volt AC and is rated between 200 and 1000 amperes. Portable equipment can be either AC, or a combination of AC and halfwave DC. Portable equipment is suitable for examining small areas in large components where suspected cracks may be found. For example, critical engine mount fittings and landing gear assemblies, which are difficult to inspect in stationary units, can be examined quickly with minimum disturbance and with attention concentrated on points most subject to cracking. Portable equipment can be moved to large items in need of magnetic particle testing and inspections can often be performed without disassembly. 3.1.9.5 Contact Prods.

CAUTION
When parts are being magnetized by the use of spring loaded contact clamps to generate circular magnetization, the contact clamps shall not conduct more than 800 amperes. When a part is too large to fit into a stationary unit, or if only mobile or portable equipment is available, then the part, or areas of the part, can be magnetized using cables and two hand-held prods. The current passing between the two contact prods creates a circular field. Great care must be used to prevent local overheating, arcing, or burning the surface being inspected, particularly on high-carbon or alloy materials where hard spots or cracks could be produced. 3.1.9.6 Contact Clamps. Contact clamps can be used with cables instead of contact prods, particularly when the parts are relatively small in diameter. Parts, like engine mounts and tubular structures, are inspected by positioning the clamps so that current passes through the area under inspection. Care must be used to avoid burning of the part under the contact clamps. Burning and heating may be caused by dirty contacts, insufficient contact clamp pressure, or excessive currents. Cracks may be produced as a result of the transient heating. 3.1.9.7 Hand probe Or Yoke. For occasional inspections of small parts and localized inspection of large parts, magnetic hand probes or yokes are often adequate and easy to use. Probes or yokes are able to put a strong magnetic field into that portion of the part that lies between the poles of the probe or yoke. Hand probes or yokes can be excited by either AC or DC electrical currents, or they can be a permanent magnet. 3.1.9.8 Electromagnetic Probe or Yoke. Electromagnetic probes or yokes are U-shaped cores of soft iron with a coil wound around the base of the U (see Figure 3-18). When alternating current or rectified alternating current is passing through the coil, the core is magnetized. This produces an electromagnetic probe or yoke that functions similarly to a permanent horseshoe magnet. A probe or yoke may be used to induce only a longitudinal field in a part. No electrical current passes through the part.

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Figure 3-18. Electromagnetic Probe or Yoke 3.1.9.9 Alternating Current (AC) Yoke. Alternating current, which is single phase when used directly for magnetizing purposes, usually has a frequency of 50 or 60 Hertz. The AC longitudinal magnetizing field induced in the part is restricted to the surface due to its skin effect. AC provides a very desirable field for maintenance and overhaul inspection work due to its high sensitivity to surface defects. The peak AC current produces a surge peak in the magnetic field that is well above the average DC current required to develop a field of equivalent strength. 3.1.9.9.1 AC magnetic fields form eddy currents that tend to guide or restrict the magnetic lines of flux into a narrow pattern between the poles. Another by-product is a vibratory action at the work piece, which adds mobility to the inspection particles to form larger and more distinct build up of particles at the defect. 3.1.9.9.2 An AC magnetic field can be used when it is necessary to discriminate between surface indications and subsurface defects that might be revealed with a DC magnetizing field. Yokes utilizing AC magnetization also have the additional advantage that they can be readily used for demagnetization. 3.1.9.10 Direct Current (DC) Yoke. An electro-magnet powered by DC provides a very strong magnetic field. However, being a constant field and lacking any vibratory action, it is sometimes difficult to gather enough particles at the defect to form a visible indication. To overcome this difficulty, full-wave or half-wave rectified single-phase alternating current is used. This adds mobility to the magnetic inspection particles comparable to that produced by AC. 3.1.9.11 Permanent Magnet Yoke. Permanent magnets can be used to magnetize parts for MPT. This method of magnetization has severe limitations and is properly used only when these limitations do not prevent the formation of satisfactory leakage fields at discontinuities. 3.1.9.11.1 Permanent magnets create longitudinal fields. The poles created on the parts can result in confusing particle indications. Control of field direction is possible only over a limited area. A permanent bar magnet, set on end on the surface of a steel plate, creates a radial field in the plate around the pole at the end of the bar as shown in Figure 3-19. The flux of this field leaves the plate surface at some distance from the point of contact to return to the pole at the opposite end of the magnet. Cracks crossing such a field pattern can be indicated provided the field produced in the plate is sufficiently strong. When the poles of a permanent magnet yoke are placed upon the surface of a steel plate or part, the field travels through the object from one pole of the yoke to the other. The flux generally follows along a straight line drawn between the poles, and is strongest near the poles of the yoke and weakest at the point midway between the poles. The magnetic field strength within the part depends on the strength of the yoke magnetization and the distance between the poles. Cracks at right angles, or nearly so, to this line can be indicated, provided the field

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strength is adequate. Outside this limited area, the field spreads out, and cracks favorably located with respect to field direction may or may not be shown, again depending on the place where they occur. Figure 3-19 illustrates the uses of permanent magnets for magnetization of parts. This method of magnetization should be used only by experienced operators who are aware of and understand the limitations of the technique.

Figure 3-19. Magnetization with a Permanent Magnet 3.1.9.11.2 Some of the other drawbacks to the use of permanent magnets are: a. b. The strength of the field is not continuously variable. Large areas or masses cannot be magnetized with enough strength to produce satisfactory crack indication It may be difficult to remove a strong magnet once it is in contact with the part.

c.

3.1.9.12 Special Purpose Equipment. Special units are those, which have been specifically designed to take, care of unusual situations where standard units are inappropriate. They may be special as to the method of magnetization or particle application, or be designed to handle unusual size, shape, or number of parts. They may or may not be automatic. Special units can be further broken down into two groups: a. Special-purpose units are those that are built to do a single testing job. This special job may be a variation in magnetization technique, in the way the magnetic particles are applied, or in the way parts are handled. They may be for a single-purpose in which case they are to test a single type of part and no other possibly by a special processing technique. They may be general-purpose, in which case they are designed to apply a special magnetization or processing technique to a variety of parts. Automatic units are those in which part or all of the handling and processing steps are performed automatically. Either single-purpose or general-purpose units may be partly or entirely automatic. Even standard units, by addition of standard accessories, may be made automatic in some of their functions. The principal purpose of automatic units is to speed up the inspection cycle. This is accomplished through automation of one or more of the important steps involved in any given testing operation.

b.

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3.1.9.12.2 Multidirectional Magnetization. Complex-shaped parts can be sometimes inspected rapidly with equipment capable of producing magnetic fields in two mutually perpendicular directions in rapid succession. For large parts such as shipyard castings, the equipment produces three phase full wave rectified AC and rapidly switches it between several different magnetizing modes. An alternate approach, used for smaller parts, is to use each of the three phases, either rectified or unrectified, for a separate magnetizing mode. Such equipment can then apply up to three magnetizing modes in rapid succession to a part. 3.1.9.12.2.1 The multidirectional units produce the multidirectional magnetization effect by rapidly changing the magnetizing directions. For equipment utilizing the switched mode of operation, the switching can be on the order of 0.1 seconds. For the other type of equipment, the magnetizing modes are out of phase by 120 degrees. For 60-Hertz current this is equivalent to switching magnetization directions in less than 0.006 seconds. These units are capable of producing indications of discontinuities with widely differing orientations in a single operation, thus saving the time to conduct two or more separate inspections with different magnetic field excitation setups. It is not possible to estimate the required magnetizing currents before hand to produce the required magnetic field strengths and directions. Consequently, sensors must be used to determine the resulting strength and orientation of the magnetic fields in order to develop valid inspection techniques with multidirectional magnetization methods. 3.1.9.12.3 Induced Current Magnetization. When inspecting ring-like parts for defects in a circumferential direction, the induced current technique can sometimes be used to good advantage. As an example, a ring-shaped part is placed inside and concentric to a magnetizing coil being excited with AC (see Figure 3-20). A laminated ferromagnetic core is placed inside the part and parallel to the axis of the coil in order to concentrate the magnetic field. The time-varying AC induces eddy currents in the test piece, which in turn induce a circular magnetic field within the test part. Such a field is used to detect circumferential defects within the test part.

Figure 3-20. Current and Field Distribution in a Bearing Race being magnetized by the Induced Current Method 3.1.9.12.3.1 The core piece used should be laminated and made of low retentivity iron. If the part is ring-shaped, the core length should be approximately equal to the ring diameter or longer, but never less than six inches, and must be centered in the part. For a disc-shaped part with no bore, shorter core pieces should be placed on either side of the disc so that they are parallel to the axis of the part. In some cases it is advantageous to shape the ends of the core pieces adjacent to the part to facilitate bath application. Since the induced current method does not require contacting the part, there is no danger of local part overheating.

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3.1.9.12.4 Hand-Held Coil. For longitudinal magnetization of shafts, spindles, rear axles, and similar small parts, the hand-held AC coil offers a simple and convenient method of inspecting for transverse cracks. Parts are magnetized and demagnetized with the same coil. 3.1.9.12.5 Demagnetizing Equipment. The most common type of demagnetizing equipment consists of an open, tunnel-like coil through which AC is passed at the line frequency, usually 60-Hertz. The larger type equipment is frequently placed on its own stand, incorporating a track or carriage to facilitate moving large and heavy parts through the demagnetizing equipment. The demagnetizing equipment can also include tabletop units, yokes, or plug-in coils that are more suited for the demagnetization of small parts. However, the large stationary type equipment is preferable when geometrically complex parts are involved. The use of demagnetization and demagnetization equipment s discussed in detail in Section 6.

SECTION II PRE- AND POST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY

3.2 3.2.1 PRE- AND P0ST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY. Pre-Inspection Cleaning.

3.2.1.1 Definition. Pre-cleaning is the removal of all foreign material (paint, grease, oil, corrosion, layout dye, wax crayon markings, etc.) which may interfere with magnetic particle testing that has accumulated since the general cleaning operation but prior to inspection. 3.2.1.2 Necessity for Pre-Inspection Cleaning. Parts or surfaces should be clean and dry before they are subjected to any magnetic particle inspection process. The cleaning process used must not reduce the effectiveness of the inspection process that follows. The cleaning process is required to remove all contaminants, foreign matter, and debris that might interfere with the application of current or the movement of the magnetic particles on the test surface. Note, however, that thin coatings such as cadmium, chromium or paint, if in good condition, will not interfere with the inspection process and do not necessarily have to be removed. 3.2.2 Considerations when selecting A Cleaning Process. No single cleaning method can assure removal of all types of contaminants. Most methods are limited to the removal of only a few types of contaminants. Further, some cleaning methods require equipment that may not be adaptable to the specific job conditions, i.e., such as cleaning large parts or cleaning in place on an aircraft. Finally, some processes may cause corrosion of the part to be inspected. The cleaning process must then be chosen with knowledge of the contaminant, the alloy and the accessibility of the part to be inspected. 3.2.3 Typical Cleaning Methods.

CAUTION
Improper cleaning procedures/materials can cause severe damage. Cleaning should be accomplished by trained and qualified personnel. For Air Force personnel, T.O. 1-1-691 applies. For Navy personnel, use NA 0l-lA-509. For Army personnel, use TM1-1500-344-23.

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Residues from cleaning processes can remain on the part surface and become contaminants. Paint removers can leave sticky residues that either trap particles or contaminate recirculating baths. Section 3 of Chapter 6 contains a detailed discussion of cleaning methods. The following is a brief summary. a. Alkaline cleaners are non-flammable water solutions containing alkaline detergents that can remove certain types of oils by saponifying (converting the oil to soap) or displacement. They can be used hot or cold, as a dip or as a spray. Solvent cleaners dissolve oil, wax, grease and some other contaminants. They can be applied by spraying, wiping, or dipping. Solvent cleaners are an efficient and practical means of removing light preservatives and soil from parts taken out of storage for magnetic particle inspection prior to use. This also includes light soils that accumulate during transit and handling from the cleaning shop, but prior to being subjected to the inspection process. Mechanical methods, such a wire brushing or abrasive blasting, can be used to remove rust or other corrosion deposits. These methods, if used improperly, can damage parts and conceal discontinuities and should only be used as directed. Paint removers can be a solvent, bond release agent, softening agent or combination. Steam cleaning is a form of alkaline or detergent cleaning and can remove loosely bound inorganic contamination and many organic contaminants from the test surfaces. Ultrasonic cleaning combines solvent or detergent cleaning with very vigorous mechanical action to loosen contaminants.

b.

c.

d. e.

f.

3.2.4

Surface Preparation.

3.2.4.1 Considerations when using The Dry Powder MPI Technique. In general, the smoother the surface of the part to be tested and the more uniform its color, the more favorable are the conditions for the formation and the observation of the powder pattern. This applies particularly to inspections being made on horizontal surfaces. For sloping and vertical surfaces, the dry powder may not be held on a very smooth surface by a weak leakage field. The surface should be clean and dry and free of oil and grease. The dry particles will stick to wet or oily surfaces and not be free to move over the surface to form indications. This may completely prevent the detection of significant discontinuities by obscuring the flaw indications with a heavy background. On surfaces that have been cleaned of grease by wiping with a rag soaked in a high boiling point solvent, such as naphtha, a thin film of unevaporated solvent often remains that is sufficient to interfere with the free movement of the magnetic particles. This film can be removed by wiping the surface with a clean, dry cloth, flushing with a low boiling point solvent, or dusting the surface with chalk or talc from a shaker can, and then wiping the surface with a clean dry cloth. An initial application of the dry magnetic powder itself, followed by wiping, can also provide a surface over which a second application of powder will move readily. 3.2.4.1.1 Any loose dirt, paint, corrosion or scale can be removed with a wire brush, by shot or grit blasting, or other means. If cleaning is done with shot or grit blasting, there is a peening effect, especially on softer steels, which may close up fine surface discontinuities. The effect is more pronounced with shot than with grit, but if these cleaning methods are used the operator should be aware of the danger of missing very fine cracks. A thin, hard, uniform coating of corrosion or scale will not usually interfere with the detection of any but the smallest defects.

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3.2.4.1.2 Paint or plating on the surface of a part has the effect of making a surface defect behave like a subsurface defect. The relative thickness of the plating or paint film and the size of the defects sought, determine whether or not the coatings should be stripped. The dry method is more effective than the wet method in producing indications through such nonmagnetic coatings. If fine cracks are suspected, the surface should be stripped of the coating if its thickness exceeds 0.003 inch. Most coatings of cadmium, nickel or chromium are usually thinner than this, and the plating makes an excellent background for viewing indications. Hot galvanized coatings are thicker than 0.003 inch, and in general should be removed before inspections. Broken or patchy layers of heavy scale or paint also tend to interfere by holding powder around the edges of the breaks or patches and should be removed if they are extensive enough to interfere with the detection of discontinuities. 3.2.4.1.3 When preparing for contact testing, nonconductive coatings shall be removed from the contact areas. 3.2.4.2 Considerations when using The Wet Suspension MPI Technique. In general the same requirements apply for the wet method as for the dry technique. Dirt, corrosion, loose scale or paint and oil or grease should be removed. When preparing for contact testing, nonconductive coatings shall be removed from the contact areas. The test surface should be free of contaminants that can dissolve into the inspection bath. Such dissolved contaminants can become concentrated in a recirculating test bath and increase its viscosity, or its background fluorescence, or both. This will gradually retard the forming of indications, and make fluorescent indications increasingly hard to see. Insoluble particulate contaminants on the surface, such as corrosion, sand, and grit can accumulate in a recirculating wet bath to the point where they interfere with the formation and visibility of indications, and force the bath to be discarded sooner than normal. 3.2.4.2.1 Further problems can arise with the wet method of inspection if surface contaminants are present. Moisture on the test surface can be emulsified into an oil bath and cause the magnetic particles to coagulate and settle out of the bath, where they are no longer available to form indications. Oil or grease can harm aqueous inspection baths in two ways. First, their presence on the test surface can either prevent the bath from wetting and covering the entire surface, or can cause the bath to peel off the surface, stripping any indications off with it. Second, the oil can be emulsified in an aqueous bath, and again coagulate the magnetic particles. 3.2.4.3 Plugging and Masking. When it is possible for the inspection media to become entrapped or to damage components, plugging and/or masking SHALL be employed. Plug small openings and holes with hard grease or similar nonabrasive readily soluble material. This prevents the accumulation of the magnetic particles and carrier liquid where it cannot be completely and readily removed by conventional cleaning and air blasting. 3.2.5 Post Inspection Cleaning.

CAUTION
All plugs and masks shall be removed after post-inspection cleaning. 3.2.5.1 Necessity for Post Inspection Cleaning.

3.2.5.1.1 Particles. The magnetic particle inspection process leaves behind at least a scattering of magnetic particles that are abrasive. This may or may not be harmful to the later reuse of the part subjected to the inspection process. Where this slight residue cannot be tolerated, it must be removed. When its presence makes no difference, post-inspection cleaning can be eliminated. Dry magnetic particle inspection leaves only the particles behind. These particles are fairly coarse, quite abrasive, and probably magnetically bonded to the test surface. The wet method magnetic particles are much finer than the dry method magnetic particles (0.0002 inch instead of 0.002 inch to 0.006 inch in diameter), and they are

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softer though still somewhat abrasive. On highly polished surfaces, residual powder from the bath can contribute to rapid corrosion. 3.2.5.1.2 Vehicle. The wet method inspection process will normally leave the carrier liquid or vehicle on the test surface. If the vehicle is oil, it can be removed by vapor degreasing or solvent cleaning. If the vehicle is water, the residue will consist of wetting agents and water soluble corrosion inhibitors, which may be removed with a plain water rinse or spray. Regardless of the type of vehicle used, the part should be cleaned as soon as possible after inspection and demagnetization. 3.2.5.2 Methods.

CAUTION
Post-cleaning methods that use water can cause corrosion of the test surfaces if the water is not promptly removed. Thoroughly dry off the surfaces by wiping, heating or blowing off with properly regulated compressed air. Regardless of whether the wet or dry visible or fluorescent magnetic particle inspection process is used, once the carrier liquid or vehicle is removed, the requirement for removal of the magnetic particles is the same. Thoroughly demagnetize the part, and then remove the magnetic particles by wiping or scrubbing. Cleaners or detergents cannot break the magnetic attraction. The particles cannot be dissolved from the surface, as they are a ferrous oxide. Mechanical scrubbing or detergent washing may be necessary. Solvents may be used to remove the residue, and in some cases the use of ultrasonic cleaning has been successful. 3.2.5.3 Requirements Following Post Inspection Cleaning. After inspection by the wet method using a petroleum distillate as the bath liquid, the surfaces of parts are left vulnerable to corrosion. The bath vehicle is, by specification, free of any residual non-volatile material, and when it dries it leaves no protective film. Every effort shall be taken to clean a part and apply a protective finish as soon as possible after the inspection. When water is the vehicle of the bath, the dried film on the surface of a part consists of the various conditioners that have been used in the bath formulation in addition to the residual magnetic particles. One of the conditioners is a corrosion inhibitor, so that some corrosion protection is afforded by this inhibitor after testing. However, this is by no means permanent and a protective finish should be applied as soon as possible. 3.2.5.3.1 In the event a functional material, such as oil, grease or anti-seize compound, is removed from the part to facilitate inspection, the same material shall be reapplied after the part has been inspected. 3.2.6 Disassembly Requirements.

3.2.6.1 Requirements. It is usually preferable to disassemble parts before inspection for the following reasons: a. b. Disassembly makes all surfaces and areas accessible. Boundaries between two magnetic pieces, or between a magnetic and a non-magnetic piece, will create a leakage field that may confuse inspection. It is usually easier to handle disassembled parts.

c.

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3.2.6.2 Considerations. If the critical area of an assembly is completely accessible for inspection without any disassembly, and if the inspection medium (magnetic powder or paste) can be removed after inspection, then it is acceptable to inspect those area or parts in place without disassembly. For example, steel propeller blades may be inspected in the blade area when they are in place on the aircraft, but to inspect the shank area, which is concealed by the hub, it is necessary to disassemble.

SECTION III MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

3.3 3.3.1 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES. General. a. Magnetic particle inspection is a method of nondestructive testing that uses very small ferromagnetic particles to reveal discontinuities in parts capable of being magnetized. Magnetizable parts are those parts made of metals classed as ferromagnetic. To find flaws in metals that are not ferromagnetic, such as aluminum, titanium, brass, etc., other inspection methods must be used. This section includes a description of the types of electric currents used; the various techniques, procedures and equipment used to magnetize parts; and the kinds of magnetic particles available for either wet or dry application. Special magnetization techniques are also included.

b.

3.3.2 Factors determining the choice Of Technique. The choice of technique for a particular magnetic particle inspection depends upon: a. b. c. The type of discontinuity or defect being sought. The part's material, shape, and size. The magnetic particle inspection equipment available.

3.3.3 Technique Variations. The following points must be considered and the appropriate alternatives selected in order to achieve a particular inspection result. A discussion of each alternative and the effect that it has upon the results of the inspection will follow. a. b. c. d. Type and amount of electric current to be used for magnetization. The direction of the resultant magnetic fields obtained using these currents. The kind of magnetic particles to be used, i.e., wet or dry. How the inspection media is to be applied.

3.3.4 Types Of Electric Current. Commonly, three types of electric current are used in magnetic particle inspection: alternating current (AC), direct current (DC), and half-wave direct current (HWDC). Alternating current is used for the detection of surface discontinuities only, whereas direct or half-wave direct currents are used for both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

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3.3.4.1 Alternating Current (AC). The use of alternating current in magnetic particle inspection is effective only for the detection of surface discontinuities that comprise the majority of service-induced defects. Fatigue, overload and stress corrosion cracks are examples of cracks usually open to the surface. 3.3.4.1.1 The shallow penetration of AC fields into the part at the usual power line frequencies of 50 and 60 Hertz precludes the use of AC for the detection of subsurface discontinuities. The shallow penetration is due to a skin effect. The skin effect is the crowding of magnetic flux or electric current outward and away from the part center. The crowding phenomenon is caused by self-induced flux or currents that reduce the interior density of the flux or current. The skin effect is the reason AC is recommended when inspecting for service-induced surface defects. However, the skin effect of AC is less at lower frequencies, resulting in deeper penetration of the lines of force. At 25 Hertz, the penetration is considerably deeper, and at frequencies of 10 Hz and less, the skin effect is almost nonexistent. 3.3.4.1.2 The alternating currents used in magnetic particle inspection have low excitation voltages. Currents, from stationary equipment, range from about 100 amperes to 10,000 amperes depending upon the test part and the magnetization technique. The high currents are obtained using step-down transformers that reduce line voltages to about 20 volts. Lower amperages are available from hand-held devices that operate from standard 115-volt outlets. Alternating current (AC) and half-wave direct current (HWDC) are obtained from single-phase systems or from one phase of three-phase systems. Full-wave direct currents (DC) are usually obtained from three-phase systems using full-wave, three-phase bridge rectifiers. 3.3.4.1.3 If the defects sought are at the surface, AC has several advantages. The rapid reversal of the field imparts mobility to the particles, especially to the dry powders. The "dancing" of the powder helps it to move to the area of leakage fields and to form stronger indications. This effect is less pronounced in the wet technique. 3.3.4.1.4 Alternating current has another advantage in that the magnetizing force is determined by the value of the peak current (at the top of the sine wave of the cycle). The peak current is 1.41 times greater than the current value read on the meter. Alternating current meters read more nearly the average current for the cycle rather than the peak value. To get equivalent magnetizing effect from straight DC, more power and heavier equipment are required. Thus AC equipment for a given output of magnetizing force can be lighter and less costly, and better adapted for portability. 3.3.4.2 Direct Current (DC). Magnetic fields produced by direct current penetrate deeper into a part than fields produced by alternating current, making possible the detection of subsurface discontinuities. For longitudinal magnetization DC magnetizes the entire part's cross-section more or less uniformly. For direct contact (circular) magnetization a straight-line gradient of strength (from a maximum at the surface to zero at the center) is experienced. Direct current generally is used with wet magnetic particle techniques. In the presence of DC fields dry powder particles are relatively immobile and tend to remain wherever they happen to land on the surface of a part. This is in contrast to what happens with dry powder particles in the presence of AC or HWDC fields. In these fields the particles have mobility on a surface due to the pulsating character of the fields. Particle mobility aids considerably in the formation of particle accumulations (indications) at discontinuities. 3.3.4.2.1 Pure direct current can be obtained from automotive type storage batteries. Today this technique is seldom used except occasionally in emergencies when a battery may be used to power a hand-held magnetizing device. The disadvantages of using batteries are their weight, when a number of them must be used to obtain high currents, the frequent charging and maintenance required, and their limited life and replacement cost.

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3.3.4.2.2 The prevailing approach for obtaining direct current for magnetic particle inspection is through rectification of alternating current using solid state rectifiers. A rectifier (diode) is a device that allows electric current to flow through it in only one direction. By proper connection of rectifiers, the back and forth flow of alternating current is converted to a current flow in only one direction. This is a form of direct current. A rectifier circuit, which converts both alternations (back and forth flow) of the alternating current to one direction of current flow, is called a full-wave rectifier. 3.3.4.2.3 Single-phase alternating current can be rectified using a full-wave rectifier circuit to obtain direct current for magnetic particle inspection. Single-phase rectification, however, is seldom used to obtain direct current, except in the case of small hand-held magnetizing devices. Since three-phase power is so readily available in industry, direct current for magnetic particle inspection units is usually obtained using three-phase full-wave rectifiers. 3.3.4.3 Comparison Of Results Using Different Types Of Current. Figure 3-21 is a comparison of indications of the same set of fine surface cracks on a ground and polished piston pin, obtained by using 60 cycle AC, DC from storage batteries (straight DC), and DC from rectified three-phase 60 cycle AC respectively. Four values of current were used in each case with a central conductor to magnetize the hollow pin. The indications produced with AC are heavier than the DC indications at each current level, although the difference is most pronounced at the lower current values. Straight DC and rectified AC are comparable in all cases. The AC currents are meter (R.M.S. or Root Mean Square) values, so that peak of cycle currents, and therefore magnetizing forces, are 1.41 times the meter reading shown.

Figure 3-21. Comparison of Indications of Surface Cracks on a Part Magnetized with AC, DC and Three Phase Rectified AC 3.3.4.3.1 Another comparison can be made using the Ketos ring specimen, the drawing for which is shown in Figure 3-22. The specimen, made of unhardened (annealed) tool steel (0.40 percent carbon), is 7/8 inch thick. Holes, 0.07 inch in diameter and parallel to the cylindrical surface, are located at increasing depths below the surface.

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Figure 3-22.

Drawing of a Tool Steel Ring Specimen (Ketos Ring) with Artificial Sub-Surface Defects

3.3.4.3.2 For the inspection of f inished parts, such as the machined and ground shaf ts and gears, direct current is frequently used. Although AC is excellent for the location of f ine cracks that actually break the surface, DC is better for locating the very f ine non-metallic stringers that can lie just under the surface. 3.3.4.3.3 These comparisons point up the importance of choosing the right current type to give the best indications possible, and show how the choice will vary, depending upon the nature and location of the defects sought. 3.3.4.3.4 Half-wave current provides the greatest sensitivity for detecting discontinuities that lie below the surface, particularly when using dry powder and the continuous technique. The pulsation of the half-wave current vibrates the magnetic particles, thereby aiding their migration across a surface to form indications at discontinuities. This particle mobility, which is very pronounced when dry magnetic powder is used, contrasts with the relative immobility of the powder when pure direct current is used. There is some skin effect when half-wave current is used, due to the pulsating magnetic f ields produced by this current. However, the effect on f ield penetration is small at the usual frequencies of 50 and 60 Hertz. 3.3.5 Particles. 3.3.5.1 Description. The particles used in magnetic particle testing are made of ferromagnetic materials, usually combinations of iron and iron oxides, having a high permeability and low retentivity. Particles having high permeability are easily attracted to and magnetized by the low-level leakage f ields at discontinuities. Low retentivity is required to prevent the particles from being permanently magnetized. Strongly retentive particles will cling together and to any magnetic surface, resulting in reduced particle mobility and increased background accumulation. 3.3.5.2 Types. Magnetic particles may be applied as a dry powder or wet suspension, in the latter case using either water or a high f lash point petroleum distillate as a suspension vehicle. Dry powders are available in various colors so the user can select the color that contrasts best with the color of the surfaces upon which they are used. Colors for use with ordinary visible light are red, gray, black or yellow. Red and black colored particles are available for use in liquid suspensions and visible light. Fluorescent yellow-green particles are used only in liquid suspensions.

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3.3.6

Suspensions. CAUTION The use of water suspensions SHALL be carefully controlled to prevent corrosion and provide wetting of ferromagnetic aerospace components. This requires weekly monitoring of corrosion inhibitor and wetting agent concentrations.

3.3.6.1 Water Suspensions. Wetting agents and corrosion inhibitors SHALL be used with water suspensions. Usually the magnetic particle concentrates provided include the correct amount of wetting agent and corrosion inhibitor for initial use. However, these materials are available separately so the concentrations can be maintained or adjusted to suit the particular conditions. If no corrosion can be tolerated, a higher concentration of corrosion inhibitor is used. Acidity should be checked weekly. The pH of the water bath shall be 6 to 10. If the parts being inspected have a residual solvent f ilm, more wetting agent is required so the parts surfaces will be completely wetted. Breaking of the bath into rivulets as it is applied over a part is an indication of a need for additional wetting agent or part cleaning. A water break test shall be conducted daily using a clean specimen or part having the smoothest surface f inish to be inspected. The specimen should be f looded with the bath and examined once f looding is stopped. If a smooth continuous f ilm of bath forms over the entire surface, suff icient wetting agent is present. If the f ilm breaks, wetting agent is inadequate if the part is not clean. Before adding wetting agent make certain the specimen or part is clean. Reference shall be made to the manufacturers recommendations for the correct quantity of wetting agent to be added. 3.3.6.2 Petroleum Distillate Suspensions. No additives other than the magnetic particles themselves are used with petroleum distillate suspensions. Petroleum distillate recommendations are included in other publications or specif ications. 3.3.7 Methods of Particle Application.

