A TERM PAPER ON

COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE

TEL540 - Current Trends In Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Under the Supervision of Professor T.R. Ayodele

By
BUSOYE, Tolulope Matthew - 215438
OLADEJI, Emmanuel Ayomide - 215456
OLUSOLA, Adekunle Joshua – 223073
OKE, Olusegun - 192814
 COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE

1.0 Introduction
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is a technology in which energy is stored in compressed
air in storage reservoirs such as underground caverns. It is among emerging energy storage
solutions designed to support modern power systems. Over the decades, there has been an
increasing reliance on renewable energy sources such as wind and solar due to the increased
need for effective energy storage. CAES thus plays an important role in balancing supply and
demand of energy by storing excess energy during periods of low demand and releasing it for use
when needed.

The technical principles, historical development, contributions to grid stability, energy security
and applications of CAES are the key themes to be explored in this term paper.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

1.1 Historical Background

The history of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) can be traced back to the early 20th
century, when engineers began exploring ways to use compressed air for energy storage.
However, the first large-scale CAES facility was not built until the 1970s.

The first CAES plant in the world was established in Huntorf, Germany, in 1978. The plant was
developed to address the energy storage needs of a grid that heavily relied on nuclear and coal
power. The Huntorf plant is still in operation till date and serves as a valuable case study of the
 life-span of CAES technology.

Afterwards, the CAES McIntosh plant in Alabama, USA, was installed in 1991 which became the
second major CAES. Unlike the Huntorf plant, which has a simple operation, the McIntosh plant
made use of a recuperator to improve efficiency through the recovery and reuse of heat from the
compression process.
Over the decades, due to the advancements in thermodynamics and materials, there has been
improvements in the CAES technology, and newer projects have been focused on reducing the
environmental impact of the technology and also increasing the efficiency of the Compressed Air
Energy Storage technology.

1.2 Principles of Operation

The Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) principle of operation is relatively simple and
highly effective. Energy is stored by compressing air in a reservoir and the energy is released
afterwards to generate electricity when it is needed. The process of operation can be broken down
into three main phases:

1. Compression Phase
When there is low electricity demand or excess energy (excess energy generation), excess
electrical energyis used to power the compressors. The compressors pressurize ambient air
and store the air in large underground reservoirs, such as salt caverns, aquifers and storage
tanks. During the compression process, heat is generated which is either released or
captured for future use based on the way the system is designed.

2. Storage Phase
After the air is compressed, it is then stored at high pressure in the reservoir. The storage
phase could last for days based on the system's requirements and grid demands. The storage
medium is essential in maintaining the pressure and in preventing energy loss.

3. Expansion Phase
When there is an increased demand of electricity, the stored compressed air is released and
expanded through turbines which in turn generate electricity. Air is mixed with natural
gas and combusted to increase the turbine’s efficiency in most conventional systems.
However, in advanced systems the aim is to completely eliminate or minimize the step in
 order to reduce emissions.

4. Heat Management
Over the years, it has been observed that in conventional CAES systems, some of the heat
generated during the compression phase is lost which causes a reduction in the system’s
overall efficiency. Subsequently, Advanced Adiabatic CAES (AA-CAES) systems w e r e
d e s i g n e d t o address this by capturing and storing the heat, which is in turn reused
during the expansion phase to preheat the air. Overall, this method significantly improves
the system’s efficiency.

1.3 Types of CAES Systems

Several configurations have emerged in the use of the CAES technology. Each has been designed
to optimize efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and to enhance operational flexibility. The
main types of CAES systems include the following:

1. Conventional CAES
The conventional CAES is the most established form of CAES. This was the system used in the
Huntorf and McIntosh plants. In this system, air is compressed and stored in underground
reservoirs. During electricity generation, the air compressed is mixed with some amount of
natural gas (usually relatively small in quantity) and combusted to drive turbines. Although this
system is efficient, it still relies on fossil fuels which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Advanced Adiabatic CAES (AA-CAES)

Due to the drawback of capturing and storing the heat generated during the compression phase,
the AA-CAES systems was designed as an improvement of the conventional CAES. The heat
generated is stored and used to reheat the air during the expansion phase. This eliminates the need
for natural gas combustion and makes the system more environmentally friendly.

3. Isothermal CAES
In Isothermal systems, a constant temperature is maintained during the compression and
expansion processes (by using advanced thermal management techniques). Isothermal CAES is
designed to minimize the losses in energy by avoiding the high-temperature swings as seen in the
conventional systems. The system is still under development, however, it seems promising for
future energy storage solutions.
 4. Hybrid CAES
In Hybrid systems, CAES is combined with other energy technologies such as renewable energy
sources or batteries. Examples include using solar or wind power to drive the compression phase
and to store excess energy for later use. Hybrid configurations are more flexiblye and can
improve grid reliability.

1.4 Components and Design Considerations

How effective and efficient the Compressed Air Energy Storage system is highly dependent on
its components and its overall design. The following are the key components and factors that
must be considered when a CAES system is to be designed.