3.3.7.1 Dry Particles. Magnetic particles in dry form may be applied by hand, using rubber squeeze bulbs or plastic squeeze bottles equipped with perforated caps, similar to an ordinary salt shaker but with smaller holes. The objective is to lay down a light cloud of powder on the part being inspected; this is usually accomplished by using a combination of bulb squeezing and tossing of the powder toward the area being inspected. 3.3.7.2 Wet Particles. Many techniques are used to apply liquid suspension magnetic particles. They range from simple hand pouring of the suspension onto a part to large industrial systems in which the suspension is applied automatically, either by dumping or spraying. The most common technique for application is through the use of a hand-held nozzle and recirculating pump on stationary units. Occasionally small, hand-held, leveroperated sprayers are used. Aerosol-type containers similar to those used for spray painting are also available. 3.3.8 Techniques for Current/Particle Application. Two processing techniques are used in magnetic particle inspection. The approach to use in a given case depends upon the magnetic retentivity of the part being inspected and the desired sensitivity of the inspection to be made. Highly retentive parts may be inspected using what is called the residual technique. The other technique, continuous, must be used on parts having low retentivity. For a given magnetizing current or applied magnetizing f ield, the continuous approach offers the greatest sensitivity for revealing discontinuities. 3.3.8.1 Residual Technique. In the residual inspection technique, magnetic particles, either as a dry powder or in a liquid suspension, are applied af ter the parts have been magnetized. This technique is used only when parts are magnetized with DC and when parts have suff icient retentivity to form and retain adequate magnetic particle indications at discontinuities. This technique can be used with both longitudinal and circular magnetization with either direct contact or central conductor application. Usually it is limited to the search for discontinuities open to the surface such as cracks. Residual inspection permits the magnetizing of parts at one time and the application of magnetic particle media at some subsequent convenient time. When a central conductor is used, inspection of holes or bores is facilitated since inspection takes place af ter removal of the central conductor.

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3.3.8.1.1 Magnetic Writing. Care must be taken in the handling of parts that have been magnetized, particularly parts having smooth or machined surfaces, to avoid their being rubbed together or against other ferromagnetic parts. Such rubbing may produce localized magnetized areas on surfaces of parts that will attract and hold magnetic particles. Magnetic particle indications produced on these areas are non-relevant and are called magnetic writing. An inspector may notice that magnetic writing indications are not as sharp as those produced at surface cracks and is cautioned against misconstruing such indications as being caused by subsurface discontinuities. Whether an indication is caused by magnetic writing or by a subsurface discontinuity can be determined by demagnetizing and reprocessing the part. Demagnetizing will remove the magnetic writing. If the indication returns after demagnetizing and reprocessing, it is an indication of a discontinuity at or near the surface. 3.3.8.1.2 Currents used with the residual technique need be only great enough to magnetize the part sufficiently to show the type of discontinuity being sought. Some gross discontinuities may require only weakly magnetized parts, and others, being more difficult to find, may require the maximum residual field obtainable. The residual magnetic field retained in a part is always less than the applied magnetic field strength that produced it. A maximum residual field strength results when the magnetization level within the part reaches magnetic saturation. The use of magnetizing currents greater than those needed to produce the maximum saturation field strength, are of no value with the residual technique. 3.3.8.1.3 Inspector experience with typical parts that have discontinuities is very helpful to determine what current levels should be used to inspect a part using residual magnetism. In the absence of such experience, an inspector should first determine whether or not a part could be inspected using the residual approach. Any part to be inspected must be retentive enough so that magnetic particle indications will be formed at discontinuities in the parts. A rough determination of a part's retentivity can be made by magnetizing the part in a coil with the maximum DC current available. If, after magnetization, the part will lift and hold an ordinary steel paper clip, chances are good the part is retentive enough for residual inspection. If the part will not hold a paper clip, residual techniques may still be possible. The part could still be retentive enough to be inspected residually, depending upon the nature of the discontinuities expected to be found. In this case, the inspector must resort to testing of the part, or parts, using the continuous technique, inspecting for indications at discontinuities, then removing these indications and reapplying the magnetic particle media to see if residual indications are produced. The current used to form the indications found with the continuous technique will give an inspector some indication of the current level needed for residual inspection. 3.3.8.1.4 The application of magnetic particle media for residual inspection is simply a matter of covering the area to be inspected. Care should be taken with a liquid suspension to ensure that the parts are adequately covered using low velocity streams or sprays, and that the parts are positioned to take advantage of any particle flow resulting from drainage on a part's surface. Some parts may need a longer drain time than others, since on smooth surfaces indications may be slower in forming. In some cases, on bearing rollers for example, formation of fine indications may be enhanced by immersing the magnetized part in liquid media for a considerable time. This permits time for the leakage fields to attract and hold the maximum number of particles resulting in an increase in sensitivity. 3.3.8.1.5 Care must be taken when applying dry magnetic powders to parts that have been magnetized to avoid getting too much powder on a part's surface. A combination of a light blowing and tossing action is needed, either from a hand-held container or a pressurized powder blower. Additional care is also required when removing any excess powder from a surface so as not to hinder formation of indications or remove indications already formed. The use of dry powder with the residual technique has several disadvantages. It is more difficult to apply to interior surfaces of a part than is a liquid suspension and it is more difficult to completely cover a part in a short time. 3.3.8.1.6 Liquid suspensions may be applied by stream, spray, or immersion of the part in a tank containing the media. Extra care is required when using the immersion technique, particularly with parts that have smooth surfaces, to avoid removing any indications by the rapid removal of a part from the bath. To ensure uniform concentration the 3-27

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suspension must be continuously agitated. The concentration must be maintained within specified limits. Too weak a particle concentration will produce weak indications, and in borderline cases may cause fine discontinuities to go undetected. Equally undesirable, too heavy a concentration produces heavy background accumulations that reduce contrast. 3.3.8.1.7 Most magnetic particle indications produced using the residual technique appear quickly on a part. Longer times are required when discontinuities are extremely fine. Formation of the indications can sometimes be speeded up by holding the part in a position that will allow residual suspension drainage to flow across the suspected areas. In the case of a cylindrical part, it would be held in a near vertical position allowing the drainage flow across circumferential (transverse) cracks. 3.3.8.1.8 Although the residual technique is not as widely used today as the continuous technique, it does have some advantages that make it attractive in some circumstances. The residual approach is capable of close control, and of giving uniform results to a greater degree than the continuous technique. 3.3.8.2 Continuous Technique. The continuous technique is used primarily with liquid suspensions although occasionally dry powder is more appropriate. This technique requires that the magnetizing force be present while the liquid suspension is present on the part in sufficient quantity for the particles to be highly mobile. When the current is on, the maximum flux density will be created in the part and the maximum leakage flux will be present at a discontinuity to attract the magnetic particles to form an indication. To leave the current on for long periods of time is not practical or necessary in most instances. However, when using dry particles and either AC or HWDC as the magnetizing current, the current is sometimes kept on for minutes at a time. The heavy current required for proper magnetization can cause overheating of parts and contact burning or damage to the equipment if allowed to flow for any appreciable time. In practice, the magnetizing current is normally on for only a fraction of a second at a time since the real requirement is that a sufficient number of magnetic particles have been applied and are in the magnetized zone. These particles must be free to move while the magnetizing current flows. The bath ingredients are so selected and formulated that the particles can and do move through the film of liquid on the surface of the part and form strong, readable indications. This is one reason why the viscosity of the bath and bath concentration are so important, since anything that reduces the number of available particles or slows their movement will impede the build-up of indications. 3.3.8.2.1 The reason for greater sensitivity for the continuous method is simple and basic. When the magnetizing force is applied to a ferromagnetic part, the flux density rises. Its value or intensity is derived from the strength of the magnetizing force and the material permeability of the part. When the magnetizing force is removed, the residual magnetism in the part is always less than the field present while the magnetizing force was acting. The difference depends on the retentivity of the material. Consequently, the continuous technique, for a given value of magnetizing current, will always be more sensitive than the residual technique. The continuous technique can be faster than the residual since the indication starts to form at the time of magnetization, whereas the residual method requires magnetization and then application of particles, plus the added time for indications to build up if immersion is used. Parts made of low retentivity materials, such as low carbon steel must be inspected using the continuous technique since residual leakage fields at discontinuities in these materials are too weak to produce good magnetic particle indications. It is frequently used with AC on such materials because the alternating current field produces excellent mobility of the particles. 3.3.8.2.2 Liquid suspensions are usually used with the continuous technique. The exception is when small, subsurface defects must be found. In this case, under some conditions, a dry particle continuous technique can produce slightly greater sensitivity. Timing of the liquid suspension application and the magnetizing current is critical to form good indications. The area of the part to be inspected must be completely flooded with suspension and then the current SHALL be applied at least twice in rapid succession. Turning off or diverting the suspension flow before the final applications of current ensures that the force of the flow will not interfere with the formation of indications. Extra care 3-28

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must be taken with parts having low retentivity to minimize the risk of washing away an indication. On larger parts where the entire area of interest cannot all be flooded simultaneously, additional "shots" of current SHALL be applied immediately after the suspension application hose is moved away from each point of application. In addition to the minimum required current applications one or two current applications just before stopping the suspension application, if the equipment duty cycle permits, will help small indications to form. 3.3.8.2.3 It should be noted that the continuous technique requires more attention and alertness on the part of the inspector than does the residual. Careless handling of the suspension-current application sequence can interfere seriously with the results. Normally the duration of the magnetizing shots will vary from one-half second to 1 or 2 seconds, depending on the difficulty involved in showing the condition of interest. In some instances, when large forgings or steel castings are to be inspected with manual suspension application, the magnetizing current may be left on from 5 to 10 seconds during which time the part may be repeatedly swept with the suspension spray. The magnetizing field is maintained for a second or two after the final spray has ceased or been diverted. 3.3.9 Magnetic Field.

3.3.9.1 Direction. The proper orientation of the magnetic field in the part, in relation to the direction of the defect, is a more important factor than the value or amount of the magnetizing current. For reliable inspection, the magnetic lines of force should be at right angles to the defect to be detected. If the magnetic lines of force are parallel to the defect there will be little magnetic leakage at the defect, and therefore, if any indication is formed it is likely to be extremely small. 3.3.9.2 Amplitude.

3.3.9.2.1 Rule Of Thumb. ASTM E 1444, as did its predecessor MIL-STD-1949, suggests that sufficient magnetic field is present when an applied peak tangential field strength of 30 to 60 Gauss (Oersted) can be measured on the surface of the part where indications are expected to form. A recent study using DC magnetizing current confirmed that this field strength can produce good indications from small defects, with field strengths at less than this range, detectable indications can be produced. Other studies have suggested that while good to excellent indications of defects may be produced with a tangential field in the range of 30 to 60 Gauss (Oersted) and higher, the background produced from acceptable surface roughness may reduce the visibility of such indications. All studies agree that the rule of thumb formulae for estimating magnetizing currents, contained in ASTM E 1444 and reproduced in this section, will usually produce field strengths well in excess of 30 to 60 Gauss (Oersted) with the concurrent risk of producing a background that can hide defect indications. 3.3.9.2.2 Recommended. The most direct way of determining the magnetic field strength required would be to use a specimen representative of the parts to be inspected with a defect representative of those to be found. The specimen would be magnetized at sequentially higher field strengths until a good indication of the defect was formed without an excess of background from surface conditions. This magnetic field strength could then be measured and used for parts that are similar to the specimen utilized. Since suitable specimens are seldom available, an alternative is to use the techniques discussed in the following paragraphs to simulate a defect and measure the necessary magnetic field strengths. 3.3.9.3 Measurement. The measurement of magnetic flux or field strength, either within a part or at the part's surface, is extremely difficult. There are several practical methods or devices. These methods or devices have limitations. They do serve a purpose in technique development if their limitations are understood. 3.3.9.3.1 Hall Effect Gauss / Tesla Meter. This is a portable, hand-held digital instrument that can be used to measure magnetic-field strength. It applies a current to a Hall-effect probe or sensor and amplifies the output voltage that is proportional to the magnetic flux density that is present at the sensor and is at right angles to the applied current. It can be used in establishing MT testing 3-29

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procedures to indicate magnetic-field direction and to measure both applied and residual fields. One limitation is that it measures only the flux passing through the probe or sensor (Figure 3-23) and does not measure the field at or below the part surface.

a) Tangential b) Normal
(The arrow represents an external magnetic leakage field BL at the point of measurement.)

Figure 3-23. Hall-Effect Sensors. 3.3.9.3.2 Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI). The QQI is a small, thin, metal shim, made of a low carbon steel, that contains artificial defects for establishing or verifying MPI techniques. Examples of QQIs are illustrated in Figure 3-24. The artificial defects are formed by an etching process that can produce very narrow (0.005 inch) flaws with tightly controlled depths, typically 15%, 30% and 60% of a QQIs thickness. The thickness is either 0.002 or 0.004 inch. The basic QQI shim satisfies most needs because its circular and crossed-bar flaw configuration is suitable for longitudinal and circular fields. The bars in the cross are 0.25 inch long, while the circular slot is 0.5 inch in diameter. The circular flaw is especially useful in balancing multi-directional fields. The miniature shim is designed for small areas on a test part; each circle is 0.25 inch in diameter. The QQI with three concentric circular flaws with different depths (typically 20%, 30% and 40% of shim thickness) may be used for more quantitative assessment of a magnetic field; the diameters of the circles are 0.25, 0.375 and 0.5 inch in diameter. The linear shim is 2 inches long by 0.4 inch wide; it may useful in covering a curved area of a part, such as a radius.

Figure 3-24. Shim-Type Magnetic Flux Indicators 3.3.9.3.2.1 QQIs are intended for use with the continuous method only. If a Gauss/Tesla meter is available, readings for both circular and longitudinal fields can be made at the point of QQI attachment. Once the readings are recorded for a part, it may be quicker to use the meter instead of a QQI to ensure sufficient field strength when the same type of part is inspected later. 3.3.9.3.2.2 Advantages of the QQI. a. Only device able to demonstrate adequacy and balance of multidirectional magnetization.

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b. c. d. Quantitative to some extent. Ultra-high permeability. Virtually no rententivity. Can bend in one direction to conform to very tightly curved surfaces. The 0.002 thick QQIs can conform to radii down to about 1/8. Can be re-used with careful application and removal practice.

e.

3.3.9.3.2.3 Disadvantages of the QQI. a. b. c. d. Parts must be clean and dry for application. Usefulness readily destroyed with careless handling. Not well adapted to dry powder applications. Physical size limits application to some areas.

3.3.9.3.2.4 Application of the QQI. To be effective, the QQI must be placed flaw side down and in intimate contact with the part surface. Also, it must be emphasized that since the QQI responds to the field in its immediate vicinity, indications can be produced in the QQI when no other ferromagnetic material is present. Obviously, the primary rule of assuring that the part is ferromagnetic before attempting an inspection applies with the use of QQIs. 3.3.10 Sensitivity Level. Any factor that affects the formation of magnetic indications at a discontinuity affects the sensitivity of that magnetic particle inspection. Three of the most important factors are the field direction, current level and control of the magnetic particle inspection media. 3.3.10.1 Current Level. The formation of magnetic particle indications at discontinuities depends upon the strength of the corresponding leakage fields. Since the leakage fields result from the field generated by the magnetizing current, the greater the magnetizing current, the greater will be the strength of the leakage fields. Thus, the sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is directly related to the exciting current. A current level that is too low produces leakage fields too weak to form readily discernible indications; and a current level that is too high creates a heavy background accumulation of particles which masks an indication. In circular magnetization, a high current level may also burn the contact points of a part. 3.3.10.2 Inspection Media. Sensitivity level is affected not only by the current amperage, but also by the kind of magnetic particle inspection media, its control and its applications. 3.3.10.2.1 Liquid suspensions, because of the smaller particle sizes, are the most sensitive for the detection of surface discontinuities. Dry powders can be better for detecting subsurface defects. Fluorescent materials have a higher apparent sensitivity than do those used with visible light, such as the black and red particles. 3.3.10.2.2 Inspection of parts made of materials only moderately retentive requires careful control of the way the inspection media is applied. Usually, maximum sensitivity is obtained by applying the media while a part is being magnetized and ending it before the magnetizing field is removed. This is also true in the case of automatic wet-method inspection in which the main bath stream is shut off shortly before the magnetizing current is ended; to avoid washing off indications already formed. 3-31

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3.3.10.2.3 Particle concentration in the baths must be closely controlled if maximum sensitivity is to be obtained. Sensitivity is lowered if concentrations are too low due to the lack of sufficient magnetic particles to be readily discernible. If concentrations are too high, fine indications may be masked by heavy background accumulations. 3.3.10.2.4 Contaminants, particularly in wet baths, can result in lowered sensitivity. Lubricating oils and greases for example, cause a blue background fluorescence that reduces contrast, causing fluorescent particle indications to be less visible. 3.3.10.2.5 Sensitivity of dry powders depends upon the type of powder selected, how carefully it is applied, and its color. Most powders are made for general use and have a wide mix of particle sizes, so as to favor the detection of both fine surface and deep subsurface discontinuities. A powder color is usually selected which will provide the best color contrast with the color of the surface upon which it is being used. Care is needed in applying the powder. A light tossing and airblowing action is needed to allow the particles to migrate to and be held by the leakage fields at discontinuities. Excessive application of powder can cause indications to be lost in background accumulation. 3.3.10.2.6 The dry powder method is superior for locating defects lying wholly below the surface because of the high permeability and the favorable elongated shape of the particles. These form strings in a leakage field and bridge the area over a defect. 3.3.10.2.7 However, when the problem is to find very fine surface cracks, there is no question as to the superiority of the wet method, regardless of the form of magnetizing current used. In some cases, direct current is selected for use with the wet method to obtain the advantage of improved indications of discontinuities that lie just below the surface, especially on bearing surfaces and aircraft parts. The wet method offers the advantage of easy complete coverage of the surface of parts of all sizes and shapes. Dry powder is often used for very local inspections. 3.3.11 Circular Magnetization.

3.3.11.1 General. Circular magnetization is used for the detection of radial discontinuities around edges of holes or openings in parts. It is also used for the detection of longitudinal discontinuities, which lie in the same direction as the current flow, either in a part or in a part that a central conductor passes through. 3.3.11.1.2 A circular magnetic field is generated in a part whenever an electric current is passed through it or through an electrical conductor that passes through the part. The circular field around the inside of the part will be wholly contained within the part in the case of a concentric cylinder. No magnetic poles will be produced on the part. Poles will be produced if the part is not a concentric cylinder, is irregularly shaped, or the path of the current flow is not located on the part's geometric axis. The magnetic poles in these cases are caused by a relatively small portion of the magnetic flux that passes out of the part and into the air that surrounds the part. The no pole condition in a concentric cylinder occurs both while the magnetizing current is flowing and after current flow ceases. The part is thus residually magnetized, but since no magnetic poles exist, the part appears to be in an unmagnetized state. However, if the part is cut into, such as when a keyway is made, some of the field will pass out and over the cut, producing opposite magnetic poles on each side of the cut. Such poles can hold chips or metal that can interfere with subsequent machining operations or damage bearing surfaces. Care is needed in the case of circular magnetization, which may not be detectable, and appropriate means to ensure demagnetization must be taken. 3.3.11.1.3 Two techniques can be used to produce circular magnetization in a part: a. Direct Contact (Head Shot) Technique: Electric current is passed through the part itself.

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b. Central Conductor Technique: Electric current is passed through a central conductor that into an opening in the part. These techniques are discussed in more detail below.

3.3.11.2 Direct Contact (Head Shot) Technique. This technique produces circular magnetization by passing electric current through the part itself. Direct contact to parts is generally made by placing them between clamping heads. Lead faceplates and/or copper braid pads must be used to prevent arcing, overheating, and splatter. Wetting of the contact plates with the suspension vehicle before current application helps prevent overheating. On large parts, current contact is sometimes made by clamping lugterminated cables to the part using ordinary C-clamps. Regardless of how it is made, the electrical contact should be as good as practicable. This will minimize any heating or arcing at the juncture. This requires that the contact surfaces be clean and free of paint or similar coatings and have adequate pressure applied to achieve good mechanical and electrical contact over a sufficient area of the part's surface. Any excessive heating at the contact points may burn the part, affect its temper, finish, etc. 3.3.11.3 Central Conductor Technique. This technique produces circular magnetization by passing electric current through a conductor that has been placed coaxially in an opening, frequently in the center of a part. A magnetizing field does exist outside a central conductor carrying current, so the walls surrounding a central conductor become magnetized making possible the detection of discontinuities that parallel the central conductor. Central conductors are any conductive material such as a copper bar or cable placed in the center of the part to be magnetized. The central conductor technique SHALL be used if longitudinal discontinuities on the inside of tubular or cylindrically shaped parts are to be detected. Theoretically, the magnetic field is zero on the inside surface of such parts unless a central conductor is used. The direct contact technique may not produce reliable results in this case, particularly if the part is a concentric tube or cylinder with good current contact at each end. Either the central conductor or the direct contact technique can be used to detect discontinuities on the outside surfaces of such parts. Because the circular field around a central conductor is at right angle to the axis of the conductor, the central conductor technique is very useful for the detection of discontinuities that lie in a direction generally parallel with the conductor. The central conductor technique is also very useful for detecting discontinuities, usually cracks, which emanate radially from holes. A part having a hole or opening that is to be inspected for inside and outside discontinuities is usually positioned with the central conductor centered coaxially in the hole or opening. On very large parts having large openings the central conductor maybe located close to the inside surface and several inspections made around the inside periphery of the opening. Placing the conductor close to the inside surface reduces the current requirement since the strength of the circular field increases with decreased distance from the conductor. 3.3.11.4 Selection of Current Level.

3.3.11.4.1 General. A number of factors must be considered when determining what current amperage to use for circular magnetization. Some of the more important of these factors are: a. b. c. The type of discontinuity being sought and the expected ease or difficulty of finding it. The part's size, shape and cross-sectional area through which the current will flow. The amount of heating that can be tolerated in the part and at the current contact areas.

3.3.11.4.1.1 Another factor is the relationship between the current and the leakage fields at the surface of the part. The magnetizing force at any point on the outside surface of a part through which electric current is flowing will vary with the current. The greater the current, the greater will be this magnetizing force. Inside the part, just under the point on the surface, the magnetic flux density will be the product of this magnetizing force and the magnetic permeability of the part at that point. It is this magnetic flux density which determines the leakage field strength at discontinuities. Thus, current is directly related to the strength of leakage fields at discontinuities, and it is these leakage fields that capture and hold magnetic particles. The more difficult the discontinuities are to detect, the weaker the leakage fields will be for a given 3-33

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current level. A higher current will be required to form discernible magnetic particle indications. At the same time, leakage fields from minor surface variations can attract and hold the magnetic particles, forming a background that makes indications of true discontinuities less distinct. Increasing the magnetizing force or current will also increase the intensity of this background. The proper magnetizing force or current is then one strong enough to produce indications of the discontinuities that must be detected and yet is not too strong so that the background masks the indications sought. 3.3.11.4.2 Direct Contact. A problem arises when deciding what current is to be used for a given part, particularly when the part has a complicated shape. A rule of thumb from ASTM E 1444 suggests currents from 300 to 800 amperes per inch of part diameter when the part is reasonably uniform and cylindrical in shape. Except for some special alloys the use of current values in the upper half of this range will result in excessively high field strength thus impeding the detection of discontinuities. Generally, the diameter of the part SHALL be taken as the largest distance between any two points on the outside circumference of the part. However, as a starting point, use the lower limit of such rules of thumb as the initial magnetization current level. From this point, either with use of a gauss meter or shim indicators, the correct current level can be found. 3.3.11.4.2.1 The use of the rule-of-thumb for excitation currents is fairly straightforward in the case of uniform cylindrically shaped parts. On parts having complicated shapes, such as irregular forgings, machinery parts, weldments or castings, the use of any rule-of-thumb is often not practical. In these cases the inspector must rely on judgment and past experience and aids such as the shims or gauss meter previously discussed, to help in the selection of the optimum current level. Experience with similar parts, which do have discontinuities, is especially helpful in this respect. 3.3.11.4.3 Central Conductor. Induction current requirements using a central conductor will depend upon the part's size and the diameter of the opening through which the conductor is to be located. In the case of a centrally-located conductor, suggested currents from an old rule of thumb may range from 100 amperes per inch of hole diameter to as much as 1000 amperes per inch, depending upon part material and the nature of the suspected discontinuities. Keep in mind that the magnetizing field strength around a central conductor decreases with distance away from the conductor. The strongest flux field is present at the inner surface of the hole through which the central conductor passes as shown in Figure 3-25. Not only discontinuities that are parallel with the central conductor are detectable using the central conductor technique, but radial discontinuities at the ends of holes and openings can be detected, since some portion of the magnetic lines of force will intercept these discontinuities.

Figure 3-25. Magnetic Flux Distribution in a Central Conduction and a Cylindrical Test Part

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3.3.11.4.3.1 When using a central bar conductor, alternating current is only to be used when inspecting for surface discontinuities on the inside circumference of the part. If only the inside surface is to be inspected, the diameter shall be the largest distance between two points, 180 degrees apart, on the inside circumference. Otherwise the diameter shall be determined as indicated in paragraph 3.3.11.4.2. The central bar conductor should have an outside diameter as close as practically possible to the inside diameter of the hole of the part that is being inspected. 3.3.12 Longitudinal Magnetization.

3.3.12.1 General. A part is said to have been longitudinally magnetized when the field in it is approximately parallel with a major axis. A part magnetized in a coil, for example, will be longitudinally magnetized in a direction approximately parallel with the coil axis. A characteristic of a part that is magnetized longitudinally will be the appearance of opposite magnetic poles, north and south, at the extreme ends of the part. The existence of the poles is a disadvantage when magnetizing and inspecting because much of the leakage flux from the pole-ends is not parallel with the part surface. This reduces the magnitude of flux that is parallel, thereby weakening the leakage fields at discontinuities in the end regions. The use of pole pieces as described in paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.7, overcomes this weakening effect in many cases. The poles are an advantage in demagnetizing since they make it easy to detect magnetized parts and to confirm removal of the residual fields after demagnetizing procedures. 3.3.12.1.1 Longitudinal magnetization is used for the detection of circumferential discontinuities that lie at approximately right angles to a part's axis. Circumferential discontinuities around a cylinder for example, are detected by magnetizing the cylinder longitudinally in a direction parallel with its axis. A portion of the longitudinal field will cross the discontinuities creating leakage fields that can capture and hold magnetic particles to form indications at the discontinuities. 3.3.12.2 Coil Shot Technique. The usual way to longitudinally magnetize a part is by placing the part in a rigid coil on a stationary magnetic particle inspection unit. The part may be laid on the bottom inside of the coil where the field is strongest, or the part may be supported in the coil by the contact heads of the unit. Special supports are provided on some inspection units for long heavy parts, permitting rotation of parts for inspection. Coils are usually mounted on rails permitting movement along a long part for multiple inspections (multiple coil shots). Because the effective field extends only 6 to 9 inches on either side of a coil, multiple inspections are needed on long parts. 3.3.12.3 Cable Wrap Technique. Cable wrapping a coil around large or heavy parts is another method of producing longitudinal magnetization. Flexible, insulated copper cable is used. A cable-wrapped coil is connected to a magnetic particle mobile or portable power pack or it can be connected to the contact heads of a stationary inspection unit. The type of power source to be used will depend upon the kind and level of current needed to accomplish the particular desired inspection, both magnetizing and demagnetizing. 3.3.12.3.1 Cable lengths used to connect cable-wrapped coils must be kept as short as practical to minimize cable resistance losses and obtain higher magnetizing currents. In the case of AC, and to some extent half-wave DC, in addition to cable resistance, there is the inductance of the coil circuit which further reduces current flow. Twisting or taping the coil cable leads together aids in reducing the inductance of the coil circuit. Coil inductance increases directly with the coil opening area and increases as the square of the turns in the coil. Keeping each of these factors as small as practical, particularly when using AC, assures the maximum current will be obtainable from the power supply. To help keep coil current losses low, cable coils should be wrapped directly on a part or on some insulating material only a little larger than the part. Multiple inspections along a long part, using a coil of only a few turns (3 to 5) is preferably to using a coil of many turns over the length of the part. The latter is occasionally done in some cases where performing multiple inspections is not possible or when a power pack having the required output voltage and current capacity is available.

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Finally, any cables and cable leads used with and for cable-wrapped coils must have good quality electrical connections. Poor connections result in overheating and reduced coil amperage. 3.3.12.4 Electromagnet Technique. Parts can be magnetized longitudinally by placing them between the pole pieces of a pair of electromagnets with the fields of the two electromagnets being directed in the same direction through the part. 3.3.12.5 Yoke Technique. Still another method is the magnetizing of parts between the feet of yoke or probe. 3.3.12.6 Selection of Current Level.

3.3.12.6.1 General. A number of factors must be considered when determining current levels for longitudinal magnetization of parts. Some of the more important factors are: a. b. c. d. e. f. The coil diameter and the number of turns. Cross-sectional area of the part and the coil. The length to diameter (L/D) ratio of the part. The size, shape, and composition of the part. The orientation of the part within the coil. The kind of discontinuities being sought and their ease of detection.

3.3.12.6.1.1 The magnetizing field strength in the center of the magnetizing coil increases with the current passing through the coil and is proportional to the number of turns. The field strength decreases if the coil radius is made larger. 3.3.12.6.1.2 Rule-of-thumb formulas have been developed to help determine the amount of amperage required to induce an adequate longitudinal magnetic field in a part. These formulas apply particularly well to cylindrically shaped parts and are explained with examples shown in the following paragraphs. However, as discussed previously, blind adherence to these rules of thumb can result in overmagnetization with a subsequent loss of inspection sensitivity. 3.3.12.6.2 Cross Sectional Area. It is critical to determine the relationship between the cross-sectional area of the part and the cross-sectional area of the coil(s). This relationship/ratio will determine whether the part can be inspected within a coil of a given diameter by lying the part in the bottom or next to the side of the coil wall, or by centering the part in the coil, and which formula will be used for estimating the amperage required. The cross-sectional area for the part and coil are determined as follows: A = r2 Where: A = Cross-sectional Area = 3.1416 r = radius (1/2 of the diameter). The diameter of the part shall be taken as the largest distance between any two points on the outside circumference of the part. Example: A 12-inch diameter coil is to be used to inspect a part having a 2-inch diameter. Area of Coil (12" diameter) A =r2 Area of Part (2" diameter) A=r2

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A = (6)2 A = 113 sq. inches A=(1)2 A = 3.14 sq. inches

3.3.12.6.2.1 When the cross-sectional area of the part is less than one-tenth of the cross-sectional area of the coil, the part should be magnetized lying in the bottom of the coil. 3.3.12.6.2.2 When the cross-sectional area of the part is greater than one-tenth of the cross-sectional area of the coil, the part must be magnetized in the center of the coil. 3.3.12.6.2.3 When using a cable wrap or when the cross-sectional area of the part exceeds one-half of the cross-sectional area of the coil, the part should be centered in the coil and the formula for high fill factor coils SHALL be used for estimating the required amperage. 3.3.12.6.2.4 Table 3-1 lists the diameter of the largest part that can be magnetized lying in the bottom of a coil or placed next to the coil wall for some typical coil sizes. For any given coil diameter, parts with diameters larger than those listed must be magnetized by some other method, such as centering them in the coil, using a cable wrap, or using a larger coil. Table 3-1. Coil Size vs. Maximum Diameter for Parts Magnetized in Bottom of Coil.

Coil Diameter (inches) 8 12 15 18 20 24

Maximum Part Diameter (inches) 2.5 3.8 4.8 5.7 6.3 7.6

3.3.12.6.3 Calculating Coil Current. Two rule-of-thumb formulas have been developed for use in estimating the coil current levels to be used for longitudinal magnetization. One formula is for a part centered in the coil and the other for a part lying in the bottom of the coil. These formulas apply to cylindrical and irregularly shaped parts and at one time were thought to estimate the required current to within 10%. Recent studies show that in almost all instances they overestimate the required current by at least 50%. They use the part length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio. The useful magnetizing field produced by an encircling coil extends approximately 6 to 9 inches to either side of the coil. For parts longer than the effective field distance, one or more inspections are required along the length of the part. When repositioning these longer parts in the coil, allow a 3-inch effective field overlap. The formulas are intended for part with a L/D ratio between 3, and 15. For inspecting parts having L/D ratios of 3 or less, see paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.7. For parts with a L/D ratio greater than 15, use 15 as the value for the ratio. 3.3.12.6.3.1 Formula for Part Lying in Bottom of Coil. The following formula can be used when the cross-sectional area of the part is less than one-tenth the cross-sectional area of the coil(s) and SHALL be used whenever the part is lying in the bottom of the coil, or is placed next to the coil wall during magnetization. If the part has hollow portions, replace D with Deff (see paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.4).

I=

KD NL

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Where: I = Current through coil (amperes) K = 45,000 (a constant, ampere-turns) L = Length of the part (inches) D = Diameter of the part (inches) N = Number of turns in coil Example: Determine the current required to longitudinally magnetize a steel part 10 inches long with a diameter of 2 inches using a 12 inch diameter coil having 5 turns. (See paragraph 3.3.12.6.2 to determine cross-sectional area ratio between part and coil.)

Substituting the known values and doing the calculations gives:

I=

45000 2 5 10

I = 1800 amperes Table 3-2 gives typical currents for a five turn coil with the parts lying in the bottom of the coil or held next to the coil wall. Table 3-2. Typical Coil-Shot Current for a Five-Turn Coil with Part in Bottom of Coil.

Part Length in Inches (L) 12 12 16 10 18 14

Part Diameter in Inches (D) 3 2 2 1 1 1

L/D Ratio 4 6 8 10 12 14

Ampere-Turns Required 11,250 7,500 5.625 4,500 3,750 3,214

Amperes Required 2,250 1,500 1,125 900 750 643

3.3.12.6.3.2 Formula for Part in Center of Coil. This formula SHALL be used when the cross-sectional area of part is greater than one-tenth and less than one-half of the cross-sectional area of the coil(s).

I=

KR N(6(L / D) 5)

Where: I = current through the coil amperes) K = 43,000 (Constant) (ampere-turns) R = Radius of coil, (inches) N = Number of coil turns L = Length of part (inches) D = Diameter of part (inches) The term 6(L/D)-5 is called the effective permeability.

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Example: Determine the current needed to longitudinally magnetize a l2 inch long part with a diameter of 4 inches and using a 5 turn, 12 inch diameter coil. (See paragraph 3.3.12.6.2 to determine the cross-sectional area ratio between the part and the coil). If the part contains hollow portions, D should be replaced with Deff (see paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.4).

Substituting known values gives:

I=

43000 6 5(6(12 / 4) 5)

I = 3969 amperes 3.3.12.6.3.3 Formula for Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils. When using a cable wrap or when the cross-sectional area of the part is greater than one-half of the cross-sectional area of the coil, the following formula SHALL be used for estimating the current required to longitudinally magnetize a part centered in the coil. If the part has hollow portions, replace D with Deff, in the formula (see paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.4).

I=

K N(( L / D) + 2)

Where: I = Current through the coil (amperes) K = 35,000, a constant (ampere-turns) N = Number of coil or cable turns L = Length of the part (inches) D = Diameter of the part (inches) Example: Determine the required current to longitudinally magnetize a part 12 inches long with a 4 inch diameter using the cable wrap technique with a 3 turn wrap.

Substituting known values gives:

I=

35000 I = 35000/3(12/4 + 2) 3((12 / 4) + 2)

I = 2333 amperes 3.3.12.6.3.4 Formula for Hollow Parts or Parts Having Hollow Portions. If a part has hollow portions, replace the diameter (D) with the effective diameter (Deff), which is calculated using:

D eff

A Ah 2 = 2 t

Where: Deff = Effective Diameter (inches) At = Total cross-sectional area of part (square inches) Ah = Area of part hollow sections of part (square inches) = 3.1416

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Example: What would the effective diameter be for a cylindrical part 10 inches long that has a 2 inch outside diameter with a 0.125 inch wall thickness (see Figure 3-26).

Figure 3-26. Calculating Effective Diameter To find At, calculate the cross-sectional area of the outside diameter of the part as follows: At = r2 At = (1)2 At = 3.1416 sq. inches To find Ah, calculate the cross-sectional area for the inside diameter of the part (the parts hollow portion) as follows: Ah = r2 Ah = (0.875)2 Ah = 2.40 sq. inches Insert the results for At and Ah into the formula to find Deff.

D eff

31416 2.40 2 . = 2 31416 .

Deff = 0.97 inch To calculate the current required to longitudinally magnetize the part in the above example, use the formula from paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.1 (for the part in the bottom of a 12 inch diameter coil with 5 turns), except replace D with Deff. (0.97):

KD NL 45000 0.97 I= 5 10 I=
I = 873 amperes

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3.3.12.6.3.5 Table 3-3 compares the differences in the current required to longitudinally magnetize the solid and hollow parts in the examples of paragraphs 3.3.12.6.3.1 and 3.3.12.6.3.4 above. The only difference in the two parts is that one was hollow and the other was solid. If the effective diameter Deff had not been considered, the current for the hollow part would have been over-estimated by 927 amperes. This additional amperage would certainly result in excessive background and possibly false indications from over-magnetizing the part. Table 3-3. Comparison of Coil Amperages for Solid vs. Hollow Parts

Part Length Part Diameter Coil Description Amps Required

Solid Part 10 inches 2 inches 5-turn, 12-inch diameter 1800

Hollow Part 10 inches 2 inches 5-turn, 12-inch diameter 873

3.3.12.6.3.6 The inspector should be cautioned that when using the above rule-of-thumb formulas, the part length used in the L/D ratio is the part dimension measured in the direction of the coil axis and the diameter is the dimension measured in the plane of the coil. For example, a 2-inch diameter steel bar 10 inches long will have an L/D ratio of 5 when the bar is placed in the coil with its axis parallel with that of the coil. If the bar is placed in the coil so that the bar and coil axis are at right angles to each other, the L/D ratio will be only 0.2, a figure which, if used, would indicate the need for impracticably high amperages. 3.3.12.6.3.7 If the need arises to inspect parts having L/D ratios of 3 or less, the effective L/D ratio must be increased by placing the part between two pole pieces while it is being magnetized. The length dimension for the L/D ratio then becomes the length of the two pole pieces plus the part length. Such pole pieces must make good contact on each side of the part and must be made of ferromagnetic material. Solid steel pole pieces may be used when direct current is used in the coil and the continuous method of inspection is used. If the continuous method is used with either AC or half-wave DC current in the coil, the pole pieces must be made from laminated magnetic material similar to the silicon steel legs of a hand probe with articulated legs. This is also true for residual inspection. Pole pieces must be made from the proper material if residual inspection, or the wet continuous method of inspection with AC or half-wave DC, is to be used. 3.3.12.6.4 Cable Wrap Coil. Cables used are commonly 2/0 or 4/0 AWG (American Wire Gage), flexible stranded, insulated copper cable. The number of turns used is kept low, from 3 to 5 turns to minimize cable resistance in the case of DC and coil impedance when AC is used. 3.3.12.6.4.1 Multiple inspections spaced approximately 15 to 18 inches along the length of a long part are preferable to one inspection using one long coil of many turns. Cable lead lengths between the power source and coil wraps must be kept as short as practical so that maximum amperages are produced in the coil. When AC is being used, and to some extent with half-wave DC, available amperages can be increased by twisting or taping together the cable lengths between the coil and the power supply. This reduces the coil-circuit impedance the same way that reducing turns on the coil does and makes it possible for more AC current to flow in the coil circuit. The total length of the cable together with the resistance of its connections determines the DC amperage obtainable in the coil. The longer the cable and the poorer the electrical connections, the less will be the DC and the half-wave DC amperages that can be obtained. Increased cable resistance also lowers available AC current, but in the case of AC, the impedance of the coil and coil length circuit has a much greater effect than does resistance in lowering and limiting available AC current.

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3.3.12.6.4.2 Much of the information contained in paragraphs 3.3.12.6.2 through 3.3.12.6.3.6 on solenoid coils also pertain to cable wrapped coils. The rule-of-thumb given in paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.1 for a part lying in the bottom of a coil may be used to estimate the current requirement. However, since the cables are likely to be closely placed around the part, the full current will not be required. Sometimes less than one half of the estimated current will be sufficient. 3.3.12.7 Applications. Longitudinal magnetization is used to inspect ferromagnetic components having material permeabilities of about 500 or greater. This includes most steel alloys. (See Table 3-4). A simple test to determine whether or not a part is sufficiently magnetic is to place a permanent magnet against a part to be tested. If the attraction of the magnet can be felt, the part is sufficiently magnetic for magnetic particle inspection. Table 3-4. Relative Permeabilities for Some Ferromagnetic Materials.

Ferromagnetic Materials Iron (99% annealed in H) Iron (99.8% annealed) Iron (98.5% cold rolled) Nickel (99% annealed) Cobalt (99% annealed) Steel (0.9% Carbon)
+

Relative Permeability* 200,000 6,000 2,000 600 250 100

Excerpt from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Vol. 6, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2nd Ed., 1988.

*Relative to air, which has a permeability of 1.0

3.3.12.7.1 Discontinuities detected by the longitudinal method are those which lie generally in a direction transverse or crosswise to the direction of the applied field. The depth at which a discontinuity can be detected depends upon the size and shape of the discontinuity relative to: (1) the size of the cross section in which it is located; (2) the length to diameter ratio (L/D) of the part; and (3) the strength of the applied magnetizing field. For a given coil and coil current amperage, the smaller the L/D ratio, the lower will be the magnetic flux density in the part, and the weaker will be the leakage fields over discontinuities. In other words, the smaller the L / D ratio, the greater the coil current amperage must be to produce the same flux density or field strength in the part. Coil amperages become impracticably large for L/D ratios of 3 or less. Small L/D ratios of 3 or less can be effectively increased by using pole pieces of magnetic material (refer to paragraph 3.3.12.6.3.7), one on each side of a part. All three pieces must be lined up in the direction of the applied field or coils axis. Very long parts having L/D ratios greater than 15 should receive multiple inspections along the length of a part. The most effective field in a part extends about 6 to 9 inches on each side of a coil. For multiple inspections, a coil must be repositioned at intervals of from 15 inches to 18 inches along the part. Rule-ofthumb formulas for estimating current longitudinal magnetization using coils, for parts having L/D ratios up to l5, and diameters not exceeding about 1/10 that of the coils, are given in paragraph 3.3.12.6.3. 3.3.12.7.2 Longitudinal magnetization of coated parts may be accomplished depending upon the kind and thickness of the coating. Metallic plating generally should not exceed 0.005 inch in thickness unless it is known that the discontinuities being looked for can be detected through greater thicknesses. Nonmetallic coatings such as paint or other protective coatings require removal only if they are excessively thick or damaged to the extent that particles can be trapped mechanically. Any oil or grease must be removed since such materials contaminate the liquid media. Any loose scale or rust must also be removed from parts before inspection since they also can interfere with formation of indications and are a contaminant in a liquid bath.

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3.3.12.7.3 Inherent with longitudinal magnetization when using a coil is the difficulty in producing good indications near the ends of the part. This difficulty is caused by the leakage field that emanates from the magnetic poles generated at the part ends. Longitudinal magnetization of a cylindrical part in a coil will produce free magnetic poles at the end of the part. The direction of the magnetic field within the part will be in the same direction as the magnetization force generated by the coil. However, since the flux lines are continuous, the flux lines that traverse from one pole to the other within the part must return outside the part, and in doing so travel in a direction opposite to the applied magnetizing force. This results in a reduction in field strength at the surface of the part and is called free pole demagnetization. The inspection of areas near the ends of such parts is improved when the quick break in the magnetizing current is used. The resulting rapid decay of the field generates a pulse of induced current in the same direction as the original magnetizing current, which in turn produces a strong surface residual field over most of the length of a part. Parts must be moderately retentive for this type of residual inspection, and their shape must be generally cylindrical and have no long slots or cuts that would interrupt an induced current path around in the part near its outer surface. It must be mentioned that the use of yokes or field flow magnetization will also assure an adequate inspection of the ends of generally cylindrical objects. 3.3.13 Equipment. A variety of equipment is available which can be used for either circular or longitudinal magnetization. The equipment ranges in size from small, general-purpose portable units capable of being carried by hand to large, custom-built stationary units with separate power supplies. 3.3.13.1 Stationary Equipment. A typical stationary horizontal wet magnetic particle inspection unit of intermediate size is shown in Figure 3-27. The unit has two contact heads for either direct contact or central conductor, circular magnetization using a copper rod between the heads, or a cable connected to a contact block between the heads. Many of the units contain a coil used for longitudinal magnetization. The coil and one contact head are movable on rails. The other contact head is fixed; the contact plate on it, being air cylinder operated, provides a means for clamping the part. The unit has a self-contained power supply with all the necessary electrical controls. Magnetizing currents are usually three phase full-wave DC or AC depending upon usage requirements. The units are made in several different sizes to accommodate different length parts and with various maximum output currents. A full-length tank with pump, agitation and circulation system for wet inspection media is located beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A hand hose with nozzle is provided for applying the bath. On special units automatic bath application facilities are provided.

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Figure 3-27. Stationary Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection Unit 3.3.13.2 Mobile Equipment. Mobile inspection units are available in several sizes ranging from 2000 to 6000 amperes of AC and half-wave DC outputs. The units have remote current output, ON/OFF and MAG/DEMAG controls that permit one-man operation at the site of inspection. The units are used with either rigid or cable-wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization and demagnetization. Cables connected to a part or passing through it is used for circular magnetization or demagnetization. Mobile units can be easily moved to any inspection site where suitable line input voltages and current capacity are available. 3.3.13.2.1

CAUTION
Prods SHALL not be used to inspect aerospace components. Both half-wave DC and AC outputs are included in most mobile and portable units to increase their versatility. Halfwave DC current and dry magnetic powder make the best combination for detecting subsurface flaws in welds, particularly when used with the prod method of inspection. Half-wave DC is also useful for detecting subsurface discontinuities when the wet method is used. The use of alternating current is limited to the detection of discontinuities that are open to the surface, such as cracks, and for demagnetizing parts. 3.3.13.3 Portable Equipment. A small portable unit that can be hand-carried is shown in Figure 3-28. These units have both AC and half-wave DC outputs and must be used with portable or cable-wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization. The units usually have a remote ON/OFF control permitting a one-man operation. They can be used wherever an adequate 115-volt AC power source exists.

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Figure 3-28. AC/HWDC Portable Power Pack 3.3.14 Special Methods.

3.3.14.1 Summary. Many parts, because of their small L/D ratio, shape, complicated geometry, or the location and kind of discontinuities, require specialized techniques to obtain a good magnetic particle inspection. One of the techniques uses the fields generated by induced currents in a part, which are produced by rapidly varying longitudinal fields. Another specialized technique uses magnetic flakes in viscous slurry, taking advantage of the difference in light reflection from flakes that have become reoriented by leakage fields at discontinuities. Another technique uses a diluted silicone rubber containing black magnetic particles for the inspection of the interior or otherwise difficult to view surfaces. The liquid rubber is catalyzed, placed against the surface to be inspected and held in place with the appropriate dams and fixtures. Applied magnetic fields cause the particles to migrate to defect locations while the rubber is cured. After cure, the rubber material, which has formed a replica of the surface against which it was placed, is viewed under low power magnification for the indications formed during the inspection. Multidirectional magnetization can be very effective in detecting randomly oriented discontinuities quickly. The technique energizes two or more magnetizing circuits in different directions very rapidly (almost simultaneously) resulting in a reduction of testing time and part handling. 3.3.14.2 Induced Current Magnetization.

3.3.14.2.1 General. A varying magnetic field in any conducting metal generates electrical current in that metal. The amplitude of the current can be reduced by increasing the length of the current path by a cut, an insulated joint, or a deep surface indentation. The amplitude will also depend upon the size and shape of the cross section through which the magnetic field varies the rate of variation in flux lines per second, and the electrical conductivity of the metal. A single pulse of induced current will flow around in the part, at right angles to the magnetic field, when the magnetic field strength is changed. When the magnetic field is varying in a continuous manner, as it does in the case of alternating or half-wave DC fields, a continuing succession of induced current pulses are produced. These induced current pulses are often referred to as eddy currents. 3.3.14.2.1.1 The process of inducing high amplitude eddy currents in a part to be inspected can also introduce stray eddy currents in adjacent metallic components. The effect of stray eddy currents in a metal is twofold. a. Heat is generated whenever an electric current flows in a conductor because of resistance. The generation of such heat is of little consequence in magnetic particle inspection because of the relatively short duration of the current flows.

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b. The second effect of stray eddy currents is important in magnetic inspection. The magnetic fields resulting from the stray eddy currents is in opposition to the magnetic fields which produce them, resulting in either a reduction of the amplitude of inducing alternating magnetic fields or a decrease in decay rate for an inducing field generated by a collapsing DC current. Either condition results in a reduction in amplitude of the induced current in the part to be inspected. Precautions must be taken to minimize the generation of any induced stray eddy currents in metals in contact with or in the immediate vicinity of the part to be inspected. Any pole pieces should be made of laminated silicon transformer steel or low carbon steel with a low magnetic retentivity. Any part supports or contact plates should be split or cut partially through in such a manner as to produce as long a current path as practical. In some cases part supports, in addition to being split, are made of nonmagnetic metals such as brass or stainless steel, which are also poor electrical conductors. This also reduces the stray eddy currents generated in them.

3.3.14.2.1.2 Induced current magnetization is used for the detection of circumferential defects in rings, discs, and cylinders. The advantages of using the induced current method are: a. b. c. No current contact need be made on a part. Strong fields are generated in a part by the induced currents. Parts with L/D ratios of less than one can be inspected without the need for extremely high coil currents.

3.3.14.2.1.3 Induced current techniques require that the part be circular in shape and have no deep radial cuts or slits which would prevent the generation of an induced current around in the part. It is the circular field produced by such an induced current that generates the leakage fields at circumferential discontinuities. Circumferential discontinuities, in order to be detected using the induced current method, must be at or very near the surface of a part. The circular magnetic fields generated by induced currents tend to be crowded toward an outer surface. Circular, disc, or cylindrically-shaped parts, which are retentive, may be inspected residually using a single pulse of induced current such as obtained when DC current in a coil is suddenly interrupted allowing the coil field to rapidly collapse to zero. Parts having a low retentivity must be inspected using the continuous method and AC or half-wave DC current in the coil. The repeated induced current pulse generated by each cycle of these currents is responsible for the formation of the indications at discontinuities. For parts with smooth surfaces, care is required when handling the parts after inspection to prevent mechanical loss of the indications. Washing action is much less of a problem with parts having rougher surfaces, as indications are held by both mechanical and magnetic bonds. 3.3.14.2.2 Technique. Parts to be inspected using the induced current method must be positioned with their axis parallel with that of the coil, or coils. Two coils, one on each side of a part, may be used when the part's diameter is larger than that of the coils. The coils in this case must be connected electrically; assuring that the coil fields will be in the same direction through the central region of the part. If the part is retentive and is to be inspected residually, DC current is used in the coil. The power pack supplying the DC to the coil must have quick break electrical circuitry so as to obtain a rapid collapse of the coil field. Alternating or half-wave DC current must be used in the coil with the continuous method when a part is made of steel having a low retentivity. 3.3.14.2.2.1 The longitudinal flux density in a part and the rate of decay or collapse of this flux determines the magnitude of the induced current that will be generated in the part. The higher the coil amperage, the higher will be the coil field strength and the higher the flux density in a part up to a coil amperage which produces magnetic saturation in the part. The flux density and thus the induced currents in short cylinders having an L/D ratio of less than 3 or 4, can be increased by placing the part between two laminated pole pieces while being magnetized. Induced currents in ringshaped parts, such as bearing races, can be increased by placing a laminated core or pole piece in the ring while it is 3-46

T.O. 33B-1-1
being magnetized. The laminated core in this case increases the total flux threading the ring. It should be remembered when using the induced current method, that any means used to increase the flux in the direction of the coil field through the part, will increase the magnitude of the induced currents, up to the point of magnetic saturation. 3.3.14.2.2.2 Magnetic flux through the center region of disc-shaped parts which have a small bore hole, or none at all, can be increased by placing a laminated core centered against each side of the disc. Another variation for the use of a laminated core is in the inspection of holes in large parts suspected of having circumferential discontinuities. In this case the magnetizing coil is placed around one end of the core and the other end is used as a probe for placement in the hole. Alternating current is used to energize the coil. In operation the core is placed in a hole and, while the coil is energized, liquid magnetic particle media is sprayed around the inside surfaces of the hole. Before withdrawing the core from the hole, the coil is de-energized so as not to demagnetize the area around the hole. When demagnetization of the area is wanted, the core is simply removed from the hole while the AC current is flowing. 3.3.14.2.3 Selection of Current Level. No rule-of-thumb formulas have been developed for the induced current method of magnetization. Lacking any other information upon which to select a current level, the rule-of-thumb formulas given in paragraph 3.3.12.6.3 may be used to obtain trial amperages for parts having L/D ratios up to 15. Part diameters, which approach, or are greater than that of the coil and are very short in length, for example, disc-shaped parts will usually require laminated cores to be used, so the rule-of-thumb coil formulas are not applicable. The formulas were developed for the determination of coil amperages, which will produce a longitudinal flux density of 70,000 lines per square inch in a part. The rate of change or rate of collapse of this longitudinal flux produces an induced current in the part, which in turn results in leakage fields at the discontinuities. 3.3.14.3 Slurry. A magnetic particle testing material is available that supplements both wet and dry magnetic particle testing materials. This material formulation uses selected magnetic particles dispersed in a viscous, oily vehicle which results in slurry having the consistency of paint. The material is brushed on a surface to be inspected until the magnetic particles are evenly and thoroughly distributed. A magnetic field is generated in the test part through conventional AC or half-wave DC magnetizing techniques. Any discontinuities show as contrasting black indications on a gray background. Alternating current fields using a yoke or probe are capable of revealing very fine surface discontinuities using this slurry technique. 3.3.14.3.1 The slurry, being a viscous liquid applied by brush, has the advantage over dry powder of eliminating any hazard to adjacent equipment by airborne magnetic particles. Another advantage is that the slurry can be applied and used successfully on vertical or overhead surfaces, on wet (even underwater) or dry surfaces and over scaly, plated or painted surfaces if the coatings are not too thick. 3.3.14.3.2 The slurry concentration can be varied to suit particular inspection requirements. The material is brushed evenly on a part, much as paint would be, prior to magnetization of the part. If needed the material can be brushed repeatedly permitting magnetization in various directions. The oily vehicle used in the slurry mixture is nondrying, and the slurry can be removed using dry rags, paper towels, or prepared cleaning solvents. 3.3.14.4 Magnetic Rubber. Magnetic rubber formulations using finely divided magnetic particles in a silicone rubber base are used for the inspection of holes and other surfaces which are not easily accessible. The liquid silicone rubber mixture is poured into holes or against the surface of the magnetic parts to be inspected. Curing time for silicone rubbers varies from about 10 to 30 minutes, depending upon the particular silicone rubber, the catalyst, and the amount of catalyst used to produce the curing reaction.

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3.3.14.4.1 While the rubber cures, the surface inspected must stay in the required magnetized state. This can be accomplished using a permanent magnet, a direct current yoke, an electromagnet, or some other suitable means. Whatever method of magnetization is used, the leakage fields at any discontinuities on the surfaces inspected must be maintained long enough to attract and hold in position the magnetic particles until a partial cure takes place. A two-step magnetizing procedure has been developed. The first magnetization is accomplished for a short time in one direction, followed by a second at 90 to the first for the same length of time. This procedure must be repeated for whatever period of time is needed until the cure prevents particle mobility. Magnetization in two directions 90 apart assures formation of indications at discontinuities in all directions. 3.3.14.4.2 After curing, the rubber plugs, which are exact replicas of the surfaces, are removed and visually examined for indications, which will appear as black lines against the gray or yellow background of the silicone rubber. Location of any discontinuities or other surface imperfections can be determined from the location of the indications on the plugs. The magnetic rubber inspection method is covered in detail in Section 9.

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SECTION IV PORTABLE MPI TECHNIQUES

3.4 3.4.1 a. PORTABLE MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES. General. Portable induced f ield inspection equipment is generally referred to as either a probe or a yoke. These terms are synonymous and differ only due to manufacturers nomenclature. This category of inspection equipment is described here in conjunction with the techniques for their use and application. Magnetic yokes are small and easily portable. They are easy to use and are adequate when testing small castings or machine parts for surface cracks and for weld inspection. They induce a strong magnetic f ield into that portion of a part that lies between the poles or legs of the yoke. The induced f ield f lows from one leg of the yoke to the other regardless of the style or leg conf iguration. Yokes or probes are available with either f ixed or articulated legs as shown in Figure 3-29.

b.

Figure 3-29.

Portable Induced Field Inspection Equipment

c.

Either dry powder or wet magnetic particles may be used in conjunction with a yoke for the detection of discontinuities. Yokes are available for operation from a 115 volt, 60-hertz AC outlet, or from a 12 volt DC battery. A permanent magnet yoke is also available, permitting inspections to be performed without the use of electric current. Deleted. Capabilities and Limitations. The units are designed for simplicity, ease of handling, and operation by one person. They may be used on machine-f inished surfaces, as well as castings and weldments fabricated in a variety of conf igurations. The units induce a strong magnetic f ield at the surface of the part being inspected. Since no current is f lowing through the part being subjected to inspection is impossible to overheat or burn the part. The f lexibility of a yoke with articulating legs is greatly increased permitting inspections to be performed on parts of varied conf igurations. Yokes or probes are limited to the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities only. They should not be used for deep-seated, subsurface discontinuities due to the limited penetration of the induced magnetic f ield. Because of their size they cannot be used with a 100% duty cycle. Rather, they are limited essentially to spot-checking and occasional sample testing rather than continuous production testing. Under optimum operating conditions, the f ixed leg yoke has a limited inspection area governed by the distance between and immediately surrounding the legs. The moveable or articulated leg yoke can inspect either a larger area (legs apart) or detect f iner discontinuities by concentrating the magnetic f ield in a smaller area (legs closer together).

d. 3.4.2 a.

b.

Change 2

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3.4.3 3.4.3.1

Equipment. General.