1. Storage Reservoirs
The storage medium is crucial in maintaining the high-pressure air required for energy storage.
The Common options used include:
● Underground Caverns: Salt caverns are majorly used due to their ability to
withstand high pressure and their low permeability, minimizing air leakages.
● Aquifers and Depleted Gas Fields: These geological formations provide additional
options for large-scale storage.
● Above-ground Tanks: Suitable for smaller-scale systems or locations without geological
storageoptions.

2. Compressors
Compressors are mainly used to pressurize the ambient air during the charging phase. The type
of compressor chosen usually affects the system's energy efficiency and its thermal management.
● Multi-stage Compressors: These are often used to reduce the heat generated during
compression by cooling the air between stages.

3. Turbines
The efficiency of the turbine is important in maximizing the energy output during the discharge
phase. The expansion of the compressed air is used to drive the turbines to generate electricity.
 ● High-pressure and Low-pressure Turbines: In multi-stage systems, turbines handle air
at different pressures for optimal energy extraction.

4. Heat Recovery Systems

In advanced systems, it is essential to capture and reuse the heat generated during compression.
The systems typically used include:
● Thermal Storage Units: U s e d t o store heat during the compression phase and
release it during expansion.
● Recuperators: Used to transfer heat from the exhaust air to incoming air streams,
improving efficiency.

5. Control Systems
Modern CAES systems make use of sophisticated control systems to monitor and to optimize
operations. These include:
● Pressure and Temperature Sensors: T h i s ensures a safe and efficient operation
by monitoring the conditions in the storage reservoir and other components.
● Automated Control Software: This manages the system's charging and discharging
cycles and makes it to adapt to grid demands.

1.5 Design Considerations

The several factors which influence the design of a CAES system include the following:
● Geological Suitability: The availability of appropriate storage sites.
● Grid Requirements: Designing the system to meet specific grid needs, such as peak
load management or frequency regulation.
● Efficiency and Cost: Balancing t h e capital investment with t h e operational
efficiency.
● Environmental Impact: Minimizing emissions and land use to align with sustainable
development goals.

1.6 Applications of CAES

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) serves various roles in modern-day energy systems.
The ability of the system to store energy and release it makes it versatile for applications such as:
 1. Grid Stability and Load Balancing
2. Renewable Energy Integration
3. Peak Shaving
4. Frequency Regulation
5. Emergency Backup Power

6. Industrial Energy Management

1.7 Advantages of CAES

Several advantages are attached to the use of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES). These
advantages are particularly evident when considering the increasing demand for reliable, large-
scale energy storage solutions. They include:

1. High Energy Storage Capacity

2. Long Discharge Duration
3. Cost-Effectiveness
4. Support for Renewable Energy
5. Quick Response Time
6. Minimal Geographical Constraints
7. Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels

1.8 Challenges and Limitations

While Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) offers numerous advantages, several challenges
and limitations hinder its widespread adoption and performance such as:

1. Geological Constraints
2. Energy Efficiency
3. High Capital Costs
4. Dependency on Fossil Fuels (Conventional CAES)
5. Heat Management Complexity
6. Site-Specific Challenges
7. Limited Operational Experience with Advanced Systems
1.9 Recent Advances and Innovations

In recent years, there has been significant advancements in the field of Compressed Air Energy
Storage. These advancements have been driven by the growing need for efficient and sustainable
energy storage solutions. These recent innovations aim to overcome the limitations of traditional
CAES systems and enhance its performance. The recent advances include:

1. Advanced Adiabatic CAES (AA-CAES)

AA-CAES systems captures and stores the heat generated during the compression phase, which
is in turn reused during expansion. This eliminates the need for natural gas and improves overall
efficiency and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Isothermal CAES

Isothermal systems maintain a nearly constant temperature during compression and expansion.
This potentially would significantly reduce energy losses. Recent innovations in thermal
management, such as advanced heat exchangers and liquid piston systems, have made the design
increasingly viable. Research works are ongoing in the optimization of these systems for
commercial deployment.

3. Hybrid CAES Systems

Hybrid systems integrate CAES with other energy storage and generation technologies, including
batteries and renewable energy sources. Hybrid systems can combine the high energy capacity of
CAES with the fast response times of batteries. This offers enhanced grid flexibility. Several
hybrid configurations are being tested in regions where there is high renewable energy
penetration.

4. Modular and Scalable Designs

In order to address geographical and cost constraints, research works are ongoing in the
development of modular CAES systems which can be scaled to different sizes and used in wider
range of location. Above-ground storage tanks is a good example of these innovations. These
designs allow greater adaptability and reduce the reliance on geological formations.

5. Integration with Smart Grids

With the recent advances in grid technology seamless integration of CAES systems into smart
grids have been enabled. Advanced control algorithms and real-time monitoring systems can
now allow the CAES to dynamically respond to the grid conditions. Thus, energy storage and
release can be optimized.

6. New Storage Materials and Reservoirs

Research work into other alternative storage media, such as porous rock formations and specially
designed synthetic reservoirs is expanding the potential sites for CAES deployment. These
innovations could make CAES feasible in regions lacking traditional geological storage options.

2.0 Conclusion
The future of Compressed Air Energy Storage looks promising and aligns with the gradual
global transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy systems. Adopting CAES can play an
important role in ensuring a more resilient and sustainable energy in the future by addressing
technological barriers and enhancing efficiency through innovations such as AA – CAES and
hybrid configurations.
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