Yokes or probes are essentially U-shaped laminated cores of sof t iron with a coil wound around the base of the U. When electrical current is passing through the coil, the two ends of the core are magnetized with opposite polarity and the combination is an electromagnet similar to a permanent horseshoe magnet. 3.4.3.2 Fixed Leg Yoke. A f ixed leg yoke is shown in Figure 3-29. The legs are spaced approximately 5 inches apart providing a usable magnetic f ield of approximately 25 in2. Fixed leg probes can be used on f lat, contoured, or irregular surfaces. However, the f ixed leg position might preclude their use on some parts of a complex conf iguration unless special pole pieces are available to adapt the legs to the parts surface.

Figure 3-30.

Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 1 of 3)

3.4.3.3

Articulated Leg Yoke.

An articulated or movable-leg yoke (also shown in Figure 3-30) contains all the features of a f ixed-leg yoke. They are, however, more versatile in their use and application because of the movable legs. Figure 3-30 shows articulated-leg yokes with the legs in normal, decreased, and extended positions. The legs may be moved to the decreased or extended positions to obtain optimum contact assuring a better induced magnetic f ield. When in the extended position, the area of the usable magnetic f ield is increased though the f ield strength is weaker. The discontinuities being sought must be larger. When in the decreased position, the area of the usable magnetic f ield is decreased and the magnetic f ield is increased, permitting the detection of f iner discontinuities. Movable-leg yokes are more suitable for demagnetization than f ixed-leg yokes. The space between the poles or legs can be adjusted such that the parts to be demagnetized pass snugly between them to obtain maximum demagnetization.

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Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 2 of 3)

Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 3 of 3) 3.4.4 Technique.

3.4.4.1 Magnetizing Source. Both AC and DC current can be used for electromagnetic yokes. The design of a particular yoke will determine which of the two is the appropriate current. 3.4.4.2 Alternating Current (AC). An alternating current magnetizing field induced in a part concentrates at the surface layers of the material, and produces a surface longitudinal field. AC provides a very desirable and useful field. Polarity reversal at the 60-hertz rate produces a noticeable surge peak reflected in the magnetic field. Eddy currents are a by-product of AC, which tend to guide the field basically between the poles. The vibratory action of AC adds significantly to the magnetic particle mobility enhancing the formation and build-up of larger and sharper indications at discontinuities. Yokes magnetizing with AC can be readily used for demagnetizing. Because of the reversing nature of AC, the residual method of inspection cannot be used when AC is used for magnetism. 3.4.4.3 Direct Current (DC). Direct current provides a constant, strong magnetic field. Magnetic particle mobility is minimal and the gathering of magnetic particles at a discontinuity is quite difficult because the vibratory action of an AC field is missing. Direct current induced fields can be successfully applied to small parts. Surface and near subsurface defects can be revealed. The residual method of inspection may be used with direct current, but alternating current must be used for demagnetizing.

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3.4.4.4 Pulsed Direct Current. Pulsed direct current combines the strong magnetic field of direct current with the particle mobility of alternating current. Pulsed direct current is produced by rectifying single-phase alternating current. This pulsating direct current pulses at a rate and level to produce a noticeable surge peak in addition to providing the necessary vibratory action for magnetic particle mobility. Even though pulsed, the direct current aspect permits the residual method of inspection to be used. 3.4.4.5 Permanent Magnet. When permanent magnets are placed on a ferromagnetic surface, the magnetic field travels through the surface from one pole to the other. The flux field will be relatively straight along a line between the poles and strongest near the poles. Field strength will vary and be weakest at a point midway between the poles. The actual field strength at any point will depend upon the strength of the magnet and the distance between the poles. 3.4.4.6 Field Direction. Regardless of the current selected, AC or DC, or the position of the legs, the magnetic flux field induced in a test surface always traverses a path in the same direction, from one pole or leg to the other. The yoke is therefore oriented in a transverse direction to the discontinuities being sought to obtain optimum results. 3.4.4.7 Current / Particle Application. Magnetic particles may be applied either dry or in suspension in a liquid carrier. The part may be magnetized first and the particles applied after the magnetizing force is removed (residual method of inspection applicable to DC or specially designed AC units only), or the particles may be applied while the magnetizing force is still acting (continuous method of inspection). In order to select the proper variations to obtain optimum results, the inspector must understand the variations and how each affects the desired end result. 3.4.4.8 Dry powder / Wet Suspension. The type of magnetic particles to be used is a choice primarily between the dry and the wet method, and secondarily among the various colors that are available, including fluorescent colors. The decision is influenced principally by the following considerations: a. Size of the discontinuity. Dry powder is excellent for surface defects of moderate size. The wet method is usually best for very fine and shallow defects. Convenience. The wet method offers the advantage of easy, complete coverage of the surface of parts of all sizes and shapes. Dry powder is more often used for very local inspections.

b.

3.4.4.8.1 Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of securing the best possible contrast with the background of the surface of the part being inspected. The differences in visibility among the black, gray, red, and yellow particles are considerable on backgrounds which may be dark or bright, and when viewed in various kinds of light, may be difficult to see. If some difficulty is experienced in seeing indications, the inspector should try a different color of powder. In the case of the wet method, the ultimate in visibility and contrast is obtained by the use of fluorescent particles. The fluorescent wet method has been used in constantly increasing numbers of inspection applications for many years, principally because of the ease of seeing even the faintest indications. 3.4.5 Applications. Hand-held yokes, because of their compact size, low voltage requirements, and minimal weight, are versatile, generalpurpose magnetic particle test equipment. They may be used at an inspection facility where parts are brought for inspection, or they may be taken to the inspection site. They are used to test large castings and weldments, assembled and welded structures, or component parts of assemblies without the necessity of disassembly. Yokes are used on parts subject to arc burns, in the detection of surface cracks in welds and castings, and to locate fatigue cracks of large assemblies that may not be conveniently inspected with either mobile or stationary equipment. Where no source of electric current is available or where because of fire or explosive hazard the use of electric current is not permitted, a

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permanent magnet yoke is available for inspection. One typical application of yokes is shown in Figure 3-31. The yokes SHALL be able to pass the equipment/system tests in paragraph 1.6.7.2c.

Figure 3-31.

Field Inspection of Nose Wheel Strut

SECTION V MPI MATERIALS AND RESPECTIVE METHODS

3.5 3.5.1 a. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION MATERIALS AND RESPECTIVE METHODS. General. An important consideration in the magnetic particle testing process is the use of the proper type of materials to secure the best possible indications of the particular type of defect being sought under a given condition. The choice of which materials to use is important, since the appearance of the particle patterns at discontinuities will be affected by this choice, even to the point of whether or not a pattern is even formed. Since the results of magnetic particle tests depend on the interpretation of the particle pattern, the appearance of this pattern is of fundamental importance. The reproducibility of results by inspectors at different locations is dependent on the same type of particles being used by each inspector, and the same magnetizing procedure.

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b.

There are two basic classes of magnetic particles available for use, wet and dry. The wet method particles use a liquid vehicle for suspension; the dry method particles are borne by air. Either water or oil may be used as a vehicle for the wet method. The particles are colored to give good color contrast with the surface being inspected. The wet particles are best suited for the detection of f ine surface cracks such as fatigue cracks. They are usually used with stationary equipment where the bath can be reused until it becomes contaminated. For f ield applications, aerosol cans of magnetic wet bath are available. Dry particles are more sensitive for detecting defects beneath the surface and are usually used with portable equipment. Particle Properties and Their Effects. Description.

3.5.2 3.5.2.1

The particles used in the magnetic particle inspection process are f inely divided ferromagnetic material, usually combinations of iron and iron oxides. Properties of these particles include the size, shape, density, magnetic properties, mobility and color. These properties may vary depending on the application. 3.5.2.2 Size. It is self-evident that size plays an important part in the behavior of magnetic particles in a magnetic f ield, which can be quite weak at a discontinuity. A large heavy particle is not likely to be arrested and held by a weak f ield when such particles are moving over a part surface. On the other hand, very f ine powders will be held by very weak f ields, since their mass is very small. Consequently, extremely f ine particles may adhere to the very weak leakage f ields caused by acceptable surface and/or material variations. Particle size has a profound effect upon mobility. (Refer to paragraphs 3.5.2.7.1 and 3.5.2.7.2.) 3.5.2.2.1 Dry Powders. In general, for the dry powders, sensitivity to very f ine defects increases as particle size decreases, but with def inite limitations. If the particles are extremely small, on the order of a few microns, they behave like a dust. They accumulate and adhere even on very smooth surfaces. The particles will adhere at any damp or slightly oily area, whether or not leakage f ields exist. Extremely f ine powders, though undoubtedly sensitive to very weak f ields, are not desirable for general use because they do leave a heavy, dusty background. In some special applications, particles of a specif ic size range are used. For instance, where it is desired to detect only rather large, coarse discontinuities, only large-sized particles are used. However, most dry ferromagnetic powders used for detecting discontinuities are mixtures of particles in a range of sizes. The smaller particles add sensitivity and mobility, while the large particles not only aid in locating large defects, but also by a sort of sweeping action, counteract the tendency of the f ine ones to leave a dusty background. Thus, by including a wide size range, a balanced powder with sensitivity over most of the range of sizes of discontinuities is produced. 3.5.2.2.2 Wet Method Visible Materials. When the ferromagnetic particles are applied as a suspension in some liquid medium, much f iner particles can be used. The upper limit of particle size in most wet method visible materials used for magnetic particle testing purposes is in the range of 20 to 25 microns (about 0.0008 to 0.0010 inch). Particles larger than this are diff icult to hold in suspension, and even the 20 to 25 micron sizes settle out of suspension rather rapidly and are lef t behind as the suspension drains off. Such particles of ten line up in what are called drainage lines to form a watermark that could be confused with indications of discontinuities. 3.5.2.2.2.1 In the case of the f iner particles, the stranding due to the draining away of the liquid occurs much later, giving the particles mobility long enough to reach the inf luence of leakage f ields and accumulate to form the indications. The minimum size limit for particles to be used in liquid suspensions is indeterminate. Ferromagnetic materials commonly used include some exceedingly f ine particles. In actual use, however, particles of this size never act as individuals. Because they are magnetized in use, they become actual tiny magnets. Under conditions of quiet settling in a suspension, these particles are drawn together as a result of their retained magnetism to form clumps or aggregates of particles. These aggregations then tend to act as a unit when they are applied to the surface of parts for magnetic particle testing. The speed and extent to which this process takes place increases with the retentivity of the particle

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material. Agitating the suspension breaks up the aggregates, but they begin to form again as soon as agitation ceases. This happens when the suspension has been applied over the surface of the part, since the particles act as agglomerated units of varying size, and not as individual particles. 3.5.2.2.2.2 Advantages of an Agglomeration of Fine Particles. This agglomeration of fine particles into larger clumps is advantageous as long as the size of the aggregate does not become larger than the limit mentioned in paragraph 3.5.2.2.2. Individual particles of exceedingly small size move very slowly through the liquid of the suspension under the influence of leakage fields at discontinuities. Unless special techniques are used, exceedingly small size particles are not particularly useful for the location of very fine cracks until the process of agglomeration into somewhat larger units has taken place. In practical applications this process takes place while drainage of the suspension from the surface of the part is occurring. As the agglomeration proceeds the clumps formed will vary in size, and since these clumps act as individual units, the effect is that of a particle size range from very fine to relatively coarse. 3.5.2.2.3 Fluorescent Wet Method Materials. Paragraph 3.5.2.2.2 applies primarily to magnetic particles that have not been treated with fluorescent pigments. Fluorescent particles (or even colored visible particles) must be compounded and structured to produce a pigmented or colored coating that will not readily separate from the ferromagnetic core. 3.5.2.3 Shape. The shape of the magnetic particles used for magnetic particle testing has a strong bearing on their behavior in locating defects. When in a magnetic field the particles tend to align themselves along the lines of force. This tendency is much stronger with elongated or rod-like particles than with more compact or globular shapes because the long shapes develop stronger polarity. Due to the attraction exhibited by opposite poles, the north and south poles of these tiny magnets arrange themselves into strings of particles, north pole to south pole, much more readily than do globular shapes. The result is the formation of stronger patterns in weak leakage fields, as these magnetically formed strings of particles bridge the discontinuity. The superior effectiveness of the elongated shapes over the globular shapes is particularly noticeable in the detection of wide, shallow discontinuities, or of those discontinuities, which lie wholly below the surface. The leakage fields at such defects are more diffuse, and the formation of strings due to the stronger polarity of the elongated-shaped magnetic particles makes for more visible indications in such cases. 3.5.2.3.1 Dry Powders. In the case of the dry powders, there is another effect from the shape of the particles, which must be taken into account. Dry particles are applied to the surfaces of parts by means of plastic powder bottles, rubber squeeze bulbs, or by the use of compressed air guns. The ability to flow freely and to form uniformly dispersed clouds of powder that will spread evenly over a surface is a necessary characteristic for rapid and effective dry powder testing. A powder composed only of elongated shapes tends to gather together in container, and to be ejected in uneven clumps. When a powder behaves in this manner, the inspection becomes extremely slow and difficult. On the other hand, globular-shaped particles flow freely and smoothly under similar conditions. A dry powder must have free-flowing properties for easy application, yet have optimum shape for the greatest sensitivity for the formation of strong indications. These two opposing needs are met by blending particles of different shapes. A fair proportion of rod-like particles must be present for a sensitive blend. A sufficient proportion of more compact shapes must be present in order to have a powder that will flow well for easy and uniform application 3.5.2.3.2 Wet Method Materials. In the case of particles for the wet method of inspection, the individual particles are kept dispersed by mechanical agitation until they are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. Therefore, no need exists to incorporate unfavorable shapes merely for the purpose of improving the flow of the particles. Long, slender particles, with otherwise desirable characteristics, could be used exclusively. 3.5.2.3.2.1 Because wet method particles are suspended in a liquid medium, which is much denser and more viscous than air, they move in the leakage fields much more slowly than the dry powders. Therefore, they accumulate much more slowly at discontinuities. In the vicinity of leakage fields, they can be seen to line up to form minute elongated aggregates. Even 3-55

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the unfavorable aggregate shapes, formed by simple agglomeration in suspension, will line up into magnetically held elongated aggregates under the influence of local, low-level leakage fields. This effect contributes to the high sensitivity of the fine particles comprising wet method materials. 3.5.2.4 Density. Most ferromagnetic materials have fairly high densities. The densities of the materials in common use vary from around 5 to nearly 8 times the density of water. Large, heavy particles will settle out of a suspension faster than either smaller and/or lighter particles. This constitutes one more reason for requiring magnetic particles to be small. The density of many ferromagnetic particles is lowered somewhat by compounding or coating them with pigment with densities lower than that of the particles; with the obvious advantage of the particles remaining suspended longer than uncoated particles. This is true of both the dry, pigmented powders, and the fluorescent particles in liquid suspension. 3.5.2.5 Permeability. Magnetic particles used for magnetic particle testing should have as high a permeability and as low a retentivity as possible. This is so they can be readily magnetized by the low-level leakage fields that occur in the vicinity of a discontinuity and can be drawn by these fields to the discontinuity itself to form a visible indication. However, there is little connection between permeability and sensitivity for magnetic powders. For instance, the iron-based dry-method powders have permeabilities that are higher than the oxides used in the wet method. Yet a typical dry powder has less ability in detecting the extremely fine surface cracks than the wet-method particles. This is because the higher permeability is insufficient to overcome the handicaps of the other less desirable characteristics of the dry powders. Unless all other factors are in the proper range for the application at hand, high permeability alone is of little value. 3.5.2.6 Coercive Force. As a general principle, low coercive force and low retentivity are desirable properties for magnetic particles. If these values were high in a dry powder, the particles would become magnetized during manufacture or in first use, and thus become small, strong, permanent magnets. Once magnetized, their tendency to be controlled by the weak fields at discontinuities would be overshadowed by their tendency to stick magnetically to each other and to the test surface. This acts to reduce mobility of the powder, and also to form a high level of background that obscures defect indications. 3.5.2.6.1 Wet method particles that could become strongly magnetized because of high coercive force would also form this same objectionable background. In addition, such particles would stick to any iron or steel in the tank or plumbing of an inspection unit, and cause heavy settling-out losses that would have to be made up by frequent additions of new particles to the bath. Another undesirable feature displayed by highly retentive wet method particles is their tendency to clump together quickly in large aggregates on the test surface. Excessively large clumps of material have low mobility and indications are distorted or obscured by the heavy, coarse-grained backgrounds. Therefore, particles having high coercive force and retentivity are not desirable for wet method use either. 3.5.2.6.2 Both theory and experience have shown that low coercive force and retentivity are advantageous. But low does not necessarily mean minimum or none. Dry powders with some residual magnetism appear more sensitive, especially in the diffuse leakage fields formed by defects lying wholly below the surface. The reason may be that the small amount of polarity established in weakly magnetized, elongated particles aids in lining them up into strings when the leakage fields from discontinuities act upon them. The action is similar to that of the compass needle swinging in the very weak field of the earth. Similarly, wet-method particles benefit from higher-than-minimum values of retentivity and coercive force. These ultra-fine particles begin to collect at discontinuities as soon as they are applied to the test surface, when the agitation, which had been present in the bath, ceases. With insufficient retained magnetism; the particles remain fine and migrate very slowly through the liquid, due to the weak leakage fields, and the viscosity of the liquid suspending medium. The indications of discontinuities will build up, but very slowly, taking as long as five to ten seconds. On the other hand, if excessively magnetized particles are used; the test surface is covered with large immobile clumps as soon as the bath is applied. Particles having intermediate magnetic properties collect into clumps more slowly while the indications are forming. The leakage field, strongest at the actual discontinuity, draws particles toward it, while the particles themselves are constantly enlarging due to agglomeration. At the same time they sweep up the ultrafine particles as they move toward the defect. In this way all the magnetic fields present work together. 3-56

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3.5.2.7 Mobility. When magnetic particles are applied over the surface of a magnetized part, they must move and gather at a discontinuity under the influence of the leakage field to form a visible indication. Any factor that interferes with this required movement of the particles will have a direct effect on the sensitivity of the powder and the test. Conditions promoting or interfering with mobility are different for dry and wet method materials. 3.5.2.7.1 Dry Powders. Dry powder should be applied in such a way that the particles reach the magnetized surface in a uniform cloud with a minimum of motion. When this can be done, the particles come under the influence of the leakage fields while suspended in air, and have three-dimensional mobility. This condition can be approximated when the magnetized surfaces are vertical or overhead. When the particles are applied on a horizontal or sloping surface they settle directly to the surface and do not have the same degree of mobility. Mobility can be achieved in this case by tapping or vibrating the part, which jars the powder loose from the surface and permits it to move toward the leakage fields. When AC, or half-wave rectified AC (pulsating DC) are used for magnetization, the rapid variation in field strength while the current is on imparts a vibratory motion to the magnetic particles on the surface of the part. This gives the particles excellent mobility for the formation of indications. The coatings applied to some of the dry-method powders to give color to the indications also reduce friction between particles and the surface of the part, aiding mobility. 3.5.2.7.2 Wet Method Materials. The suspension of particles in a liquid, which may be water or a petroleum distillate, allows mobility for the particles in two dimensions when the suspension is flowed over the surface of the part, and in three dimensions when the magnetized part is immersed in the suspension. Wet method particles readily settle out of suspension. To be effective, the magnetic particles must move with the liquid and reach every surface that the liquid covers without settling out somewhere along the way. Particles settle out of suspension at a rate that is directly proportional to their size and their density and inversely proportional to the liquid's viscosity. While it must be balanced off against many other properties, mobility is one of the factors which is important to wet method results. The viscosity of the suspension medium is also important to mobility. In thicker liquids the magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field more slowly. If the suspension liquid is too viscous and the magnetizing cycle too short, the indication may not form adequately. As a practical rule for sensitive inspection, the viscosity of the suspension medium should not exceed 3 centistokes. 3.5.2.8 Visibility and Contrast. These are important properties that have a great deal to do with making a magnetic powder suitable for its intended purpose. Size, shape, and magnetic properties of a particle may be adequate, but if the indication is not visible to the inspector the inspection fails. 3.5.2.8.1 Visibility and contrast are promoted by choosing colors of particles that are easy to see against the color of the surface of the test part. The natural color of the metallic powders is silver-gray. The colors in the iron oxides commonly used as the base for the wet method materials is limited to black and red. Visibility against certain colors can be increased by coloring the powder particles in some way. By use of pigments the silvery iron particles are colored white, black, red or yellow, all with comparable magnetic properties. One or another of these colors gives good contrast against the surfaces of most of the parts that are tested. Among the dry powders, the gray-white powder gives good contrast against the surfaces of many test parts. It fails to give good visibility, however, against the silver-gray of a sand- or grit-blasted surface, or against bright machined or ground surfaces. Choice of colors must be made by the inspector to provide the best possible visibility against the surfaces of the test part under the conditions of shop lighting that prevail. Similarly, the choice of either the black or the red wet method material is made to suit particular lighting conditions. 3.5.2.8.2 In some cases it has been found advantageous to coat the part being tested with a color to improve contrast. Chalk or whiting, in alcohol, has been used in the past for the inspection of large castings and weldments, when lighting conditions were poor in the areas where the inspection was being conducted. Aluminum paint has been similarly used.

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Color contrasting is rarely used today, because the fluorescent materials now available solve the problem in a much better way. 3.5.2.8.3 The ultimate in visibility and contrast is achieved by coating the magnetic particles with a fluorescent pigment (usually available in wet method materials only). The search for indications is conducted in total or semi-darkness, using ultraviolet light to activate the fluorescent dyes used. When indications glow in the dark it is almost impossible for an inspector not to see them. Magnetically, these fluorescent materials are less sensitive than uncoated particles, but this reduction in magnetic sensitivity is more than offset by the fact that patterns of particles can be readily seen even when only a few such particles make up the indication. A fluorescent indication easily visible under black light is often quite impossible to see when viewed in white light. The advantage in visibility and contrast of the fluorescent materials is so great that they are being used in a very high percentage of all applications. 3.5.2.9 Dry Versus Wet. The choice between the dry and wet methods is influenced principally by the following: a. b. c. Type of Defect (surface or subsurface). For subsurface defects the dry powder is usually more sensitive. Size of Surface Defect. The wet method is usually best for very fine and shallow defects. Convenience. Dry powder with a portable half-wave unit, for instance, is easy to use on large parts in the shop or for field inspection work.

The dry powder method is superior for locating defects lying wholly below the surface because of the high permeability and the favorable elongated shape of the particles. These form strings in a leakage field and bridge the area over a defect. AC with dry powder is excellent for surface cracks, which are not exceedingly fine, but it is of little value for defects lying even slightly below the surface. When the requirement is to detect very fine surface cracks, the wet method is considered superior regardless of the form of magnetizing current used. In some cases, direct current is considered advantageous for use with the wet method to get better indications of discontinuities that lie just below the surface. The wet method offers the advantage of easy complete coverage of the surface of parts of all sizes and shapes. Dry powder is often used for spot inspections. 3.5.2.10 Visible Versus Fluorescent. Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of obtaining the best possible contrast with the background of the surface of the part being inspected. The differences in visibility among the black, gray, and red particles are considerable on backgrounds which may be dark or bright and which may be viewed in various kinds of light. Black stands out against most light colored surfaces, gray against dark colored ones. Red is more visible against silvery and polished surfaces especially when the lighting is from incandescent lamps. If the indication is hard to see, the inspector should try some other color of powder. In the case of the wet method, the ultimate in visibility and contrast is obtained by the use of fluorescent particles. The fluorescent wet method has been used in constantly increasing numbers of inspection applications for many years, principally because of the ease of seeing the faintest indication. 3.5.3 Media Selection. NDI laboratory generated results SHALL include supplemental information requesting that the following be included on the purchase order or contract. a. Suspension vehicle for magnetic particle inspection SHALL comply with DOD-F-87395. Table 3-5.)

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Table 3-5. Requirements for Magnetic Particle Wet Method Oil Vehicle (DOD-F-87395)

Test Flash Point, C(F) Odor ASTM Color Background Fluorescence Viscosity Centistokes Particulate Matter, mg/L Total Acid Number, mg KOH/L
b.

Requirement Minimum Maximum 94(200) None 1.0 Less than the standard 3.0 0.5 0.015

Specification/ Standard ASTM D 93 DOD-F-87395 ASTM D 1500 DOD-F-87395 ASTM D 445 ASTM D 2276 ASTM D 3242

Magnetic particles SHALL comply with ASTM E 1444 and the specific aerospace material specification (AMS). (see Table 3-6) Table 3-6. Procurement Data for Magnetic Particles per ASTM E 1444

Type of Particles (Specification Title) Magnetic Particle Inspection Material, Dry Method Magnetic Particles, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle Magnetic Particles, Wet Method, Dry Powder Magnetic Particles, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle Aerosol Canned Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Dry Powder Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Aerosol Canned

Specification AMS 3040 AMS 3041 AMS 3042 AMS 3043 AMS 3044 AMS 3045 AMS 3046

3.5.4 Current / Particle Application Techniques. The part may be magnetized first and particles applied after the magnetizing force has been turned off (the residual method); or the part may be covered with particles while the magnetizing force is still present (the continuous method). With parts having high retentivity, a combination of these methods is sometimes used. The choice between the residual and the continuous method is a relatively easy one. 3.5.4.1 Residual Method.

3.5.4.1.1 Description and Use. In the residual method, parts are magnetized and the magnetic particles are then applied. This method can be used only on parts having sufficient retentivity. The magnetic field they retain must be sufficiently strong to produce leakage fields at discontinuities, which in turn will produce readable indications. The method in general is reliable only for the detection of surface discontinuities. Since hard materials which have high retentivity are usually low in permeability, higher than usual magnetizing currents may be necessary to obtain a sufficiently high level of residual magnetism. The difference in the behavior between hard steels and soft steels is usually not very serious, if only surface discontinuities are sought. 3.5.4.1.2 Dry Versus Wet. Either the dry or the wet method for particle application can be used in the residual method. With the wet method, the magnetized parts may be immersed in an agitated bath of suspended magnetic particles, or they may be flooded with bath by a spray. In these circumstances a favorable factor occurs that affects the strength of indications. This factor is the time of immersion of the part in the bath. By leaving the magnetized part in the bath or under the spray for a considerable time, the leakage fields have time to attract and hold a maximum number of particles even at fine

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discontinuities. This produces an increase in sensitivity over the mere flowing of the bath over the surface of the part as it is being magnetized by the continuous method. It should be noted, however, that the location of the discontinuity on the part as it is immersed affects particle buildup. Build-up will be greatest on horizontal upper surfaces, and less on vertical surfaces or horizontal lower surfaces. Also, rapid withdrawal from the bath or spray can wash off indications held by extremely weak leakage fields, and care must be exercised in this part of the process. The residual method, either wet or dry, has many attractive features and finds many applications, even though the continuous method has the inherent advantage of greater sensitivity. 3.5.4.2 Continuous Method. The reason for greater sensitivity for the continuous method is straightforward. When the magnetizing force is applied to a ferromagnetic part, the field rises to a maximum. Its value or intensity is derived from the strength of the magnetizing force and the material permeability of the part. When the magnetizing force is removed, the residual magnetism in the part is always less than the field present while the magnetizing force was acting. The amount of difference depends on the retentivity of the material. The continuous method, for a given value of magnetizing current, is always more sensitive than the residual as determined by the strength of field in the part. Techniques have been developed for the continuous method, which make it faster than the residual. The indication is produced at the time of the two magnetization shots and the sixty second migration of the magnetic particles as the residual vehicle drains from the part. The residual method requires two steps, magnetization and application of particles, plus the added time for indications to build up if the immersion method is used. The continuous method is preferred unless special circumstances make the residual method more desirable. 3.5.4.2.1 The continuous method is the only effective one to use on low carbon steels or iron having little retentivity. It is frequently used with AC on such materials because the alternating current field produces excellent mobility of the particles. With the wet method the usual practice is to flood the surface of the part with the bath, then simultaneously terminate bath application and apply the magnetizing current momentarily. Thus the magnetizing force acts on the particles in the film of the bath as they are draining over the surface. Strength of the particle bath has been standardized to supply a sufficient number of particles in the film to produce good indications with this technique. It should be noted that the continuous method requires more attention and alertness on the part of the inspector than does the residual method. Careless handling of the bath/current application sequence can seriously interfere with reliable results. 3.5.4.2.2 Probably the highest possible sensitivity obtainable for very fine defects is achieved by immersing the part in the wet bath, magnetizing the part for a short time while immersed, and continuing to magnetize while the part is removed from the bath and while the bath drains from the surface. 3.5.5 Dry Powder Magnetic Particles.

CAUTION
Dry powder method SHALL NOT be used on aerospace vehicles or aerospace parts without specific approval of the appropriate engineering authority for the individual inspection requirements.

3.5.5.1 General. The dry powder method is used for the inspection of welds and castings where the detection of defects lying wholly below the surface is considered important. The particles used in the dry method are provided in the form of a powder. They are available in red, black, yellow, and gray colors. The magnetic properties, particle size and shape, and coating method are similar in all colors making the particles equally efficient. The choice of powder is then determined

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primarily, by which powder will give the best contrast and visibility on the parts being inspected and the degree of sensitivity desired. 3.5.5.2 Advantages and Limitations. The dry powder method has good and bad features. The advantages and disadvantages, which may influence its use for a specific application, are summarized in the following list. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Excellent for locating defects wholly below the surface and deeper than a few thousandths of an inch. Easy to use for large objects with portable equipment. Easy to use for field inspection with portable equipment. Good mobility when used with AC or half-wave (HW). Not as messy as the wet method. Equipment may be less expensive. Not as sensitive as the wet method for very fine and shallow cracks. Not easy to cover all surfaces properly, especially of irregularly shaped or large parts. Slower than the wet method for large numbers of small parts. Not readily usable for the short, timed shot technique of the continuous method. Difficult to adapt to a mechanized test system.

3.5.5.3 Powder Selection by Visibility and Contrast. Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of obtaining the best possible contrast with the background of the surface of the part being inspected. The differences in visibility among the black, gray, yellow, and red particles are considerable on backgrounds which may be dark or bright, and which may be viewed in various kinds of light. If difficulty is experienced in seeing indications, the inspector should try a different colored powder. Available colors for powders for the dry method are: a. Gray Powder is a general-purpose high contrast powder and by far the most widely used of the dry powders. It is effective on dark surfaces, whether black, gray or rust colored. Black Powder is especially designed for use on light colored surfaces. It is dust-free as well as the most sensitive of the dry powders. Its higher sensitivity is because it contains the highest proportion of magnetic material of all the dry powders. Red Powder is a dark reddish powder used on light colored surfaces as is the black powder. However, since the black powder on a silvery or polished surface is sometimes hard to see, the red color may offer a better contrast, particularly under incandescent lighting where the red color stands out. Yellow Powder is pale yellow powder featuring fair sensitivity and good contrast on dark colored surfaces.

b.

c.

d.

3.5.5.4 Surface Preparation. In general, the smoother the surface of the part and the more uniform its color, the more favorable are the conditions for the formation and the observation of indications. This statement applies particularly to inspections being made on horizontal surfaces. For sloping and vertical surfaces, the dry powder may not be held on a very smooth surface by a 3-61

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weak leakage field. The surface should be clean, dry, and free of grease. The dry particles will stick to wet or oily surfaces resulting in reduced particle mobility. On surfaces that have just been cleaned of grease by wiping with a rag soaked in a petroleum distillate, a thin film of unevaporated solvent can remain that is sufficient to interfere with the free movement of the powder. This thin film can be removed by dusting the surface with chalk or talc from a shaker can, then wiping the surface with a clean dry cloth. An initial application of the dry magnetic powder followed by wiping often will give a surface over which a second application of powder will move readily. Vapor degreasing, if available; will give a dry, oil-free surface. 3.5.5.4.1 Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed. If cleaning is accomplished with shot or grit blasting, there is a peening effect, especially on softer steels, which may close up fine surface discontinuities. The effect is more pronounced with shot than with grit, but if these cleaning methods are directed, the inspector should be aware of the danger of missing very fine cracks. A thin, hard, uniform coating of rust or scale will not usually interfere with the detection of any but the smallest defects. The inspector should be aware of the smallest size defect he is to consider, in order to judge whether or not such a coating of rust or scale should be removed. 3.5.5.4.2 Paint or plating on the surface of a part has the effect of making a surface defect appear like a subsurface one. The relative thickness of the plating or paint film and the size of the defects sought determine whether or not the coatings should be stripped. The dry method is more effective in producing indications through nonmagnetic coatings than the wet method, but if fine cracks are expected, the surface SHALL be stripped of the coating if its thickness exceeds 0.003 inch. Most coatings of cadmium, nickel or chromium are usually thinner than this, and the plating makes an excellent background for viewing indications. Hot galvanized coatings are thicker, and in general, should be removed before testing, unless only gross discontinuities are important. Broken or patchy layers of heavy scale also interfere with their tendency to mechanically hold powder around the edges of the breaks or patches, and SHALL be removed if they are extensive enough to seriously interfere with the detection of discontinuities. 3.5.5.5 Applying the Powder. A few rules for the application of dry powder will make the process of testing easier and more effective. The dry particles are heavier and individually have a much greater mass than the very fine particles of the wet method. If they are applied to the surface of a part with any appreciable velocity, the fields at the discontinuities may not be able to stop and retain them. This is especially true when vertical or overhead surfaces are being examined. The powder should reach the surface of parts as a thin cloud with practically zero velocity, drifting to the surface, so that leakage fields have only to hold it in place. For vertical and overhead surfaces, the fields must overcome the pull of gravity, which tends to cause the particles to fall away. Since the dry particles have a wide range of sizes, the finer particles will be held under these conditions, unless the leakage fields are extremely weak. On horizontal surfaces this problem is minimized. The usual mistake is to apply too much powder. Once on the horizontal surface of a part, the powder has no mobility (unless AC or HWDC is being used) and too heavy an application tends to obscure indications. If the part can be lifted and tapped, the excess powder will fall away and indications will be more readily visible. The excess powder can also be gently blown away with an air stream not strong enough to blow off magnetically held particles forming an indication. 3.5.5.6 Applicators. Various devices have been used to make proper powder application easy. One of the most widely used is shown in Figure 3-32. The squeeze bottle is light and easy to use. With some practice, by a combination of shaking as with a salt shaker, and a squeeze on the bottle, powder can be ejected with minimum velocity. Practicing with the bottle on a sheet of white paper will train the inspector to produce an even, gentle overall coverage. A powder gun or blower improves application, especially on vertical and overhead surfaces. The powder gun throws a cloud of powder at low velocity, much like a very thin paint spray. When held about one foot from the surface being inspected, a very light dusting of powder permits easy observation of the formation of indications. On horizontal surfaces the excess of powder is blown away with a gentle air stream from the blower. Two push-button valves on the blower gun control the flow of powder or clean air. Less powder is used with the gun, which helps to assure better inspection. A more elaborate gun-type powder blower has a motor-driven compressor integral with a powder container and air-powder mixer. A multichannel rubber hose connects to the gun. A work light is contained in the gun tip to illuminate the inspection area. A trigger 3-62

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on the gun controls the discharge of the powder-air mixture and blow-off air. More elaborate production systems have been built using this same principle of operation. In these cases, the discharge nozzles are mechanically controlled, as is the movement of parts through the machine. Spent powder is automatically retrieved and reused.

Figure 3-32. Squeeze Bottle Applicator 3.5.5.7 Effects Of Part Surface Condition / Orientation. Clean, smooth surfaces are best for successful dry powder testing when the surface is horizontal. If the surface is rough, powder tends to gather and be held mechanically in depressions on the rough surface. A stronger stream of air than normal may be required to blow off this loose powder. Care must be taken in the inspection of such rough areas (for example, a rough weld bead) so that weakly held indications are not also blown away. By watching the area very carefully while applying powder and blowing off the excess, weak indications can often be seen as the powder shifts. For very critical inspections, the weld bead is sometimes machined away. Indications of discontinuities, which are below the surface, are more readily formed on the smooth machined surface of the weld. If the surface being tested is vertical or even at an angle to the horizontal, an extremely smooth surface becomes a disadvantage, since the dry powder tends to slide off easily, and weak leakage fields may not be able to hold it in place. Under these circumstances, a slightly roughened surface give better results. 3.5.5.8 Inspection Technique Variables. The two basic inspection variables to be considered are the types of current to be used, and the current/particle application technique. The type of current is dictated by the location of the defects, whether they are on the surface of the part, or located wholly below the surface. The choice of current is between AC and some form of DC. If the defect is on the surface, either AC or DC may be used, and the choice is determined by other considerations. If the defect lies below the surface, AC SHALL NOT be used. 3.5.5.8.1 Current. AC versus DC is the first basic choice to be made, since the skin effect of AC at 50 or 60 hertz limits its use to the detection of defects that are on the surface, or only a few thousandths of an inch below it. However, the skin effect of AC is less at lower frequencies, resulting in deeper penetration of the lines of force. At 25 hertz the penetration is deeper, and at frequencies of 10 hertz and less, the skin effect is almost nonexistent. If the defects sought are on the surface, AC has several advantages. The rapid reversal of the field imparts mobility to the particles. The dancing of the powder helps it to move to the area of leakage fields and to form stronger indications. Alternating current has

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another advantage. The magnetizing effect is 1.41 times that of the current read on the meter. To get equivalent magnetizing effect from DC more power and heavier equipment is required. 3.5.5.8.1.1 DC on the other hand, magnetizes the entire cross section uniformly in the case of longitudinal magnetization and with a field that varies linearly from a maximum at the surface to zero at the center of the bar, for direct contact (circular) magnetization. The types of DC are straight DC from batteries; full wave rectified three phase AC, and full wave and half-wave rectified single phase AC. 3.5.5.8.1.2 For the inspection of finished parts, such as the machined and ground shafts and gears of precision machinery, DC is frequently used. Although AC is excellent for the location of fine cracks that actually break the surface, DC is better for locating very fine nonmetallic stringers lying just under the surface. It is usually important to locate such stringers in parts of this type, since they can initiate fatigue failures. These comparisons point up the importance of choosing the right current type to give the best indications possible, and show how the choice will vary, depending upon the nature and location of the defects sought. 3.5.5.8.2 Current / Particle Application Technique. The use of dry powder with residual inspection has several disadvantages; it is more difficult to apply to interior regions of a part than is wet media; it is more difficult to completely cover a part in a short time; and removal of powder from a part can be a problem. 3.5.5.9 Inspection Guidelines. Proper illumination and good eyesight are the principal requirements for observing the presence of indications on the surface of parts. Selection of the best color powder for contrast against the surface is an aid to visibility. Last, but certainly not least, the magnetization must be sufficient to generate a useable leakage field at the location of discontinuities but not excessive to where the background degrades the contrast of any indications formed. On the large discontinuities, dry powder build-up is often very heavy, making indications stand out clearly from the surface. For finer cracks the build-up is less, since fewer particles are held by the leakage field. For extremely fine cracks, some form of the wet method, which is more sensitive to very fine discontinuities, should be used. 3.5.5.9.1 The same requirements for proper inspection of surfaces apply for the detection of subsurface discontinuities. The depth below the surface and the size and shape of the discontinuity determine the strength and spread of the leakage field. A proficient inspector will observe the surface as the powder is allowed to drift onto it, and will see faint but significant tendencies of the powder to gather. Often indications are seen under these conditions, but are no longer visible when more powder has been applied, the excess blown off, and the surface then examined for indications. Standardized techniques for careful and proper application of the powder can help assure the required sensitivity is achieved where similar assemblies are repetitively tested. 3.5.5.9.2 Indications are held at the defect by the residual field for highly retentive steels. In low carbon steels, the retentivity is very low. On these steels it is important to perform the inspection while the magnetizing current is on and the powder is being applied, since indications may not remain in place after the current is turned off. This is particularly true on vertical and overhead surfaces, where gravity plays a part in causing particles to fall away if lightly held. However, inspection requirements for the higher retentive steels often require the detection of very small defects. Even though the residual field may be high in such steel, the leakage fields for small defects will also be small and therefore the indications are not held at the surface very well.

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3.5.6 Wet Visible Particles.

CAUTION
The wet visible method SHALL NOT be used on aerospace vehicles or aerospace vehicle parts without specific approval of the appropriate engineering authority for the individual inspection requirements. 3.5.6.1 General. Wet method magnetic particles are fundamentally similar to each other, once they are dispersed in the suspending liquid. In past years, the most common form of the material concentrate was a paste. Today, however, the pastes have been almost exclusively reformulated and produced as dry powder concentrates. These powders incorporate the needed materials for dispersion, wetting, corrosion inhibition, etc. The powders are much easier to use, as they need merely to be measured out and added directly to the agitated bath. The agitation system of the modern magnetic particle units will pick up the powder and quickly disperse it in the bath. 3.5.6.2 Advantages and Limitations. As is true of every process, the wet method has both good points as well as less favorable characteristics. The more important good points of the wet method, which constitute the reason for its extensive use, as well as the less attractive characteristics are tabulated as follows: a. b. It is the more sensitive method for very fine surface cracks. It is the more sensitive method for very shallow and fine surface cracks. It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of irregularly shaped parts, large or small, with magnetic particles. It is the faster and more thorough method for testing large numbers of small parts. The magnetic particles have excellent mobility in liquid suspension. It is easy to measure and control the concentration of particles in the bath, which makes for uniformity and accurate reproducibility of results. It is easy to recover and re-use the bath. It is well adapted to the short, timed shot technique of magnetization for the continuous method. It is readily adaptable to automatic unit operation. It is not usually capable of finding smaller defects lying wholly below the surface if more than a few thousandths of an inch deep. It is messy to work with, especially when used for the expendable technique, and in field testing. A recirculating system is required to keep the particles in suspension. It sometimes presents a post-inspection cleaning problem to remove magnetic particles clinging to the surface.

c.

d.

e. f.

g.

h.

i.

3.5.6.3 Particle Selection by Visibility and Contrast. The need to meet a variety of conditions for successful magnetic particle testing has resulted in the development of different materials to obtain this result. The most commonly used materials, black and red, oil and water suspendible are listed below with the special characteristics of each.

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3.5.6.3.1 Black Powder Concentrate. This is available as an oil- or water-suspendible dry powder. It is especially suited for finding fine cracks on polished surfaces, such as bearings or crankshafts. It is the most sensitive of the non-fluorescent wet method powders for such applications. 3.5.6.3.2 Red Powder Concentrate. This is available as a reddish brown oil- or water-suspendible powder. The red color gives improved contrast and visibility in situations where the contrast of the black powder is poor. This color tends to be more visible than the black under incandescent light. 3.5.6.3.3 Suspension Characteristics. Wet method particles may be suspended either in water or in a petroleum distillate. Water is initially cheaper, but additions SHALL be made before it is a suitable medium for suspending the wet magnetic particles. Wetting agents, anti-foaming materials, corrosion inhibitors, suspending and dispersing agents are all necessary and must be carefully controlled. In order to assure proper control of the various conditioners, water as a suspending liquid SHALL NOT be used unless adequate process control capabilities are present. 3.5.6.4 Particles. Dry material concentrates to be used for water suspension must contain all of the extra ingredients necessary to make the finished suspension. Cost of the concentrates is comparable for water or oil suspension. 3.5.6.4.1 The need to incorporate all of the special ingredients for water or oil suspension into the concentrate necessitates two separate and distinct products. Water-suspendible concentrates cannot be used in oil. The various additives are insoluble in oil and will not disperse the particles in an oil bath. The additions made to the concentrates intended for oil suspension are not soluble in water. However, with suitable water conditioners, some of the oil-suspendible concentrates can be used in water. 3.5.6.4.2 One outstanding characteristic of wet visible method particles is their extremely small size. These very fine particles do not act as individuals but agglomerate into groups. Dry concentrates are almost always formulated to include all required constituents. 3.5.6.5 Vehicle. The bath liquid or vehicle may be either a petroleum distillate or water. Both require conditioners to maintain proper dispersion of the particles and to permit the particles mobility to form indications on the surfaces of parts. These conditioners are usually incorporated with the powders. 3.5.6.5.1 Petroleum distillates were the first choice as a suspension liquid. Significant characteristics for a suspension vehicle are low viscosity, odorless, low sulfur content and a high flash point. The specifications for a suitable vehicle are given in Table 3-5. Of these properties, viscosity is probably the most important from a functional standpoint. High viscosity will retard the movement of particles under the influence of leakage fields, thus slowing the build-up of particles to form indications. 3.5.6.5.2 Lighter distillates have even lower viscosities than those used, but they have other properties undesirable in a magnetic particle bath. For example, lower initial boiling points accompany the lower viscosities and this results in faster evaporation losses. In addition, a lower flash point also accompanies the lower viscosity with the resulting increase in fire hazard. Inhalation of fumes from a light distillate can impair an inspectors health. The odor of distillate can be a distraction for the inspector and is associated with color and sulfur content.

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3.5.6.5.3 The advantages of water instead of oil for magnetic particle wet method baths are lower initial costs, lower viscosity (about 1 centistoke), non-flammability and ready availability. The disadvantages of water include potential corrosion, electrical conductivity, freezing and the requirement for more conditioners to assure adequate particle function. 3.5.6.5.4 Water baths without auxiliary heating can be used only in shop areas where the temperature is above freezing. Use of anti-freeze liquids is not feasible because the viscosity of the bath then exceeds the maximum allowable. Because the detergents that assure wetting of surfaces can cause foaming of the bath, circulation systems must be designed to avoid air entrapment or other conditions that produce foam. Anti-foaming agents help minimize this tendency, but are not 100% effective. 3.5.6.5.5 Since water is a conductor of electricity, units in which it is to be used are designed to isolate all high voltage circuits in such a way as to avoid all possibility of an inspector receiving a shock. The equipment SHALL be thoroughly and positively grounded. Corrosion of parts of the units can occur if proper provision is not made to avoid this. However, units designed to be used with water as a suspension liquid are safe for the inspector and minimize the corrosion problem. There is no restriction as to the water that is used for the bath, as there is in the case of oil. Ordinary tap water is suitable, and hardness is not a problem, since the mineral content of the water does not interfere with the conditioning chemicals necessary to prepare the bath. 3.5.6.5.6

NOTE
The use of water bath suspension is not recommended for field NDI laboratories unless adequate base laboratory facilities exist to test the serviceability of the wetting agents, dispersing agents, corrosion inhibitors, anti-foam agents, and other additives that are required in the water suspension. Where water is used baths SHALL be carefully controlled to prevent corrosion and assure adequate wetting of parts to be inspected. This requires weekly monitoring of corrosion inhibitor and wetting agent concentration. Wetting agents and rust inhibitors must be used with water-type wet baths. Usually the magnetic particle concentrates provided include the correct amounts of wetting agent and corrosion inhibitor for initial use. However, these materials are available separately so concentrations can be maintained or adjusted to suit the particular conditions. Reference SHALL be made to the manufacturer's recommendations for the correct quantity of wetting agent to be added. 3.5.6.6 Suspension Preparation.

3.5.6.6.1 Tank Inspection and Cleaning. When a new unit is being installed or after dumping a dirty bath from a unit in use, the agitation/circulation system must be inspected and cleaned as necessary to insure that it is not contaminated with dried particles or dirt. 3.5.6.6.2 Vehicle. Fill the tank with oil or water as required, and operate the agitation system to make sure it is functioning properly. If petroleum based bulk vehicle is used, the following check SHALL be performed on bulk vehicles prior to formulating the inspection bath to prevent unsatisfactory bulk magnetic particle vehicle from being introduced into the magnetic particle inspection system. a. b. Loosen cap, cover, seal, or plug on the bulk vehicle container. Leave the container undisturbed for at least one (1) hour.

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c. Remove cap, cover, seal, or plug from the bulk vehicle container. Obtain a clean glass tube of sufficient length to reach from the bottom of the bulk vehicle container to at least six (6) inches above the container opening when tube is held in the vertical position. Place thumb over one end of the glass tube. Insert the other end of the glass tube slowly in a vertical position into the bulk vehicle. Insure that the tube is all the way to the bottom of the container. Release thumb on upper end of the glass tube for five (5) to ten (10) seconds, then replace thumb over end of glass tube. Remove glass tube slowly from the bulk vehicle maintaining its vertical position. Prior to removing thumb from the end of the glass tube, observe the level of contamination in the glass tube. Water and other contaminants should be evident in lower portion of the glass tube, if present. (At depot facilities, if the vehicle is suspected, the contents of the glass tube may be sent to the depot chemical laboratory for analysis). If contaminants are evident in the bottom of the container, siphon off the good vehicle to within two inches of contamination level. See paragraph 3.2.5.1.2 for disposition instructions of contaminated bulk vehicle.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h. 3.5.6.6.3

Particle Concentration.

NOTE
Prior to adding the magnetic particles to the vehicle they SHALL be demagnetized to eliminate any agglomeration that might have developed during storage because of magnetization. The strength of the bath is a major factor in determining the quality of the indications obtained. Too heavy a concentration of particles gives a confusing background and excessive adherence of particles at external poles, reducing the visibility of indications of very fine discontinuities. Add magnetic particles to obtain a suspension concentration as follows: a. Visible magnetic particle bath concentrations: 1.2 to 2.4 milliliters (ml) of particles per 100 ml of vehicle. Fluorescent magnetic particle bath concentrations: 0.1 to 0.4-ml/100 ml.

b.

These ranges are rather broad for uniform results and should be reduced by the individual laboratories for their specific requirements. The optimum range for most magnetic particle bath concentrations is 1.5 to 2.0 ml/100 ml for visible particles and 0.15 to 0.20 ml/100 ml for fluorescent particles. 3.5.6.6.4 Dry Powder Concentrate. Measure out the required amount of powdered concentrate and pour it directly into the bath liquid in the tank. The agitation system should be running and the concentrate poured in at the pump intake, so that it will be quickly drawn into the pump and dispersed. The new pre-wet concentrates will disperse very quickly even through the large volume of bath in large units. After 10 minutes of operation the bath strength should be checked with a settling test. The amount of settled material should check approximately with the volume requirements in paragraph 3.5.6.6.3. 3.5.6.6.5 Paste Concentrate. The procedure is similar to that followed with the dry powder concentrates, except that the paste must be weighed instead of measured. It is transferred to a mixing cup or bowl, bath liquid is added little at a time, and mixed until a smooth thin slurry has been produced. This slurry is then poured into the tank at the point where the agitation system

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will pick it up and disperse it. Af ter agitating 10 minutes the strength should be checked by the settling test as in the case of the dry powder concentrate. 3.5.6.7 a. b. c. d. e. f. Suspension Maintenance. Drag-out of magnetic particles, by mechanical and magnetic adherence to parts. Drag-out of liquid due to the f ilm that adheres to the surface of parts. Loss of liquid by evaporation. A gradual accumulation of contaminants: shop dust, dirt from parts not properly cleaned, lint from wiping rags, and oil from parts that carry a residual f ilm of oil. Miscellaneous objects and materials which are dropped into the tanks. Dilution/contamination of the bath from wet test pieces, dripping overhead pipes, and moisture condensation. As the suspension bath is used for testing, it will undergo changes due to use. Some of these changes are:

3.5.6.7.1 The magnetic particles are considerably heavier than the vehicle in which they are suspended. When the agitation system is shut off, the particles rapidly settle out. It is important that all particles be in suspension before conducting any inspections or concentration tests. When the agitation system has been off for 4 or more hours, the agitation system SHALL be turned on for at least 30 minutes before conducting an inspection. This agitation time varies with the downtime due to compacting of the particles from their own weight. If the machine has been off for 30 to 60 minutes, a 10-minute agitation is usually adequate. If the unit has been off for a week or more, 60 minutes of agitation plus supplemental stirring may be necessary. Concentrate should be added when the particle concentration is low. Evaporation or liquid drag-out SHALL be watched, and volume maintained when the level drops appreciably. Loss of liquid may be either by dragout or by evaporation, and corrective measures are different for these two types of loss. To make up for evaporation loss, only additional oil or water is required. To make up for the drag-out loss, the addition of bath liquid and particles is required. 3.5.6.7.2 It is diff icult to know what the cause of volume loss actually is in any given case. For a unit in constant use, it can be assumed that more than 50% of the loss is due to drag-out. For a unit used only occasionally, loss by evaporation is likely to be the major cause. Actually the problem is not serious, because with constant use the accumulation of dirt, scraps, lint, etc. requires the dumping of the tank and a new bath before loss of liquid becomes serious. Magnetic particle content is of most critical importance and SHALL be carefully watched at all times. 3.5.6.7.3 Dirt accumulation in the bath can usually be observed in the settling test for magnetic particles. Dirt, lint, etc. are usually lighter and settle later. Dirt, lint, etc. are of ten seen as a second layer on top of the particles or as a nonf luorescent band or strip in the particle layer. For particle determination, this layer of dirt must be carefully excluded from the total volume read. When the contamination exceeds 30% of the volume of the particle layer, formation of proper indications will be impeded, and the bath SHALL be dumped and a new one made up. This may occur as of ten as once a week when a unit is in constant use. The layer of dirt and the vehicle immediately above it SHALL NOT f luoresce. If oil is used as a suspension, it must be considered a petroleum product and disposition of the bath must conform to all applicable regulations. 3.5.6.8 Suspension Settling Test. NOTE The difference between milliliters (ml) and cubic centimeters (cc) in this case is negligible and the two terms are used interchangeably for this paragraph. The magnetic particle bath SHALL only be agitated in the magnetic particle machines holding tank when it is necessary to perform a magnetic particle inspection or meet process control requirements.

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The following procedure shall be used to determine the concentration of magnetic particles and to check for the accumulation of dirt or other contaminants in a suspension. The equipment required is a 100 cubic centimeter (cc) or 100 milliliter (ml) pear-shaped, graduated centrifuge tube and stand (see Figure 3-33).

Figure 3-33.

Filling Centrifuge Tube from Hose

a. b. c. d. e.

Thoroughly agitate the suspension. Run suspension through the hose and nozzle for at least 1 minute. This is to assure the suspension in the hose is fresh and agitated. Fill the 100 cc (100 ml) centrifuge tube with agitated suspension using the hose. Demagnetize the suspension in the tube to reduce clumping. Place the centrifuge tube in its nonferromagnetic stand and allow settling on a vibration free surface for 1 hour for oil baths and 30 minutes for water baths. Inspections or Process Control Inspections CANNOT BE ACCOMPLISHED prior to the full 1 hour time limit. The suspension concentration must be within T.O. limits prior to use. Observe the total level of settled particles at the end of the settling period. The graduated cylinder reads directly in milliliters. The level of contaminants must be subtracted from the total level to obtain the concentration of particles (see paragraph 3.5.6.6.3).

f.

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g. If the level or concentration of magnetic particles is above or below the range required, correct by adding vehicle or magnetic particle powder respectively. Repeat step a. through f. af ter making corrections. h. Return contents of centrifuge tube to the unit suspension tank, and clean the tube prior to next test. Dirt in the bath will also settle out and usually show as a separate layer on top of the particles. The layer of dirt and lint is usually easily distinguishable, since it is of a different color and texture from the particles. The layer of dirt and lint is usually easily distinguishable, since it is of a different color and texture from the particles. Also easily distinguishable are iron peening shot and blasting grit; both will settle faster and lie beneath the magnetic particles. The concentrates to be added per gallon of bath, and the volume of solid materials, which settle out when the bath is made up with these amounts of concentrates, should conform with the manufacturers data supplied with the concentrate. 3.5.6.9 Preparation of Part Surface. In general the same requirements apply for the wet method as for the dry technique. Dirt, corrosion, loose scale, and oil or grease SHALL be removed. The oil bath will dissolve oil or grease but this builds up the viscosity of the bath and shortens its useful life. With a water bath, oil on the surface of the part makes wetting more diff icult, although the conditioners in the bath are usually suff icient to take care of a slight amount of oil. Excessive oil on part surfaces contaminates the water bath. Paint and plated coatings, if over 0.003 inch thick, may have to be stripped. Tests have shown that nonmagnetic coatings of any kind, in excess of 0.003 inch in thickness, can seriously interfere with the formation of magnetic particle indications of small discontinuities. 3.5.6.10 Application of Suspension. Many ways are used to apply magnetic particles in vehicle carriers. The methods range from a simple pouring of a bath onto a part, to large industrial systems in which the bath is applied automatically, either by immersion or f looding, then recirculated or reused. Occasionally small hand-held, lever-operated sprayers are used. 3.5.6.10.1 Prepared bath is widely available in aerosol cans. Such cans, usually containing oil-based baths, are very convenient to use for spot-checking, or small area tests in the f ield. They are of ten furnished in kits, including a permanent magnet or electro-magnet yoke, which makes a portable package for small f ield testing jobs or for maintenance testing around the shop. Various sizes of ordinary pressurized paint spray tanks equipped with special guns are used, particularly with water-type baths. Aerosol containers SHALL be checked for residual magnetism prior to being used to perform an inspection and, if necessary, demagnetized to less than two increments on the magnetic f ield indicator. This is necessary to preclude the magnetic particles from agglomerating and not being expelled from the container. 3.5.6.10.2 NOTE Shelf life dates on aerosol containers of magnetic particle materials is the f inal date that the manufacturer will warranty its product. These products SHALL be used af ter this date provided there is suff icient propellant remaining in the container and they pass the system effectiveness check. Only containers being used to perform inspections require testing. One method practiced, mostly on small parts, is where the parts are magnetized one at a time, then placed in a tray and immersed in a tank containing an agitated bath of magnetic particles. The parts must be placed in the tray so they do not touch each other; or else non-relevant indications from magnetic writing may be produced at the points of contact. Haphazard loading into a basket for immersion application SHALL NOT be permitted. Both the concentration of the bath and the immersion time affect the production of indications. If the leakage f ield at the discontinuity is weak, prolonged immersion permits more particles to come into the inf luence of the f ield and makes the indication more visible.

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3.5.7.

Wet Fluorescent Method.

3.5.7.1. General. When exposed to near ultraviolet light (blacklight), f luorescent magnetic particles emit a highly visible yellow-green color. Indications produced are easily seen, and the f luorescent particles give much stronger indications of very small discontinuities than do the non-f luorescent magnetic particles. The differences between the wet visible method and the wet f luorescent method are comparatively minor regarding suspension characteristics, maintenance and application, as well as the inspection variables and demagnetization techniques. The following applies only to the wet f luorescent method. 3.5.7.2. Advantages and Limitations. Fluorescent particles have one major advantage over the untreated or visible particles. That is their ability to give off a brilliant glow under blacklight. This brilliant glow serves three principal purposes: a. In semi- or complete darkness even very minute amounts of the f luorescent particles are easily seen, having the effect of increasing the apparent sensitivity of the process, even though magnetically the f luorescent particles are not superior to the uncolored particles. b. Even on discontinuities large enough to give good visible indications, f luorescent indications are easier to see and the chance of the inspector missing an indication is reduced, even when the speed of inspecting parts is increased. c. Concurrent with the greater visibility of indications formed by f luorescent particles, the background caused by excessive magnetization is also more severe. Consequently, greater care must be exercised in selection of the particle concentrations and magnetization levels for the inspection with f luorescent particles. 3.5.7.2.1. The f luorescent particle method is faster, more reliable and more sensitive to very f ine defects than the visible colored particle method in most applications. Indications are easier to detect, especially in high volume testing. In addition, the f luorescent method has all the other advantages possessed by the wet visible suspension technique. 3.5.7.2.2. The wet f luorescent method also shares the disadvantages found with the wet visible method. In addition, there is a requirement for both a source of blacklight, and an inspection area from which the white light can be excluded. Experience has shown that these added requirements are more than justif ied by the gains in reliability and sensitivity. 3.5.7.3. Inspection Materials. There is no difference between the f luorescent and non-f luorescent materials as far as the vehicle requirements. Petroleum distillates must meet the same specif ications as listed in Table 3-5, with one additional requirement. The vehicle itself must not f luoresce strongly. 3.5.7.3.1. The particles for this method are magnetically the same as the visible type, but they must carry the f luorescent dye and the binding material that holds the dye and particle together as a unit. This coating of the particles could make them less effective in producing indications. However, f luorescent particle indications require only a small fraction of the particles, as compared to the non-f luorescent type, to be easily visible. Thus, the overall effect is a signif icant increase in sensitivity. 3.5.7.3.2. Fluorescent particles are supplied primarily as a dry concentrate, incorporating all the ingredients necessary for use in oil or water, as appropriate. 3.5.7.3.3. It is of importance that the bond between the f luorescent dye or pigment and the magnetic particle is able to resist the vigorous agitation it receives in the pump circulation and the solvent attack from the suspension f luid. If the dye separates from the magnetic particle, the dye tends to cling to the surfaces of the part, independent of any magnetic attraction, thus increasing the background against which indications must be viewed. At the same time the magnetic particles that are held magnetically at indications have lost some or all of their f luorescing ability, reducing their visibility.

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3.5.7.3.4. The need to provide successful magnetic particle testing under varying conditions has resulted in the development of different materials to accomplish this result. These f luorescent materials are readily available in a dry concentrate powder form suitable for use in water and/or oil suspensions. Prepared oilbased baths are also available in aerosol-type cans and bulk quantities. 3.5.7.4. Suspension Preparation. Except as described in the following subparagraphs, the details of suspension preparation are the same as for the wet visible non-f luorescent particles (see paragraph 3.5.6.6). 3.5.7.4.1. A f luorescent background check shall be accomplished on vehicle material used in the f luorescent magnetic particle inspection method if conformance to DOD-F-87935 is in question. One procedure for checking the background is as follows: a. Obtain a clean glass tube of suff icient length to reach from the middle of the bulk vehicle container to at least six (6) inches above the container opening when it is in the vertical position. b. Insert the tube slowly into the bulk vehicle. c. Place thumb over protruding end of the glass tube and remove the tube from the container. d. Illuminate vehicle in the glass tube with a black light in a darkened area. e. If vehicle does not f luoresce, proceed with its use. If the vehicle f luoresces, determine the f luorescence in accordance with the appropriate section of DOD-F-87935. Dispose of vehicle not conforming to DOD-F-87935. 3.5.7.5. Suspension Maintenance. The rules are identical with those described in paragraph 3.5.6.6 for the wet visible non-f luorescent particles. However, there are three additional sources of deterioration that can occur in a bath of f luorescent particles, and that require discarding of the bath when the condition becomes excessive. 3.5.7.5.1. Deterioration of Suspension. a. The f irst source of deterioration is the separation of the f luorescent pigment from the magnetic particles. Such separation causes a reduction of f luorescent brightness of indications and an increase in the overall f luorescence of the background. When this occurs to a noticeable degree, the bath SHALL be changed. This condition is diff icult to detect in the settling test but can be observed by directing a blacklight at the settling tube af ter the normal settling period. Refer to paragraph 3.5.7.5.2 for additional steps to aid interpretation of observations. Noticeable f luorescence of the solution with a reduced f luorescence of the particles signif ies separation. Observation by the inspector in the way the bath performs is another method of detecting separation. b. A second source of deterioration of the bath of f luorescent particles is the accumulation of non-f luorescent magnetic dust or dirt in the bath. When there is a considerable amount of f inely divided magnetic material in the dust carried by the air, this material will accumulate in the bath along with other dust and dirt. In a bath of wet visible non-f luorescent particles this does no specif ic harm until the accumulation of total dirt is excessive. In the case of f luorescent particles, it tends to decrease the brightness of the indication. The f ine magnetic material is attracted to indications along with the f luorescent particles, and it takes very little of such non-f luorescent material to signif icantly reduce the brightness or visibility of the indication. c. A third source of deterioration of the f luorescent particle bath is the accumulation of f luorescent oils and greases from the surfaces of tested parts. This accumulation, in time, builds up the f luorescence of the liquid vehicle to the point where it interferes with the visibility of f luorescent particle indications.

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3.5.7.5.2. Determination of Vehicle Fluorescence. The settling test for particle concentration can be used to also judge vehicle f luorescence and is readily performed at a stationary unit. It is not as accurate as the laboratory test but is reasonably quantitative and reproducible. It can be easily standardized with the material in use, and is quite satisfactory as a daily guide for the inspector. The following procedure SHALL be used in performing the vehicle f luorescence test af ter the steps in the settling test have been completed (see paragraph 3.5.6.8). a. Illuminate the suspension in the centrifuge tube with black light in a darkened area. Only the particle layer should f luoresce. Dirt, lint, etc. will usually settle more slowly than the particles and may be seen as a nonf luorescent band or strip toward the top of the particle layer. For particle concentration determination, this layer of dirt must be carefully excluded from the total volume read. Dirt accumulation that exceeds 30% of the total volume of the particle layer can impede the formation of indications, requiring replacement of the bath. b. Fluorescence in the liquid may indicate bath breakdown (f luorescent pigmentation being stripped from the magnetic particles or f ine magnetic particles remaining suspended in the vehicle). If the vehicle f luoresces excessively, place the centrifuge tube in its stand (which must not be ferromagnetic) with a horseshoe magnet in contact with the centrifuge tube (see Figure 3-34) and let sit on a vibration free surface for 1 hour for oil baths and 30 minutes for water baths. Illuminate the vehicle in the centrifuge tube with black light in a darkened area. If the vehicles f luorescence is reduced or eliminated the cause of the f luorescence is f ine magnetic particles remaining suspended. If the level of f luorescence remains at the same level, the f luorescent pigmentation has been stripped from the magnetic particles. c. If it is determined that the cause of the vehicles f luorescence is stripping of the pigmentation, the suspension SHALL be replaced if it is serious enough to interfere with the results of the system effectiveness check using the Ketos ring. d. If it is determined that the cause of the excessive suspension f luorescence is f ine magnetic particles remaining in the vehicle, and they are of a volume to interfere with the results of the system effectiveness check using the Ketos ring an effort may be made to remove them from the holding tanks magnetic particle bath. This can be done with magnets. The magnetic particle bath in the magnetic particle machines holding tank should be allowed to rest (not agitated) for forty (40) minutes. Place the magnets in the magnetic particle bath, taking care not to place them so deep that they will attract the particles that have settled out of suspension. The length of time or number of times that the magnets will have to be cleaned of particles and submerged is dependent upon the seriousness of the problem. The bath SHALL be able to pass the system effectiveness check, af ter the removal of as many suspended particles as possible or be replaced.

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e. If a magnet was used to remove fine magnetic particles from suspension in the centrifuge tube, the suspension SHALL be demagnetized prior to being poured back into the magnetic particle machine. The inside of the centrifuge tube SHALL be cleaned to eliminate any residual fluorescence remaining after each use.

f.

Figure 3-34. Drawing Fine Magnetic Particles from Vehicle with Horseshoe Magnet 3.5.7.6 Surface Preparation. The removal of surface oil and grease becomes very important in the cleaning of part prior to wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspection. Most petroleum distillates, lubricating oils, and greases fluoresce. Such materials must be kept out of the testing bath because of the increase in background fluorescence that they produce. 3.5.7.7 Application of Suspension. Application of the suspension using fluorescent magnetic particles is identical with the procedure described in detail for the wet visible method. 3.5.7.8 Blacklight Information (See Penetrant Chapter).

3.5.7.8.1 Ambient Light Requirements. Inspection booths of a stationary fluorescent magnetic particle system SHALL NOT exceed 2 lumens per square foot (lm/ft2; 1 lumen per square foot equals 1 foot-candle) of ambient light. For portable applications it is not always possible to achieve ambient light levels as low as this. As the ambient light level is increased, the intensity of black light must also be increased. When performing portable fluorescent magnetic particle inspections, a dark colored canvas or photographers black cloth SHALL be used to darken the area of interest to the lowest possible ambient light levels during the inspection. 3.5.7.8.2 Measurement. The measurement of visible light intensity is easily accomplished by using solid-state photometers. Measurements of visible light are keyed to the response of the visual system of a standard human observer. The unit of energy for visible light is the lumen-hour and represents the amount of energy in the visible light spectrum distributed in a specific way that is related to the response of the standard human eye. The energy flux, that is the energy per unit of time, then is

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the lumen. The units of measurements for visible light intensity are foot-candles where one foot-candle equals one lumen per square foot. Another term often used is lux, which equals one lumen per square meter. The conversion between the two terms is 1 foot-candle equals approximately 10 lux. 3.5.7.9 Dark Adaptation. The human eye becomes much more sensitive to light under dark conditions. This increased sensitivity gradually occurs when the light conditions change from light to dark. When entering a darkened area from a lighted area, little or nothing can be seen at first. The pupil of the eye must widen to admit more light. The time required for the eye to adjust to darken condition depends upon the overall health and age of the individual. Full sensitivity or dark adaptation requires about 20 minutes. A dark adaptation time of 5 minutes is usually sufficient for magnetic particle inspection with black light. An inspector entering a darkened area SHALL allow at least 5 minutes for dark adaptation before examining parts. Once dark-adapted, the pupil of the eye responds very rapidly to bright light. A very short bright light exposure cancels the slowly acquired dark adaptation. Time for dark adaptation must be allowed whenever an inspector enters the darkened booth or is exposed to a bright light. A timer capable of measuring this time period should be available within the darkened area. 3.5.7.10 Cleanliness. The inspection area as well as the hands and clothing of the inspector should be clean and free of extraneous fluorescent materials. Nonrelevant indications may be formed when parts contact extraneous fluorescent materials. In addition, the fluorescence from this material will raise the ambient light level, thus increasing the amount of blacklight necessary to produce a visible indication of a small defect.

SECTION VI DEMAGNITIZATION
3.6 3.6.1 DEMAGNETIZATION. General. a. Any ferromagnetic material subjected to magnetic particle inspection requires demagnetization. When performing magnetic particle inspection of aircraft parts, it is essential to demagnetize them. The inspector should understand the reasons for this step, as well as the problems involved and the available means for solving them. The earth's magnetic field can contribute to the difficulty of demagnetizing parts. A long part to be demagnetized should be placed so that its principal axis is in an east-west direction. A long part lying in a north and south direction can never be demagnetized below the level of the earth's field. Rotating the part or structure on its east-west axis while demagnetizing often helps reduce the field in transverse members that are not lying east and west. Vibration of the structure during the demagnetization process is also helpful under these circumstances. Complete removal of all magnetic fields is virtually impossible.

b.

3.6.2 Purpose. Ferromagnetic materials retain a certain amount of residual magnetism (or remnant field) after application of a magnetizing force. This does not affect the mechanical properties of the part. However, a residual field can impede the operation of some parts as well as affect the operation of adjacent equipment that are sensitive to low level stray magnetic fields. 3.6.3 Principles Of operation. Demagnetization may be accomplished in a number of different ways. The method used depends upon the electrical power and equipment available, the degree of demagnetization required and the skill of the inspector.

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a. One of the simpler methods subjects the magnetized part to a magnetizing force that continually reverses its direction. At the same time, this force is gradually decreased in strength. As the decreasing magnetizing force is applied, first in one direction and then the opposite direction, the magnetization of the part is decreased. This decreasing magnetization is accomplished by smaller and smaller hysteresis loops created by the application of decreasing current as shown in Figure 3-35. The smaller the hysteresis loop produced the more demagnetization that has been accomplished.

Figure 3-35. Hysteresis Loops Produced During Demagnetization b. For all practical purposes the only way to completely demagnetize a part is to heat it to its Curie point or above. Under normal conditions, a part is considered to be satisfactorily demagnetized if, when checked with a field indicator, the magnetic field is at or below 3 units on a gaussmeter or 2 units on a field indicator.

c.

3.6.4 Requirements. Aircraft ferromagnetic parts require demagnetization principally to prevent magnetic flux from affecting instrumentation. There are several additional reasons supporting the requirement for demagnetization. 3.6.4.1 Situations Requiring Demagnetization. Demagnetization is required when the residual field in a part: a. May interfere with subsequent machining operations by causing chips to adhere to the surface of the part or the tip of a tool that may become magnetized from contact with the magnetized part. Such chips can interfere with smooth cutting by the tool, adversely affecting both part surface finish and tool life. May interfere with electric arc or electron beam welding operations. Residual magnetic fields may deflect the arc or electron beam away from the point at which it should be applied. May interfere with the functioning of the part itself after it is placed into service. Magnetized tools, such as milling cutters, hobs, etc., will hold chips and cause rough surfaces, and may even be broken by adherent chips at the cutting edge. Might cause trouble on moving parts, especially those running in oil, by holding particles of metal or magnetic testing particles - for instance, on balls or races of ball bearings, or on gear teeth. 3-77

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e. May prevent proper cleaning of the part after inspection by holding particles magnetically to the surface of a part. May interfere with subsequent magnetization requirements. May hold particles that interfere with later applications of coatings such as plating or paint.

f. g.

3.6.4.2 Situations Not Requiring Demagnetization. Demagnetization is not usually required when: a. The parts are not aircraft parts and have low retentivity. In this case, the residual field is low or disappears after the magnetizing force is no longer acting. An example is low-carbon plate such as that used for low strength weldments, tanks, etc. The material in question consists of non-aircraft structural parts such as weldments, large castings, boilers, etc., where the presence of a residual field would have no effect on other components or the proper service performance of the part. If the part is to be subsequently processed or heat-treated and in the process will become heated above the Curie point, or about 770C (about 1418F). Above this temperature steels become nonmagnetic, and on cooling are completely demagnetized when they pass through the reverse transformation. The part will become magnetized anyway during a subsequent process, for example, when held in a magnetic chuck. A part is to be subsequently magnetized in another direction to the same or higher level at which it was originally magnetized, for example, between circular and longitudinal magnetization for magnetic particle inspection. The magnetic field contained in a non-aircraft finished part is such that there are no external leakage fields measurable by ordinary means, i.e., the field produced during magnetic particle inspection with circular magnetization.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

3.6.4.2.1 The requirement cited in paragraph 3.6.4.2e is sometimes a cause of confusion. A residual magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material exists because there is a preferred orientation of the magnetic domains caused by a previously applied magnetic field. A residual magnetic field perpendicular to a previously established residual field can only be produced by application of a magnetic field in the perpendicular direction strong enough to rotate the domain 90 degrees. Because the preferred orientation of the domains has been rotated 90 degrees, the previous residual field no longer exists. For this reason, longitudinal magnetization, strong enough to produce indications of discontinuities in a part that previously had a residual circular magnetic field, reduces the circular residual field to zero. If the magnetizing force is not of sufficient strength to establish the longitudinal field, the strength SHALL be increased, or other steps taken to insure that a residual longitudinal field actually has been established. For example, a large part having a large L/D ratio may require multiple longitudinal shots along its length to eliminate the circular field. Rotation of the preferred orientation of the magnetic domains also occurs when a circular residual field is produced in a part with an existing residual longitudinal field. 3.6.4.2.2 If the two fields, longitudinal and circular, are applied simultaneously, an applied field results that is a vector combination of the two in both strength and direction. If the magnitude of this resultant applied field is large enough, then a residual field will be produced in this same direction. If, however, the fields are induced sequentially the last field applied, if strong enough to produce a residual field, will eliminate the residual field from the previous magnetization. A convenient method of assuring reduction of a residual magnetic field in one direction and establishing a field in a perpendicular direction is to slightly increase the magnetizing force of the second shot. 3-78

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3.6.5 Methods. 3.6.5.1 General. Alternating and direct currents are used in demagnetizing aircraft parts after magnetic particle inspection. Although direct current can be used for demagnetization, alternating current demagnetization has been found to be more convenient. Since alternating current does not penetrate very deeply below the surface of magnetic materials, some parts may be difficult to demagnetize completely using alternating current. This is particularly true with large heavy parts, and may also be the case with parts of unusual shape. Direct current can be used to demagnetize if there is provision for current decay or reduction and a means for reversing the direction of the current. Demagnetization accomplished in this manner with direct current is the most complete and effective possible. 3.6.5.1.1 To demagnetize with direct current, the part is placed in a coil connected to a source of direct current. The current is adjusted to a value at least as great as that used to magnetize the part and a shot of current is given at this initial value. The direction of the current is then reversed the value reduced, and a shot of current given at the new value. This process of reversing and reducing the current is continued until a very low value is reached. The part is now effectively demagnetized. 3.6.5.1.2 Paragraph 3.6.8.6 indicates that parts with a circular field do not have magnetic poles. This lack of measurable poles, providing no discontinuities are present, makes it impossible to check the magnitude of residual circular magnetization with the conventional residual field indicator. A common and recommended practice on aircraft parts is to magnetize the part longitudinally after it has been circularly magnetized. The difficult to measure circular field is then replaced by an easy to measure longitudinal field. 3.6.5.2 AC Demagnetization. Separate AC Coil. The most common and convenient method of demagnetizing small to moderate sized parts is by passing them through an open tunnel-type coil, through which alternating current at line frequency (usually 50 to 60 hertz) is passing. Another practice is to pass the 50 or 60 hertz AC through a coil with the part inside the coil, and gradually reduce the current to zero. In the first case, the reduction of the strength of the reversing field is obtained by withdrawal of the part axially from the coil (or the coil from the part) and for some distance beyond the end of the coil (or part) along that axial line. In the second case, the gradual decay of the current in the coil accomplishes the same results. This method of demagnetization is particularly suitable for large numbers of relatively small parts. 3.6.5.2.1 Stationary MPI Unit. Stationary magnetic particle testing equipment often has demagnetization capabilities. If so equipped, AC current may be passed directly through the part or through the coil on the magnetizing unit. For demagnetization of parts, the alternating current is reduced to zero automatically by built-in means of step-down switches or variable transformers for older equipment, or solid state devices for newer equipment. The step-down feature permits the demagnetization of parts without removal from the magnetizing equipment. This procedure is more effective on long, circularly magnetized parts than the separate coil method, but does not overcome the lack of penetration due to skin effect unless frequencies much lower than 60 hertz are used. 3.6.5.3 DC Demagnetization. Demagnetizing by the direct current reversing step-down feature is essentially identical in principle to the AC method. Modern stationary DC magnetizing equipment usually incorporates this capability. The use of DC current permits a more even and complete penetration of even large cross sections. The DC current flows in one direction for a short time, it then is slightly reduced in magnitude, and completely reversed in direction. The process of automatically reversing and reducing the current is continued until the current reaches zero and the part is effectively demagnetized. This method of demagnetizing is very effective although it does require large, heavy equipment. It is especially effective in removing circular fields when the current can be passed through the part and works well with a central conductor, when applicable. Small parts can be placed in a standard coil and larger parts can be cable-wrapped for their full length, as induction loss is not present with DC.

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3.6.6 Equipment and Procedures. 3.6.6.1 Stationary Unit. Magnetic particle inspection equipment which magnetizes with AC or DC is used to demagnetize parts after inspection, depending upon the demagnetization features included in the equipment and the size and shape of the part. 3.6.6.1.1 The most common type of stationary demagnetizing equipment consists of an open coil through which alternating current at line frequency, usually 50 to 60 hertz, is used. The demagnetizing coil may be equipped with a stand or may be constructed and placed on a bench. Usually larger sizes also have a track or carriage on which parts can be placed to facilitate handling. 3.6.6.1.2 To use a demagnetizer coil, such as that illustrated in Figure 3-36, the part is placed in the coil and the current turned on. While the current remains on, the part is slowly withdrawn from the coil a distance of 4 to 5 feet before the current is shut off. The axis of the part should be parallel to the axis of the coil for regularly shaped parts. On complex parts, more complete demagnetization is sometimes possible if the part is rotated and turned end for end. For best result the diameter of the demagnetizer coil should be just large enough to accommodate the part. However, for practical purposes one or two sizes of coils will satisfactorily serve an inspection facility. When demagnetizing, small parts in a large coil, keep the parts close to the inside wall or corner of the coil since the demagnetizing forces are strongest in that area.

Figure 3-36. Part in Demagnetizing Coil. 3.6.6.1.3 Some stationary AC equipment with a coil on rails has a toggle switch, which enables the inspector to turn the current on in the coil, and leave it on. This coil then becomes a demagnetization coil when a part is drawn through it while the current is flowing. It is important to remember that the part must be drawn completely out of the magnetic field of the coil before the current is shut off. 3.6.6.1.4

CAUTION
Care must be used in demagnetizing small parts using machines equipped with "step-down" demagnetizers, which do not have adjustable current tap switches. A small part such as a bolt being circularly demagnetized with this equipment may be overheated with the initial high current steps.

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NOTE
Circular demagnetization is particularly effective on parts of complicated shape, such as multiple throw cranks or coil springs. This same equipment will also have a rheostat or current control switch which enable the inspector to select different magnetizing current levels as well as initial demagnetizing current levels. These switches may be provided with a motor drive. When equipment with a motor driven switch is used for demagnetization, the inspector places the part in the equipment and presses the demagnetization switch which causes the motor to drive the switch contactor from maximum to minimum current positions, giving a shot at each successively lower current value. This effectively demagnetizes the part and can be used either by passing the current through the coil on the equipment (longitudinal demagnetization), or by passing the current through the part itself (circular demagnetization). This process is referred to as "step-down" demagnetization. 3.6.6.1.5 Two methods are used to circularly demagnetize parts: the direct contact and central conductor methods. The method used depends upon the part's size, shape, and the method used to magnetize it. Generally the same method used to magnetize is used to demagnetize a part. Though the methods used may be the same, the kind of current required to demagnetize may differ from that used to magnetize. For example, parts having large cross sections, which have been magnetized using AC, may require step-down reversing DC to demagnetize them. The use of reversing DC overcomes the lack of field penetration, which occurs with AC. 3.6.6.1.6 Direct Contact Demagnetization. Demagnetization using the direct contact method is accomplished by alternately reversing and reducing the current in a part. The part may be clamped between contact heads on a stationary unit having provision for demagnetization, or cables may be connected to it and to a suitable demagnetizing current power supply. Starting with a current amperage greater than or equal to that which was used for magnetizing, the current is reduced to either zero or a very low amperage. Either AC or reversing DC may be used depending on the size, shape, and retentivity of the part. The AC demagnetization is usually less time consuming and is satisfactory for many small to medium-sized parts. However, for large parts or parts having thick cross sections, step-down reversing DC is required. A step-down reversing DC demagnetization is usually completed in about 30 seconds - one second per step. The one second at each step allows time for the field in the part to reach a steady state, at which time induced currents become zero, permitting maximum penetration of the field into the part. This can easily be done using a continuously variable auto-transformer or electronic decay circuitry to reduce the AC current to zero. 3.6.6.1.6.1 Parts having a complicated geometry or that have been magnetized using more than one current path through the part, may not be completely demagnetized in one demagnetizing cycle. The same number of demagnetizing cycles may be needed, and through the same current paths, as were used for magnetizing. Quite often with small, low retentivity parts, instead of such repeat demagnetization on the same part, a satisfactory and quicker demagnetization can be obtained using coil demagnetization with AC or reversing DC. 3.6.6.1.7 Central Conductor Demagnetization. The information contained in paragraph 3.6.6.1.6 and paragraph 3.6.6.1.6.1 also applies to central conductor demagnetization. Demagnetizing currents should start from the same or slightly higher amperages than were used for magnetizing. Placement of the central conductor or threaded-cable configuration should be the same as that used for magnetization. Sometimes different central conductor locations or configurations must be used and be determined by experiment. 3.6.6.1.7.1 To circularly demagnetize a part by direct contact, clamp the part between the contact heads. Demagnetization is accomplished by automatically passing shots of decreasing current through the part. Care must be taken not to demagnetize very small parts between the heads because the high initial current can overheat the parts. If longitudinal

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demagnetization is desired the coil is then placed in position with the part still clamped in the heads. The same general procedure is followed, except that the demagnetizing current passes through the coil instead of the part. 3.6.6.2 Mobile. Mobile equipment used for magnetization can also be used for demagnetization. Demagnetization is performed by selecting a current output equal to or greater than the one that was used when magnetizing the part. Cables are either formed into a coil of three or four turns, or wrapped around the part three or four times. The cables are then connected to the output terminals. On units without a demagnetization cycle, initiate the magnetizing cycle and pass the part through the coil or pass the coil over the part, leaving the current on until the coil and part are well separated (approximately 4 to 5 feet). On units incorporating a demagnetization capability, place the part in the coil, and initiate the demagnetization cycle that starts the automatic step-down of the applied current. 3.6.6.3 Portable. Portable equipment, other than hand probes or yokes will usually supply both alternating current and half-wave direct current. Demagnetization with this equipment and cables is done using alternating current as follows: a. Make a coil of three or four loops of cable. Adjust the alternating current output to a higher level than was used in magnetizing the part. Place the coil around the part and turn on the current. Then withdraw the coil four or five feet from the part and turn off the current. Alternatively, make a coil of three of four loops of cable around the part. Adjust the alternating current output to a higher level than was used in magnetizing the part. Turn on the current. Then withdraw the part from the coil for four or five feet along the centerline of the coil and turn off the current.

b.

3.6.6.4 Hand Probe or Yoke. Hand probes or yokes, either AC or DC; provide a portable means for demagnetizing when other methods are impractical. In some cases they are more effective than coil-type demagnetizers are, because the field of the probe or yoke can be concentrated into a relatively small area. For probes with adjustable legs the space between the poles should be such that parts to be demagnetized will pass between them as close as possible. With AC flowing in the coil of the probe, parts are passed between the poles and withdrawn (as shown in Figure 3-37). On large parts, the probe is placed on the part and is moved around as it is slowly withdrawn. This method of demagnetizing is very effective. When the probe incorporates a DC magnetization capability, it can be used for DC demagnetization as well.

Figure 3-37. Non-Contact Demagnetization

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3.6.7 Limitations. a. When steel is heated it passes through its Curie point, approximately 770C (or about 1418F) for soft steels. Above the Curie point it is no longer ferromagnetic. When the steel cools to room temperature in the absence of a magnetic field it will contain no residual magnetism. Other means of demagnetizing always leave some residual field. Complete demagnetization is not possible even though it is often specified. The earth's field will always affect the residual magnetism in a ferromagnetic part and will often determine the lower limit of practical demagnetization. Long parts, or assemblies of long parts, such as welded tubular structures, are especially likely to remain magnetized, at a level determined by the earth's field, in spite of the most careful demagnetizing technique. Many articles and parts become quite strongly magnetized from the earth's field alone. Transporting parts from one location to another may produce this effect. Long bars, demagnetized at the point of testing, have been found magnetized when delivered to the point of use. It is not unusual to find that parts of aircraft, automotive engines, railroad locomotives, or in fact, any parts made from steel of fair retentivity, are quite strongly magnetized after having been in service for some time, even though they may never have been near any artificially produced magnetic field. Parts also become magnetized by being near electric lines carrying heavy currents, or near some form of magnetic equipment.

b.

c.

3.6.8 Special Techniques. Where the size, shape or method of magnetization of a part make demagnetization difficult, there are several techniques, which may be used effectively. Through the use of the techniques that follow, most difficult parts can be demagnetized to the extent required for service. 3.6.8.1 General. a. Sometimes parts that are difficult to demagnetize can be effectively demagnetized by striking the part with a hammer during the demagnetizing operation. To use this technique, the part is placed in the demagnetizing coil and the current is turned on. The part is then hammered with a rubber mallet and withdrawn from the coil field while the hammering is continued. Care must be taken that the part is not damaged by the hammering. Demagnetizing coils sometimes work better if they are positioned so that the path of the part, as it is drawn through the coil, is in an east-and-west direction rather than north-and-south. This is particularly true for long parts that may be influenced by the earth's magnetic field. Sometimes the residual field from heavy parts can best be removed by a technique known as the transient method of demagnetization. To perform this technique, the part is placed in the demagnetizing coil and the current turned on and off five to ten times. The current is then turned on and left on while the part is withdrawn from the magnetic field of the coil.

b.

c.

3.6.8.2 Short Parts. When a short part is being demagnetized in an AC coil by the method of withdrawing the part along the line of the axis of the coil, it is helpful to rotate the part both around the axis parallel to and transverse to the coil's axis. This should be accomplished while the part is in the coil as well as during the entire time of withdrawal. This procedure is also effective in demagnetizing short, hollow or cylindrical parts. A short part with an L/D ratio of one or less can sometimes be better demagnetized by placing it between two pole pieces of soft iron of similar diameter but longer than the part. This combination is then passed through the coil as a unit. It has the effect of increasing the L/D ratio and facilitates the removal of the field in the part.

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3.6.8.3 Ring Shaped Parts. For the demagnetization of ring-shaped parts an effective method is to pass a central conductor through the ring. The central conductor is energized with AC, and the current caused to decay to zero by means of either a step-down switch or a stepless current control. The latter method of decay can be much more rapid (down to a few seconds) than the step-down switch. This method can also be used with reversing, decaying or step-down DC as well. 3.6.8.4 Long Parts. Long parts, such as rods, bars, and tubes may retain an objectionable amount of residual magnetism from the earth's magnetic field. As the earth's field extends from the north to the south pole, it is desirable to demagnetize these types of parts by withdrawing from an AC coil in an east-and-west direction. This will minimize the effect of the earth's field on the residual magnetism in the parts. 3.6.8.5 Large Structures. Frequently, large structures such as engine mounts may require demagnetization and demagnetizing coils of suitable size may not be available. In such case each individual extension from the structure, such as the legs of a mount, should be placed within the coil as close to the wall as possible and withdrawn. The structure should then be reversed. The other end is then brought close to the face of the coil and rotated, so that all parts of the structure are passed across the open face of the coil. The entire structure is finally withdrawn four to five feet from the coil before it is shut off. In handling such tubular structures, it is important that they be moved to and from the coil in an east-and-west direction. 3.6.8.6 Removal of Longitudinal and Circular Fields. In considering the problem of demagnetization, it is important to remember that a part may retain a strong residual field after having been circularly magnetized, and yet exhibit little or no external evidence of such a condition. Such a field is difficult to remove, and there is no easy way to check the success of demagnetization. There may be local poles on a circularly magnetized piece at projecting irregularities or changes or sections, and these can be checked with a field indicator. However, to demagnetize a circularly magnetized part, it is often better to first convert the circular field to a longitudinal field. The longitudinal field does possess external poles, is more easily removed, and the extent of removal can be easily checked with a field indicator. 3.6.9 Measuring Residual Leakage Field Intensities. Leakage field intensities can be measured by quantitative or comparative methods. Quantitative measurements usually involve the use of instruments in conjunction with search coils, probes, or Hall-effect cells. Such instruments are classified as laboratory equipment and are not generally found in field locations. For purposes of determining the effectiveness of demagnetization efforts, residual field intensities are measured by comparative methods. 3.6.9.1 Field Indicator. The field indicator, a pocket instrument, is used to determine the comparative intensity of leakage fields emanating from a part. A typical field indicator is shown in Figure 3-38. The theory of operation is quite simple.

Figure 3-38. Typical Field Indicators

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3.6.9.1.1 When a f ield indicator is placed in a magnetic f ield, it responds to that portion of the magnetic f ield that passes through the sensing element of the indicator. The indicator responds to the magnetizing force of the leakage f ield passing through its sensing element, rather than the f lux density in the part from which the leakage f ield emanates. When measuring the strength of the leakage f ield emanating from a part, the indicator senses only the f ield at some distance from the part. This distance is from the center of the sensing element to the bottom of the indicator when it is placed on the parts surface. The f lux density of the f ield in the part will be greater than indicated by the f ield indicator. How much greater will depend upon the permeability of the part, shape of the part, and the effect of distance from the part to the sensing element in the indicator. Since these variables have an effect on determining f lux density, it is recommended that the f ield indicator be used only as a comparative indicator of the f lux leakage from a part. The sensing element in newer indicators is of a ceramic-like material, which is very resistant to demagnetization. The indicator, however, must still be kept away from f ields that are strong enough to damage the needle because of rapid or violent def lection beyond full-scale reading. Therefore, f ield indicators being used in support of magnetic particle inspections SHALL be kept away from this area of inf luence. Field indicators, SHALL NOT be stored within the inf luence of magnetizing or demagnetizing magnetic f lux. 3.6.9.1.2 Deleted

Change 3

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Figure 3-39. Deleted

3.6.9.1.3

Deleted

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Figure 3-40. Deleted

3.6.9.2

Compass Indicator.

A compass is sometimes used for indicating the presence of external leakage f ields. A compass can be placed upon a nonmagnetic surface and a magnetized part (aligned due east and west) moved slowly toward the east or west side of the compass case. The presence of an external leakage f ield from the part can cause the compass needle to deviate from its normal north-south alignment. However, demagnetized parts will cause the needle to deviate from its normal position if the compass case is not approached from an easterly or westerly direction. The theory of operation is very similar to that for the f ield indicator since the compass needle is a permanent bar magnet. 3.6.9.3 Steel Wire Indicator. A piece of iron or steel wire can be fashioned into a fair detector when nothing else is available. By forming a loop at one end of a piece of tag wire approximately 6 inches long, it can be suspended from a second wire supported in the horizontal plane. The part in question is then brought into contact, near the free end of the vertically suspended wire. The presence of leakage f ields will cause the wire to deviate from its normal vertical position as the part is slowly withdrawn in a horizontal direction. Care must be taken to demagnetize the vertically suspended wire between each test. Small pieces of tag wire about 1 inch long can also be used to indicate the presence of leakage f ields. The piece of demagnetized wire is placed upon a horizontal nonmagnetic surface, and the part in question is placed on top of it. If the piece of tag wire can be lif ted off the surface as the part is slowly raised, the leakage f ields are excessive. 3.6.9.4 Other Detection Methods. Another method of testing for demagnetization is to use a piece of steel feeler stock in a few thousandths of an inch thick and test if the feeler stock is attracted by the part. A small piece of iron or steel, such as a ferromagnetic paper clip, can be suspended on a string near the test part to determine if it is attracted to the part.

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SECTION VII DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS

3.7 3.7.1 FORMATION OF DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS. Iron and Steel Manufacturing Processes.

Knowledge of iron and steel manufacturing processes is necessary to enable an inspector to interpret and evaluate magnetic particle indications. It is not possible in this manual to explain all of the processes used in the manufacture of iron and steel parts, but a brief review will explain how some discontinuities are formed. 3.7.1.1 Purpose of Processing. Iron ore is converted into metal by heating it in a furnace. When it is liquid or molten it can be poured into molds and allowed to cool and solidify. In the molten state it is possible to remove impurities and also to add other elements to form alloys. These additions, along with other appropriate metal processing steps, impart desirable properties to the f inished metal that can make it: Harder Sof ter Tougher Stronger Easier to machine Resistant to heat Resistant to corrosion

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3.7.1.2 Ingot Production. After melting, purifying and alloying the iron or steel, the molten metal is poured into an ingot mold where it is allowed to solidify. Most impurities rise to the top of the ingot before the metal is completely solid. However, some of the foreign materials can become trapped within the ingot during solidification. Because such entrapment is usually concentrated near the top, the ingot is cropped to remove most of the impurities. 3.7.1.3 Primary and Secondary Processing. Ingots undergo primary processing to form the metal into basic shapes according to end-product requirements. Secondary processing is subsequently used to manufacture the final products. Figure 3-41 is a pictorial story of steel processing which shows in sequence the principal stages or operations where defects may be created, and indicates the defects most likely to be found in the material as it leaves each stage. This illustration should be studied in conjunction with the text in this section.

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Figure 3-41. Sequence of Steel Processing Stages, Indicating the Principle Operations and the Defects Most Likely to be found in the Material after Each Process

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3.7.2 Definition of Terms. The magnetic particle inspector must understand the distinctions between discontinuity, indication and defect. 3.7.2.1 Discontinuity. A discontinuity is an interruption in the normal physical structure or properties of a part. Discontinuities may be cracks, laps in the metal, folds, seams, inclusions, porosity, and similar conditions. A discontinuity may be very fine or it may be quite large. A discontinuity may or may not be a defect; that is it may or may not affect the intended use of the product or part. A discontinuity, which would be a defect in one part, may be entirely harmless in another part designed for a different service. 3.7.2.2 Indication. An indication is an accumulation of magnetic particles being held by a magnetic leakage field to the surface of a part. The indication may be caused by a discontinuity or it may be caused by some other condition that produces a leakage field or it may be caused by mechanically held particle accumulation. 3.7.2.3 Defect. A defect is a discontinuity that interferes with the intended use of a part. 3.7.3 Basic Steps of Inspection. Magnetic particle inspection can be divided into these three basic steps: a. b. c. Producing an indication on a part. Interpreting the indication. Evaluating the indication.

3.7.3.1 Producing an Indication. In order to produce a proper indication on a part, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the principles of magnetism, the materials used in inspection, and the technique employed. Since these subjects have been covered in previous sections of this manual, observance of the procedural steps therein should insure that a proper indication is produced. 3.7.3.2 Interpreting the Indication. After the indication is created, it is necessary to interpret that indication. Interpretation is the determination of what caused that indication. Knowledge of metal processing is often invaluable in identifying the cause of an indication. 3.7.3.2.1 Indications caused by a discontinuity at the surface of the part are characterized by particles that are tightly held to the surface by a relatively strong magnetic leakage field. The particle accumulation has well defined edges and there is a noticeable "build-up" of the particles. This build-up consists of a slight mound or pile of particles, which on deep surface cracks is sometimes high enough above the surface of the part to cast a shadow. If such an indication is wiped off the discontinuity can usually be seen. 3.7.3.2.2 Indications caused by a discontinuity below the surface are characterized by a broad and fuzzy looking accumulation of particles. The particles in such an indication are less tightly held to the surface because the leakage field is weaker. 3.7.3.2.3 The difference in appearance between indications of surface and subsurface discontinuities is clearly shown in Figure 342 and Figure 3-43. Notice the sharpness and definition of the accumulation of magnetic particles in Figure 3-42. The pattern in Figure 3-43 is much broader than that in Figure 3-43 and is quite typical of the indications formed over subsurface discontinuities.

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Figure 3-42. Sharp, Well Defined Indication of Surface Discontinuity in a Weld

Figure 3-43. Broad Indication of Subsurface Discontinuity in a Weld 3.7.3.3 Evaluating The Indication Finally, after the indication has been formed and has been interpreted, it must be evaluated. Evaluation is the determination of the consequences of the presence of the discontinuity. This includes determining if the discontinuity is a defect and if so, can the part be reworked or repaired, or must the part be scrapped. 3.7.3.3.1 Generally, an inspector has fairly detailed guidance concerning the interpretation and evaluation of indications included with the procedure by which the inspection was done. In the event such guidance is not available, the following basic considerations may be used in conjunction with the inspector's knowledge and experience to help in the evaluation of indications. a. A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface is more likely to be harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which lies below the surface. Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane which lies at right angles or at a considerable angle to the direction of principal stress, whether the discontinuity is surface or subsurface, is more likely to be harmful than a discontinuity of the same size, location, and shape lying parallel to the stress.

b.

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c. Any discontinuity that occurs in an area of high stress must be more carefully considered than a discontinuity of the same size and shape in an area where the stress is low. Discontinuities that are sharp, such as grinding cracks or fatigue cracks are severe stress raisers and are more harmful in any location than rounded discontinuities such as scratches. Any discontinuity that occurs in a location close to a keyway or fillet must be considered to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which occurs away from such a location.

d.

e.

3.7.3.3.3 Magnetic Discontinuities. Magnetic discontinuities in the part under examination will produce indications. These discontinuities may not always be associated with physical discontinuities. Magnetic discontinuities may be caused by: a. An actual physical discontinuity at or near the surface of a part, which may have been present in the original metal, or may have been produced by subsequent forming, heating, or finishing processes or service use. (See Figure 3-44)

Figure 3-44. Typical Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks b. Actual physical discontinuities which are, however, present by design, as for example, an interference or close fit between two members of an assembly. Figure 3-45 illustrates this condition.

Figure 3-45. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Forced Fit c. A weld between two dissimilar ferromagnetic metals having different permeabilities; or between a ferromagnetic metal and a non-magnetic material. Indications may be produced at such a point even

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though the joint is perfectly sound. Such an indication may be produced in a friction or flash weld of two dissimilar metals. (See Figure 3-46)

Figure 3-46. Magnetic Particle Indication at the Weld between a Soft and a Hard Steel Rod d. The junction between two ferromagnetic metals by means of non-magnetic bonding materials, as in a brazed joint. An indication will be produced though the joint itself may be perfectly sound. (See Figure 3-47)

Figure 3-47. Magnetic Particle Indication of the Braze Line of a Brazed Tool Bit e. Segregation of the constituents of the metal, where these have different permeabilities, as for example, low carbon areas in a high carbon steel, or areas of ferrite, which is magnetic, in a matrix of stainless steel which is austenitic and therefore non-magnetic. Another example would be in the weld zone and/or the heat-affected zone in welds between details of the same alloy. (See Figure 3-48.)

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Figure 3-48. Magnetic Particle Indications of Segregations 3.7.4 CLASSES OF DISCONTINUITIES. There are a number of ways of classifying discontinuities that occur in ferromagnetic materials and parts. a. One broad grouping is based on location - surface or subsurface. The ability of magnetic particle inspection methods to find members of these two groups varies sharply. But beyond this, the classification is too broad to be very useful. Another possible system is to classify discontinuities by the processes that produce them. Although such a system is too specific to be suitable for all purposes, it is used extensively. We speak of forming defects, welding defects, heat-treating cracks, grinding cracks, etc. Practically every process, from the original ore refinement to the last finishing operation, can and does introduce discontinuities which magnetic particle testing can find. It is therefore important that the nondestructive testing engineer or inspector be aware of all of these potential sources of defects.

b.

3.7.4.1 Conventional Classification System. For many years it has been customary to classify discontinuities according to their source or origin in the various stages of production of the metal, its fabrication, and its use: a. b. c. d. Inherent: Produced during solidification from the liquid state. Processing: Primary. Processing: Secondary, or finishing. Service.

A discussion of each class with detailed examples is given below.

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3.7.4.1.1 Inherent Discontinuities. This group of discontinuities is present as the result of its initial solidification of metal from the molten state, before any of the operations to forge or roll it into useful sizes and shapes have begun. The names of these inherent discontinuities are given and their sources described below. a. Pipe. As the molten steel, which has been, poured into the ingot mold cools, it solidifies first at the bottom and walls of the mold. Solidification progresses gradually upward and inward. The solidified metal occupies a somewhat smaller volume than the liquid, so that there is a progressive shrinkage of volume as solidification goes on. The last metal to solidify is at the top of the mold, but due to shrinkage there is not enough metal to fill the mold completely, and a depression or cavity is formed. This may extend quite deeply into the ingot (See Figure 3-49.) After early breakdown of the ingot into a bloom (see Glossary), this shrink cavity is cut away or cropped. If this is not done completely before final rolling or forging into shape, the unsound metal will show up as voids called "pipe" in the finished product. Such internal discontinuities, or pipe, are obviously undesirable for most uses and constitute a true defect. Special devices ("hot tops") and special handling of the ingot during pouring and solidification can control the formation of these shrink cavities.

Figure 3-49. Cross-Section of Ingot Showing Shrink Cavity b. Blowholes. As the molten metal in the ingot mold solidifies there is an evolution of various gases. These gas bubbles rise through the liquid and small percentage escape. The remainder is trapped as the metal freezes. Most of these, usually small, will appear near the surface of the ingot; and some, often large, will be deeper in the metal, especially near the top of the ingot. Many of these blowholes are clean on the interior and are fused shut into sound metal during the first rolling or forging of the ingot; but some, near the surface, may have become oxidized and do not fuse. These may appear as seams in the rolled product. Those deeper in the interior, if not fused in the rolling, may appear as laminations. Segregation. Another action that takes place during the solidification is the tendency for certain elements in the metal to concentrate in the last-to-solidify liquid, resulting in an uneven distribution of some of the chemical constituents in the ingot. Various means have been developed to minimize this tendency, but, if for any reason, severe segregation does occur, the difference in permeability of the segregated areas may produce magnetic particle indications. Segregation can adversely affect physical properties as well as contribute to the formation of defects later in the processing cycle. Nonmetallic Inclusions. Nonmetallic inclusions are usually oxides, sulfides or silicates. They can be introduced by the use of dirty raw materials, crucibles or rods. Other contributing factors can be faulty linings and poor pouring practices. The inclusions can form stringers during subsequent rolling operations. These stringers can affect the physical properties of the materials and are usually considered defects. See Figure 3-50 for an example of an indication of nonmetallic inclusions.

c.

d.

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Figure 3-50. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Sub-Surface Stringer of Non-Metallic Inclusions e. Internal Fissures. Because of the stresses set up in the ingot as the result of shrinkage during cooling, internal ruptures may occur which may be quite large. Since air does not reach the surfaces of these internal bursts, they may be fused during rolling or other forming operations and leave no discontinuity. If there is an opening from the fissure to the surface, however, air will enter and oxidize the surfaces. In this case fusion does not occur, and they will remain in the finished product as discontinuities. Scabs. When liquid steel is first poured into the ingot mold there is considerable splashing or spattering up and against the cool walls of the mold. These splashes solidify at once and become oxidized. As the molten steel rises and the mold becomes filled, these splashes will be reabsorbed to a large extent into the metal. But in some cases they will remain as scabs of oxidized metal adhering to the surface of the ingot. These may remain and appear on the surface of the rolled product. If they do not go deeply into the surface they may not constitute a defect, since they may be removed by machining. Figure 3-51 illustrates this condition on a rolled bloom.

f.

Figure 3-51. Scabs on the Surface of a Rolled Bloom g. Ingot Cracks. Surface cracking of ingots occurs due to surface stresses generated during cooling of the ingot. They may be either longitudinal or transverse, or both. As the ingot is formed into billets by rolling, these cracks form long seams. Inspection of billets for seams of this type with magnetic particles is now common practice in modern mills. Detection at this point permits removal of the seams by flame scarfing, chipping or grinding without waste of good metal. If not removed before further

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rolling these seams appear, greatly elongated, on finished bars and shapes, often making them unsuitable for many purposes. 3.7.4.1.2 Primary Processing Discontinuities When steel ingots are worked down into usable sizes and shapes, such as billets and forging blanks, some of the above described inherent defects may appear. But the rolling and forging processes may themselves introduce discontinuities that also may constitute defects. Primary processes are those, which work the metal down, by either hot or cold deformation, into useful forms such as, bars, rod and wire, and forged shapes. Casting is another process usually included in this group. Even though it starts with molten metal it results in a semi-finished product. Welding is included for similar reasons. A description of the discontinuities that can be introduced by these primary processes follows: a. Seams. Seams in rolled bars or drawn wire are usually highly objectionable. As previously described, seams may originate from ingot cracks. Conditioning of the billet surfaces by scarfing, grinding or chipping can eliminate the cracks before final rolling is performed. But seams can be introduced by the rolling or drawing processes themselves. Laps can occur in the rolling of the ingot into billets as the result of over-filling of the rolls. This produces projecting fins, which on subsequent passes are rolled into the surface of the billet or bar. In similar fashion, under-fills in the rolling process may on subsequent passes be squeezed to form a seam, which often runs the full length of the bar. Seams derived from laps will usually emerge to the surface of the bar at an acute angle. Seams derived from the folds produced by an under-filled pass are likely to be more nearly normal to the surface of the bar. Seams or die marks may also be introduced in the drawing process due to defective dies. Such seams may or may not make the product defective. For some purposes, such as springs or bars for heavy upsetting, the most minute surface imperfections (or discontinuities) are cause for rejection. For others, where machining operations are expected to remove the outer layers of metal, shallow seams will be machined off. (See Figure 3-52 and Figure 3-53.)

Figure 3-52. How Laps and Seams Are Produced from Over-Fills and Under-Fills

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Figure 3-53. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Seam on a Bar. b. Laminations. (See Figure 3-54.) Laminations in rolled plate or strip are formed when blowholes or internal fissures are not fused during rolling, but are enlarged and flattened into sometimes quite large areas of horizontal discontinuities. Laminations may be detected by magnetic particle testing on the cut edges of plate. The laminations do not give indications on plate or strip surfaces, since they are internal and parallel to the surface. Ultrasonic mapping techniques are used to define them.

Figure 3-54. Magnetic Particle Indications of Laminations Shown on Flame-Cut Edge of Thick Steel Plate. c. Cupping. This is a condition created in drawing or extruding when the interior of the metal does not flow as rapidly as the surface. Segregation in the center of the metal usually contributes to this occurrence. The result is a series of internal ruptures that are severe defects whenever they occur. They may be indicated with magnetic particles if the ruptures are large and are near the surface of the part. The cupping problem can be minimized by changing die angles. (See Figure 3-55.)

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Figure 3-55. Section through Severe Cupping in a 1 3/8-Inch Bar. d. Cooling Cracks. When alloy and tool steel bars are rolled and subsequently run out onto a bed or table for cooling, stresses may be set up due to uneven cooling which can be severe enough to crack the bars. Such cracks are generally longitudinal, but not necessarily straight. They may be quite long, and usually vary in depth along their length. Figure 3-56 shows the magnetic particle indications of such a crack, and also sections through the crack at three points to illustrate the variation in crack depth. The magnetic particle indication varies in intensity, being heavier at points where the crack is deepest.

(a) Surface Indications. (b) Cross-Section Showing Depth. Figure 3-56. Magnetic Particle Indications of Cooling Cracks in an Alloy Steel Bar.

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e. Hydrogen Flakes. Flakes are internal ruptures that may occur in steel as the result of internal stresses from metallurgical changes and decreased solubility of hydrogen from excessively rapid cooling. Flakes usually occurring in fairly heavy sections and certain alloys are more susceptible than others. Figure 357 shows magnetic particle indications of flakes that have been exposed on a machined surface. Since these ruptures are deep in the metal - usually half way and more from the surface to the center of the section they will not be shown by magnetic particle testing on the original surface of the part.

Figure 3-57. Magnetic Particle Indications of Flakes in a Bore of a Large Hollow Shaft. f. Forging Bursts. When steel is worked at too high a temperature it is subject to cracking or rupturing. Too rapid or too severe a reduction of section can also cause bursts or cracks. Such ruptures may be internal bursts, or they may be cracks at the surface. Cracks at the surface are readily found by magnetic particle testing. If interior, they are usually not shown except when they have been exposed by machining. (See Figure 3-58.)

Figure 3-58. Magnetic Particle Indications of Forging Cracks or Bursts in an Upset Section Severe Case. g. Forging Laps. As the name implies, forging laps or folds are formed when, in the forging operation, improper handling of the blank in the die causes the metal to flow so as to form a lap, which is later squeezed tight. Since it is on the surface and is oxidized, this lap does not weld shut. This type of discontinuity is sometimes difficult to locate, because it may be open at the surface and fairly shallow, and often may lie at only a very slight angle to the surface. In some unusual cases it also may be solidly filled with magnetic oxides. (See Figure 3-59 and Figure 3-60.)

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Figure 3-59. Surface of a Steel Billet Showing a Lap.

Figure 3-60. Cross-Section of a Forging Lap (Magnified 100X). h. Burning. Overheating of forgings, to the point of incipient melting, results in a condition which renders the forging unusable in most cases, and is referred to as burning. However, the real source of the damage is not oxidation, but the material becoming partially liquefied due to the heat at the grain boundaries. Burning is a serious defect but is not generally shown by magnetic particle testing. Flash Line Tears. Cracks or tears along the flash line (see Glossary) of forgings are usually caused by improper trimming of the flash. If shallow they may "clean up" during machining. Otherwise they are considered defects. Such cracks or tears can easily be found by magnetic particles. (See Figure 3-61.)

i.

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Figure 3-61. Magnetic Particle Indication of Flash Line Tear in a Partially Machined Automotive Spindle Forging. j. Casting Defects. Steel and iron castings are subject to a number of defects which magnetic particle testing can easily detect. Surface discontinuities are formed in castings due to stresses resulting from cooling, and are often associated with changes in the cross section of the part. These may be hot tears or they may be shrinkage cracks that occur as the metal cools down. Sand from the mold can be trapped by the hot metal and form sand inclusions on or near the surface of castings. Gray iron castings may be quite brittle, and can be cracked by rough handling. (See Figure 3-62.)

Figure 3-62. Magnetic Particle Indications of Defects in Castings.

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k. Weld Defects. A variety of discontinuities may be formed during welding. Some are at the surface and some are in the interior of the weldment. Some of the defects peculiar to weldments are lack of penetration, lack of fusion, undercutting, cracks in the weld metal, crater cracks, cracks in the heat affected zone, etc.

3.7.4.1.3 Secondary Processing or Finishing Discontinuities. In this group are those discontinuities associated with the various finishing operations after the part has been roughformed by rolling, forging, casting or welding. Discontinuities may be introduced by machining, heat treating, grinding and similar processes. These are described below: a. Machining Tears. These are caused by dragging of the metal under the tool when it is not cutting cleanly. Soft and ductile low carbon steels are more susceptible to this kind of damage than are the harder, higher carbon or alloy types. Machining tears are surface discontinuities and are readily found with magnetic particles.

b. Heating Treating Cracks. (See Figure 3-63.) When steels are heated and quenched to produce desired properties for strength or wear, cracking may occur if the operation is not correctly suited to the material and the shape of the part. Most common are quench cracks, caused when parts are heated to high temperatures and then suddenly cooled by immersing them in some cool medium, which may be water, oil or even air. Such cracks often occur at locations where the part changes cross-section or at fillets or notches in the part. The edges of keyways and the roots of splines or threads are likely spots for quench cracks to occur. Cracks may also result from too rapid heating of the part, which may cause uneven expansion at changes of cross-section, or at corners where heat is absorbed more rapidly than in the body of the piece. Corner cracking may also occur during quenching, because of more rapid heat loss at such locations. Heat treating cycles can be designed to minimize or eliminate such cracking, but for critical parts, testing with magnetic particles is a safety measure usually applied, since such cracks are serious and their detection presents no difficulty.

Figure 3-63. Magnetic Particle Indications of Quenching Cracks Shown with Dry Powder.

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c. Straightening Cracks. The process of heat treating often causes some warping of the part due to nonuniform cooling during quenching. A hardened shaft, for example, may come from the heat treat operation not quite straight. In many cases these can be straightened in a press, but if the amount of bend required is too great or if the shaft is too brittle, cracks may be formed. Again, these are very readily found with magnetic particles Grinding Cracks. Surface cracking of hardened parts, as the result of improper grinding is frequently a source of trouble. Grinding cracks are essentially thermal cracks. They are caused by stresses set up by local heating under the grinding wheel. They are avoidable by using proper wheels, proper cuts, and proper coolants. They are sharp surface cracks and they are easily detected with magnetic particle inspection. Such surfaces usually crack severely and extensively, as illustrated in Figure 3-64 and Figure 3-65.

d.

Figure 3-64. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Typical Grinding Cracks.

Figure 3-65. Magnetic Particle Indications of Grinding Cracks in a Stress-Sensitive, Hardened Surface. e. Etching and Pickling Cracks. Hardened or cold worked parts, that contain high internal and external residual stresses, may crack if they are pickled or etched in acid. Acid attack of the surface layers of the metal gives the internal stress a chance to be relieved by the formation of a crack. Before this action

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was fully understood the heat treatment of the part was often blamed for the cracking. The heat treat operation did, however, deserve some of the blame by leaving the part with high residual stresses. f. Plating Cracks. Plating can introduce high residual stresses at the plated surface and thus create the potential for cracking. The hot galvanizing process itself may also produce cracks in surfaces containing residual stresses by the penetration of hot zinc into the grain boundaries. Copper penetration during brazing may result in similar cracking if the parts contain residual stress. (See Figure 3-66.)

Figure 3-66. Magnetic Particle Indications of Plating Cracks. 3.7.4.2 Service Cracks.

NOTE
When performing magnetic particle inspection on landing gear parts the paint SHALL be removed. The fourth major classification of discontinuities comprises those that are formed or produced after all fabrication has been completed and the part has gone into service. The objective of magnetic particle testing to locate and eliminate discontinuities during fabrication is to put the part into service free from defects. However, even when this is accomplished, failures in service still occur as a result of cracking caused by service conditions. a. Fatigue Cracks. As a source of discontinuities, the phenomenon of fatigue is a prolific one. Fatigue strength will eventually develop cracks, and finally fracture. Fatigue cracks, even very shallow ones, can readily be found with magnetic particles. (See Figure 3-67 and Figure 3-68.)

Figure 3-67. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Typical Fatigue Crack.

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Figure 3-68. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks in Crankshaft of Small Aircraft Engine Damaged in Plane Accident. b. Stress Corrosion Cracks. Parts that are under either residual or applied tensile stress and are exposed to a corrosive environment may develop stress corrosion cracking. The primary role of corrosion in this cracking mode is to produce hydrogen. The hydrogen migrates to the tip of a stress corrosion crack where its presence increases the stresses at the tip, thus driving the crack even deeper. When corrosion is added to a fatigue-producing service condition, this type of service failure is called corrosion fatigue. Overstressing. Parts that are stressed beyond the level for which they were designed can crack or break. Such over-stressing may occur as the result of an accident; or a part may become overloaded due to some unusual or emergency condition not anticipated by the designer; or a part may be loaded beyond its strength because of the failure of some related member of the structure. After complete failure has occurred magnetic particle testing obviously has no application with regard to the fractured part. But other parts of the assembly that may appear undamaged may have been overstressed during the accident or overloading from other causes. Examination by magnetic particle testing is usually carried out in such cases to determine whether any cracks have actually been formed.

c.

3.7.4.3 Other Sources of Discontinuities. In this chapter an attempt has been made to familiarize the reader with most of the common sources of discontinuities that can occur in iron and steel. Actually the list given here is incomplete. But the inspector working with magnetic particle testing will encounter these discontinuities which have been described more frequently than those from less common conditions. He will often have the metallurgical laboratory of a support organization available for consultation, and the metallurgist will usually be able to assign a cause to an indicated discontinuity and assess its importance. 3.7.5 3.7.5.1 Non-Relevant Indications. Nature and Type.

NOTE
It is easier to distinguish between relevant and nonrelevant indications when fluorescent rather than visible magnetic particles are used. It is possible to magnetize parts of certain shapes in such a way that magnetic leakage fields are created even though there is no discontinuity in the metal at that point. Such indications are sometimes called erroneous indications or false indications. They should be called "non-relevant indications" since they are actually caused by distortion of the

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magnetic field. They are true indications but, since there is no unintentional interruption of the material, they do not affect the usefulness of the part. It is important that the inspector know how and why these non-relevant indications are formed and where they can occur. 3.7.5.2 Classes.

3.7.5.2.1 Magnetic Writing. This is a condition caused by a piece of steel rubbing against another piece of steel that has been magnetized. Since either or both pieces contain some residual magnetism the rubbing or touching creates magnetic poles at the points of contact. These local magnetic poles are usually in the form of a line or scrawl, and for this reason the effect is referred to as magnetic writing. In Figure 3-69 the part in the top view is magnetized with a circular field. If another part made of magnetic material is rubbed against or comes into contact with the magnetized part, as in the second view, a weak field will be induced into the smaller part. After the smaller part has been removed, the circular field in the original part will be altered or distorted to some extent as shown in the bottom view. Since there is no force to change the direction of the altered field, there will be some leakage at the point of distortion that will attract magnetic particles.

Figure 3-69. Creation of Magnetic Writing 3.7.5.2.2 Longitudinal Magnetization. When a part is longitudinally magnetized in a coil, there are always magnetic poles at the ends of the piece. Magnetic material such as chips or magnetic powder or paste will be attracted to these poles. The same situation occurs when a yoke is used to create a magnetic field; poles are induced on the part in the areas where the yoke touches the part. 3.7.5.2.3 Cold Working. Cold working consists of changing the size or shape of a metal part without raising its temperature before working. When a bent nail is straightened by a carpenter with a hammer, the nail is being cold worked. Cold working usually causes a change in the permeability of the metal where the change in size or shape occurs. The boundary of the area of changed permeability may attract magnetic particles when the part is magnetized. 3.7.5.2.4 Hard or Soft Spots. If there are areas of a part which have a different degree of hardness than the remainder of the part, these areas will usually have a different permeability. When a part with such areas of different permeability is inspected with magnetic

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particle inspection, the boundaries of the areas may create local leakage fields and attract magnetic particles to form indications. 3.7.5.2.5 High Temperature Exposure. a. Boundaries of Heat Treated Sections. Heat treating a part consists of heating it to a high temperature and then cooling it under controlled conditions. The cooling may be relatively rapid or it may be done quite decrease the hardness or the grain size of the metal by varying the temperature and the rate of cooling. On a cold chisel the point is hardened to cut better and to hold an edge. The head of the chisel, which is the end struck by the hammer, is kept softer than the cutting edge so that it won't shatter and break. The edge of the hardened zone frequently creates a leakage field when the chisel is inspected with magnetic particle inspection.

NOTE
Delta Ferrite is brittle and has historically been considered a defect in applications such as aircraft that are exposed to tensile and cyclic loading. While the presence of delta ferrite does not indicate an actual defect, such a region would be a preferential crack initiation area. b. Delta Ferrite. Delta Ferrite is a ferromagnetic phase of steel that occurs at elevated temperatures. This phase primarily occurs at normal temperatures because of rapid cooling after prolonged exposure to high temperatures. A concentrated region of delta ferrite may cause non-relevant indications along the regions boundary due to the magnetic disturbance caused by its presence.

3.7.5.2.6 Abrupt Changes of Section. Where there are abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized part, the magnetic field may be said to expand from the smaller section to the larger. Frequently this creates local poles due to magnetic field leakage or distortion. If a part, as shown in Figure 3-70, is magnetized in a coil, poles are set up at each end and some leakage occurs at A and B. Also, the change of section at C is quite abrupt and there may be a leakage across this corner as shown. These leakage fields will attract magnetic particles, thereby creating an indication. The indications formed at A and B are usually very easily interpreted; that at C may be more difficult to recognize as being non-relevant. If the indication is continuous around the shaft, it should be suspected as being caused by the shape of the part rather than by a discontinuity. The non-relevant indication at C will usually be "fuzzy" like an indication, which is produced by a defect beneath the surface. If there is a crack or discontinuity in that area, it will usually produce an indication that is sharper and it probably will not run completely around the part.

Figure 3-70. Local Poles Created by Shape of Part

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3.7.5.2.6.1 On parts with keyways, a circular magnetic field can also set up non-relevant indications as in Figure 3-71. Particle accumulations may occur at A where there are leakage fields. A keyway on the inside of a hollow shaft may also create indications on the outside as indicated at area B in Figure 3-72.

Figure 71. Concentration of Field in a Keyway

Figure 3-72. External Leakage Field created by an Internal Keyway 3.7.5.2.6.2 The gear and spline shown in Figure 3-73 were magnetized circularly by passing current through a central conductor. The reduced cross section created by the spline ways constricts the magnetic lines of force and some of them break the surface on the outside diameter. Particles gather where the magnetic lines of force break through the surface thereby creating indications.

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Figure 3-73. Non-Relevant Indications of Shaft Caused by Internal Spline 3.7.5.2.6.3 Figure 3-74 shows a non-relevant indication on the under side of a bolt head. The indication here is caused by the slot in the head.

Figure 3-74. Non-Relevant Indications under the Head Created by Slot in Bolt

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3.7.5.3 Interpretation and Elimination of Non-Relevant Indications. 3.7.5.3.1 Interpretation. It may at first appear to the inspector that some types of non-relevant indications discussed and illustrated in the preceding material would be difficult to recognize and interpret. For example, the non-relevant indications shown in Figure 3-73 and Figure 3-74 may look like indications of subsurface discontinuities. However, there are several characteristics of non-relevant indications, which will enable the inspector to recognize them in the example cited and under most other conditions. These characteristics of non-relevant indications are: a. On all similar parts, given the same magnetizing technique, the indications will occur in the same location and will have identical patterns. This condition is not usually encountered when dealing with real subsurface defects. The indications are usually uniform in direction and size. The indications are usually "fuzzy" rather than sharp and well defined. Non-relevant indications can always be related to some feature of construction or cross section, which accounts for the leakage field creating the indication.

b. c. d.

3.7.5.3.2 Elimination of Non-Relevant Indications. Although non-relevant indications can be recognized in most cases, they do tend to increase the inspection time, and under certain conditions may mask or cover up indications of actual defects. Therefore, it is desirable to eliminate them whenever possible. 3.7.5.3.2.1 In most cases non-relevant indications occur when the magnetizing current is higher than necessary for a given part. Consequently, these indications will disappear if the part is demagnetized and re-inspected using a sufficiently low magnetizing current. Under most conditions the value of magnetizing current which is low enough to eliminate nonrelevant indications will still be sufficient to produce indications at actual discontinuities. This will be true where the non-relevant indication is magnetic writing, and for several other types, but may not hold where there are abrupt changes of section. It is therefore desirable to determine whether the non-relevant indication was caused by an abrupt change of section before re-inspecting. 3.7.5.3.2.2 The proper procedure is to demagnetize and reinspect using a lower value of magnetizing current, repeating the operation with still lower current if necessary until the non-relevant indications disappear. Care must be taken not to reduce the current below the value required to produce indications of all actual discontinuities. Where there are abrupt changes of section two inspections may be required: one at fairly low amperage to inspect only the areas at the change in section; the other at a higher current value to inspect the remainder of the part. Another solution is to use AC magnetization for inspection. AC magnetization responds less to changes in cross section than DC magnetization and is acceptable when it is not necessary to inspect for subsurface defects.

SECTION VIII METHODS OF RECORDING MPI INDICATIONS

3.8 METHODS OF RECORDING MPI INDICATIONS.

3.8.1 General. The full value of magnetic particle inspection can be realized only if records are kept of parts inspected and the indications found. The size and shape of the indication and its location on the part should be recorded along with other

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pertinent information, such as rework performed or disposition. The inclusion of some visible record of the indications on a report makes the report much more complete. 3.8.2 Types Of Records. The simplest record is a sketch of the part showing location and extent of the indications. On large parts it may be sufficient to sketch only the critical area. Other types of records include preserving the actual indication on the part (where the part is to be kept for reference), transferring the indication from the part to a record sheet or report, and photographing the indication. These last three methods will be discussed in this section. 3.8.2.1 Preserving Indications on A Part.

3.8.2.1.1 Fixing Indications with Lacquer. One of the advantages of magnetic particle inspection is that the indication is formed directly on the part at the exact spot of the magnetic leakage field. This makes it possible to retain the part itself for record purposes, but it is necessary to fix or preserve the indication on the part, so that the part can be handled and examined without smudging or smearing the indication. One method of fixing the indication semi-permanently on the part is by using clear lacquer. In order to do this the part must be dry; if the wet method has been used to develop the indication, the vehicle should be allowed to evaporate. Normal evaporation can be accelerated by heating the part and is usually sufficient for water; it is also possible to flow on isopropyl alcohol or other solvent that will evaporate rapidly and leave the indication dry on the part. For an oil vehicle, use of a solvent is almost necessary to provide a dry indication in a reasonable time. It is usually desirable to thin out the clear lacquer by adding lacquer thinner. The lacquer should either be sprayed on the part or flowed on since brushing would smear the indication. 3.8.2.1.2 Applying Transparent Tape. It is also possible to preserve an indication on a part by covering it with transparent pressure sensitive tape (such as Scotch brand). This method is not as neat looking as the lacquer method but it is easier to apply. Before applying the tape, the vehicle used in the wet method should be removed in the same manner as when using lacquer. 3.8.2.2 Tape Transfers. An accurate record of an indication can be obtained by lifting the particles forming the indication from the part with transparent pressure sensitive tape (such as Scotch brand) and then placing the tape on stiff white paper. The procedure for taking tape transfers is simple and can be accomplished quickly and accurately with a little practice. If a report is being made and it is necessary to duplicate the indication, mount the tape transfer on a sheet of clear plastic and use a standard duplicating process or prepare a photographic negative and contact print. When tape transfers are taken of indications, it is customary to sketch the part and locate the position of the preserved indication on the sketch. 3.8.2.2.1 Dry Particle Indications. If the indication is formed of dry powder particles, excess powder should be removed from the surface by gentle blowing. Use a piece of tape larger than the indication and gently cover the indication with the tape. Gentle pressure should be applied so that the adhesive will pick up the particles; do not press too hard or the indication will be flattened too much and the tape may be difficult to remove. Carefully lift the tape from the part and press it onto the record sheet or report. Note that tape preserved indications are usually a little broader than indications on the part because of the flattening effect of the tape. It is easier to remove the tape if a corner of it is not pressed to the part; this leaves a tab for easy removal. 3.8.2.2.2 Wet Particle Indications. If the indication is formed of particles used with the wet method, it is necessary to dry the surface of the part before applying the tape as described in paragraph 3.8.2.1.1. 3.8.2.2.3 Fluorescent Indications. Tape transfers can be taken of fluorescent particle indications, but there are some disadvantages to the process. Such preserved indications usually must be viewed under black light to properly interpret them since the number of particles in the suspension is much less than when using visible particles. Some transparent tape is fluorescent and the fluorescence of the tape may mask the fluorescence of the indication. 3-113

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3.8.2.2.4 Alginate Impression Compound Method. The alginate impression compound method of "lifting" magnetic particle indications is a method of securing indications in areas that are inaccessible and cannot be viewed with a black light. 3.8.2.2.4.1 Alginates are hydrocolloid polysaccharides derived from seaweed kelp. Compounds such as those used for making dental impressions are based on mixtures of potassium alginate, calcium sulfate, sequestering agents such as sodium phosphate and fillers such as silica, diatomaceous earth, or calcium carbonate. When the compound is mixed with the correct amount of water it forms a soft paste which sets up to a rubbery solid in three to four minutes. This rubbery material or gel has the property of accurately conforming to and taking an impression of the surface to which it is applied and also absorbing or lifting traces of particulate material from the surface. This latter property is the basis for its use as an indication lifting material. 3.8.2.2.4.2 Transfer Of Magnetic Particle Crack Indications to Alginate Impression Compound. a. b. c. Perform the magnetic particle inspection of the area of interest in the usual manner. The part does not have to be dried before taking an impression. Using the plastic scoop and water measuring container, follow the directions given on the can of powder and mix the powder with water to obtain a smooth creamy paste. Transfer the paste immediately to a piece of thin polyethylene film and then apply the paste to the inspecting area. Gently press against the film to obtain a uniform contact of the paste against the inspection area. Avoid excessive working of the paste to avoid smearing of the indication. The plastic film prevents the paste from sticking to the hand. For cavities such as holes, the paste can be applied without the polyethylene film to form a plug when set. After the paste has set to a rubbery gel in about 3-4 minutes, gently remove the replica from the metal part and examine under ultraviolet light. The replica may be photographed with ultraviolet light it desired.

d.

e.

3.8.2.3 Photographing Indications. Photographs of indications can also be taken to be used for records. Enough of the part should be shown to make it possible to recognize the part and the position of the indication. It is helpful to include in the picture some common object to show the size of the part. Sometimes this can be done with a finger pointing at the indication or by placing a ruler along the part to show relative size. In photographing indications on highly polished parts, care must be taken to avoid highlights or reflections that may hide indications. Taking photographs of fluorescent indications calls for special photographic techniques, refer to the penetrant chapter, Chapter 2, of additional information.

SECTION IX MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION METHOD

3.9 3.9.1 MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION METHOD. Description. a. Magnetic rubber inspection (MRI) is an extension of magnetic particle inspection and is a nondestructive inspection technique used for detecting cracks or other flaws on or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. Its principal applications are in certain problem areas, such as, (l) areas having limited visual accessibility (inside holes, tubes, etc.); (2) coated surfaces, (3) complex shapes or

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poor surface conditions, and (4) inspection for defects that require magnification for detection and interpretation. Magnetic rubber inspection involves the use of a material consisting of magnetic particles dispersed in a room temperature curing silicon rubber. The material is catalyzed, applied to the test surface, and the area to be inspected is magnetized, causing the particles to migrate through the rubber and accumulate at discontinuities on the surface. Following cure, the solid replica casting is removed from the part and examined for indications. b. The magnetic principles discussed in Section 1 of this chapter apply equally to Magnetic Rubber Inspection.

3.9.2

Safety Precautions. a. General safety precautions are applicable to magnetic rubber inspection. The silicon rubber, dibutyltin dilaurate, stannous octoate, cure stabilizers, cleaners, and release agents are or can be skin and eye irritants, skin sensitizers (causing allergic reactions), and inhalant and ingestion hazards. For specific information concerning any of the materials used as magnetic rubber, magnetic rubber catalysts, release agents, or cleaners consult the Material Safety Data Sheets, or contact the appropriate Safety Officer. Silicon oil is an ingredient in the material and can result in very slippery surfaces, especially floors, if not well controlled. When performing magnetic rubber inspection on aircraft using electromagnets to magnetize, the aircraft SHALL be grounded.

b.

3.9.3 Gel Time, Pot Life and Cure Time. Gel time is defined as the time from the addition of the catalyst to when the viscosity starts to noticeably increase. Pot life refers to the time from the addition of the catalyst to when the material can no longer be poured and magnetization must be completed. Cure time is the time to completely cure. 3.9.4 Magnetic Rubber Inspection Procedure.

WARNING
Cleaning solvent ML-C-38736 contains aromatic naphtha, ethyl acetate, methyl ethyl ketone, and isopropyl alcohol. Cleaning solvent is flammable. Vapors may be harmful. Use with adequate ventilation. Avoid contact with skin and eyes.

CAUTION
Areas to be magnetic rubber inspected must be free of grease, oil, dirt and other foreign matter which could cause false or confusing indications or could prevent the base material from curing.

NOTE
Prior to the initial inspection remove, as much as possible, corrosion, sealant, loose paint, and other foreign material from the inspection area. a. Obtain the required materials and equipment. Refer to Table 3-7 and Table 3-8.

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Table 3-7. Magnetic Rubber Equipment. Electromagnetic yokes, fixed or articulated leg (same as used for magnetic particle inspection Permanent bar magnets Soft iron pole pieces Stereo zoom microscope (7-10X) with light Dial probe gaussmeter Electronic gaussmeter Table 3-8. Magnetic Rubber Inspection Materials.

Base material Dibutyltin Dilaurate and Stannous Octoate catalysts. Sealing compound (putty for forming dams) Aluminum or plastic sheet material for forming dams Lubricant (release agent) to aid in the removal of replicas from holes Paper cups in which to mix magnetic rubber material Tongue depressors for mixing the material Isopropyl alcohol for cleaning replicas Hypodermic disposable syringe for applying the rubber mixture to the inspection area
b. Prepare part for magnetic rubber inspection as follows: (1) Using cheesecloth or equivalent moistened with cleaning solvent MIL-C-38736 or equivalent, remove grease, oil, dirt, lint, and similar contaminants from the area to be inspected. Remove paint topcoat or fuel tank coating, as appropriate, and primer coat and/or plating as required.

(2)

CAUTION
If a delay is expected that would leave any area of steel in a bare metal state for over 1 hour, coat the area with corrosion preventive compound, Mil-C-16173, Grade 3. The exterior topcoat or fuel tank coating shall be removed from the surfaces of holes to be inspected. The primer coat may be left on unless a specific procedure requires that it be removed or unless the total thickness of the primer plus plating is greater than 0.005 inches.

NOTE
When building dams, make certain they are small enough to allow magnets or the legs of an electromagnet to span the reservoir. Magnets or the legs of an electromagnet should never be placed into the uncured magnetic rubber. Using the procedures and materials as discussed above, virtually any area or configuration can be prepared for magnetic rubber inspection. Upside-down surfaces may be inspected by building a reservoir beneath the test area and pressure filling with magnetic rubber. This type of reservoir must be provided with a vent hole to prevent air entrapment.

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(3) Prepare a dam around the surface or hole to be inspected. Examples are shown in Figure 3-75. Use tape, aluminum foil, special sealing putty and specially made dams (singly or in combination) to form a reservoir to hold the magnetic rubber.

Figure 3-75. Preparation for Magnetic Rubber Inspection

NOTE
Permanent bar magnets usually are made of ALNICO 8 material, are 1 inch in diameter and are either 4 or 8 inches long. The field strength of a permanent bar magnet is not related to its length. Usually field strength of over 1000 gauss is adequate for most magnetic rubber inspections and most new permanent magnets will be much stronger than that. Bar magnets should be tested periodically using a gaussmeter to assure the field strength is adequate. It is acceptable to put two or more shorter magnets together to make a longer magnet for those few inspections where the magnet is placed with its side against the part being magnetized and the specified magnet length is not available. Step c through h are for the premagnetizaion set-up and adjustment. Magnetization will be conducted after addition of the magnetic rubber.

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c. Select method of magnetization. Magnetism may be applied with portable electromagnets (yokes), permanent magnets, or conventional magnetic particle inspection equipment. In areas of limited accessibility, steel extensions or pole pieces are used to transfer magnetism into the inspection area. Permanent magnets are useful in certain specialized applications, such as threaded bolts, gears, or other small parts whose shape makes magnetization difficult with an electromagnet. The magnetic fields produced in large parts by permanent magnets are often quite low and unpredictable; therefore, they should not be used on such parts, unless a specific procedure has been developed and verified. Central conductors are best suited for fastener and attachment holes particularly when there are multiple layers of materials. Select the method of magnetic contact. Field strength is greatly reduced when there is poor contact between the magnet and the test piece. To improve contact, auxiliary pole pieces are useful as illustrated in Figure 3-76. These may be machined from soft iron and attached to the poles of magnets. Pole pieces should be designed to have the least reduction in cross-section, consistent with space requirements.

d.

Figure 3-76. Using Pole Pieces to Improve Magnetic Contact. e. Determine the magnetic field requirements. The magnetic field recommendations (field strength and duration) for inspection of holes and surfaces are shown in Table 3-9. Note that these are recommended starting points; actual requirements are those that produce acceptable inspection replicas.

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Table 3-9. Magnetic Field Strength and Duration Recommendations. INSPECTION AREA Hole (bare) FIELD STRENGTH (GAUSS) 50 to 75 25 to 50 15 to 25 15- to 200 100 to 150 50 to 100 40 to 50 20 to 40 MAGNETIZATION DURATION, EACH DIRECTION (SECONDS) 15 30 120 30 90 300 (5 minutes) 450 ( 7 1/2 minutes) 900 (15 minutes)

Surface (bare)

f.

Determine the direction of the field. Since cracks and other flaws are displayed more strongly when they lie perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force, the magnetism should be applied from two directions to increase reliability. Usually this is accomplished by magnetizing in one direction and then rotating the magnetization source 90 degrees and magnetizing again. When the direction of a suspected defect is known, such as in thread roots, only one magnetizing direction is required. Measure the magnetic field strength using a dial probe or a gaussmeter as follows: (1) The dial-probe is used by placing the probe into the test hole or on the test surface and slowly rotating the probe counterclockwise. The maximum dial reading is the magnetic field strength. The gaussmeter has interchangeable probes to permit measurement of the magnetic field either parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the probe. The probe is placed in the hole or on the surface as shown in Figure 3-77.

g.

(2)

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Figure 3-77. Typical Use of Gaussmeter Probes. h. Adjust the magnetic field strength. (1) Electromagnets. The magnetic field strength is adjusted to the recommended value from Table 3-10 by adjusting the control knob of the magnetization power supply. The control knob reading and the position of magnet and pole pieces are noted so that these settings can be repeated when final magnetization is performed after addition of the rubber formulation.

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Table 3-10. Cure Times for Different Quantities of Catalyst. CATALYST Stannous octoate Dibutyltin dilaurate Stannous octoate Dibutyltin dilaurate (2) DROPS PER 30 CC OF MAGNETIC RUBBER BASE 2 2 1 1 ESTIMATED POT LIFE 7 minutes 7 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes ESTIMATED CURE TIME 30 minutes 30 minutes 60 minutes 60 minutes

Permanent Magnets. Appropriate bar magnets are placed to obtain the field strengths recommended by Table 3-9.

i.

Mix, measure and deaerate (only if bubbles in replica are a problem) magnetic rubber base material as follows: (1) Mixing. The magnetic rubber base material must be thoroughly mixed prior to use. Materials that have settled should be agitated on a mechanical shaker (paint shaker or equivalent). . Steel balls may be placed in the container containing the magnetic rubber to facilitate thorough mixing. Prior to measuring or weighing a quantity of magnetic rubber, it should be thoroughly mixed with a wooden tongue depressor or a spatula. Mixing should continue until the material contains no streaks or color variations. Measuring. The magnetic rubber base material may be weighed or measured volumetrically into paper cups or other suitable containers. One gram of magnetic rubber base material is equal to one cubic centimeter (cc) of base material. The number and size of the batches measured must be based on the area to be inspected. Do not measure more material per batch than can be poured and magnetized within the pot life of the formula selected. To determine the pot life at the time of inspection, measure a small trial batch and time the pot life in the mixing cup before the inspection batch is mixed and poured. Deaerating. For the inspection of horizontal holes or upside down surfaces, the magnetic rubber base material is placed in a vacuum chamber and pumped down to 25 to 30 inches of mercury for one to two minutes. This will remove excess air and help prevent the formation of bubbles on the upper surfaces of the cured replicas.

(2)

(3)

NOTE
The magnetic rubber will begin to thicken when curing agents are added. Therefore, magnetization must begin immediately and the entire batch must be magnetized before the pot life of the formula has expired. Magnetic rubber material, catalyst addition, and cure time are based on a room temperature of 76F. The cure times are very unpredictable when the temperature is below 60F or over 90F. When inspecting holes with scored surfaces, holes that are deep and of small diameter or unusual configuration, the inspection area may be coated with a thin layer of petrolatum to aid in removal of replica. j. Add to the magnetic rubber base material the correct number of drops of both catalysts using the criteria in Table 3-10. Using a tongue depressor or equivalent, thoroughly stir the mixture. Avoid whipping air into the mixture.

k.

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l. Using the mixing container or a syringe, fill only the number of holes or other test areas that can be magnetized within the pot life. Following fill, all vent holes should be sealed with putty to prevent the continual flow of rubber.

NOTE
Holes in steel having high retentivity may be magnetized by a "residual" method. Using this method, the hole is filled with magnetic rubber and is magnetized with an electromagnet at the maximum field obtainable for a period of about one-second. This should establish a residual field of 25-100 gauss. This field must stay undisturbed for 30 to 60 seconds (depending on the level of residual magnetism). Do not magnetize the hole in a second direction nor magnetize any other hole on the same test part until the 30 to 60 seconds have elapsed. m. Magnetize each test area according to the pre-magnetization setup established in steps c through h. n. Identify each replica by recording the following data on an identification tag, or on an individual bag (for storing replica after cure). (1) (2) (3) Aircraft serial number and/or part number. Hole number or other inspection area identification. Date.

NOTE
Care must be exercised to avoid excessive disturbance of the magnetic rubber when inserting the tag. o. Allow magnetic rubber to cure for the time specified. Avoid movement of the part and contamination of the magnetic rubber by foreign matter. Determine that the magnetic rubber is cured (tack-free) by lightly touching the replica or the material remaining in the mixing container. Remove each replica as follows: (1) (2) Remove the magnets if applicable. Remove tape, aluminum dam, duct sealer putty, and/or central conductor and dam assembly.

p.

q.

(3) Gently remove replica from test area. r. Visually examine replicas for overall condition and proper identification. A 7X to 10X stereo microscope and illuminator SHALL be used for microscopic examination as follows: (1) Adjust the illuminator so that the light does not produce a glare on the surface of the replica. A good stereo microscope with excellent light gathering characteristics and a strong light projected at a shallow angle is generally sufficient for this work. Experience has proven that an improper microscope or lighting may result in small cracks going undetected. The inspector may check the adjustment of the illuminator periodically on a replica that is known to display a faint crack indication.

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(2) Hold the replica with finger tips and focus by lowering or raising the replica beneath the microscope lens (rather than raising or lowering the lens itself) This allows the inspector to view the replica at various angles and to scan the entire area of interest. Evaluate the magnetism level. Although magnetic rubber responds satisfactorily to a wide range of magnetism, the reliability is increased if the optimum level is used. Too little magnetism will result in faint indications that are easily missed. Too much magnetism darkens the background so that indications might be hidden. The experienced inspector can determine if the magnetism level is satisfactory. Adequate magnetism on the replica of a hole is indicated by a dark "halo" at the pouring spout or corner. Adequate magnetism on flat surfaces and areas of gentle contour is indicated by darkness in the rough areas of the replica. On very smooth surfaces, external "penetrameter type" indicators such as staples, nickel foil or other magnetic material may be taped to the part to indicate magnetism. Evaluate replica quality. Replicas that contain excessive air bubbles, debris, or poorly mixed rubber are difficult to interpret and should be recast. Examples of poor replica quality and other false indications (artifacts) are included in Figure 3-78 illustrating typical examples of crack indications, discontinuities and other surface conditions. Classify each replica according to the severest indication detected (See Table 3-11): Surface defects. A replica may show obvious surface defects (tool marks, corrosion pitting, etc.) that are not attracting magnetic particles. The inspector is not responsible for identifying this type of defect unless the procedure specifically requires such identification. The inspector may identify gross surface defects, but replicas will be classified A or B only when there are visible magnetic indications present. A replica classified as C may show surface defects.

(3)

(4)

(5) (6)

s.

Resolve B indications. The following methods will be attempted in order until the B indication is resolved to either an A or a C: (1) Reinspect. Correct any technique or procedural errors. Clean the inspection area down to bare metal if necessary. Vary inspection technique as appropriate.

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 1 of 6).

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 2 of 6).

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 3 of 6).

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 4 of 6).

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 5 of 6).

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Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 6 of 6).

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Table 3-11. Magnetic Rubber Indication Codes. INDICATION CODE A INDICATION DESCRIPTION A positive, definite indication. An A indication clearly contrasts with the background replica material. It may apply to surface defects other than cracks. All A indications are to be reported to engineering, along with orientation and length. A fuzzy, unclear indication. A B indication can be due to improper inspection technique or procedure, a dirty inspection area, or a subsurface defect. A B indication is a temporary classification that has to be resolved to either an A or a C indication. The replica is clear of any defect indications. A surface defect. This classification will be used only in those critical inspections where the inspector is required to identify surface defects such as corrosion pitting, tool marks, scratches, gouges, machine tears or chatter marks.

C SD

(2)

Rework inspection area and reinspect. For material removal limits refer to the appropriate technical documentation. Remove only the material amount required to resolve the defect indication. Contact the appropriate engineering function if the material removal limits are reached before the defect indication is resolved.

(3)

t.

Surface finish visual inspection. After all A and B indications have been resolved (replicas from the last inspection of the area are classified as C), the inspection area is ready for appropriate personnel to evaluate the surface finish and configuration. The last replica may be examined in lieu of the actual surface. If no additional rework is performed, the last inspection (paragraph v below) is not required. Final inspection. The area will be inspected, if required by appropriate engineering directive, when additional metal removal is performed to correct conditions noted in the surface finish visual inspection.

u.

3.9.5

Post Inspection Procedures.

WARNING
Cleaning solvent ML-C-38736 contains aromatic naphtha, ethyl acetate, methyl ethyl ketone, and isopropyl alcohol. Cleaning solvent is flammable. Vapors may be harmful. Use with adequate ventilation. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. a. Demagnetize parts until the residual magnetism is less than two divisions on the magnetic field indicator. Clean parts with cleaning solvent. Restore finish in accordance with the appropriate engineering directives. Reinstall parts removed in accordance with applicable technical manual.

b. c. d.

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