The unit of current density is

ampere/meter2 [A/m2]

Streamlines representing
current density .

If the area vector of the conductor is not along the current then to calculate current
density we should take the component of area vector along the current .

Current density can be represented with a similar set of lines, which we can call
streamlines.

Current density does change —-it is greater in the narrower conductor. The spacing of
the streamlines suggests this increase in current density. streamlines that are closer
together imply greater current density.

Drift velocity and current density are inversely proportional to the area of cross-section.
This is because

I = neAvd or vd = I/neA or vd ∝ 1/A

J = I/A or J ∝ 1/A
CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical conductance (symbol: G) is a measure of how easily electricity
flows through a material or component. It is the reciprocal of electrical
resistance.
• Units: The unit of electrical conductance is the siemens (S).
Formula: G = 1/R where R is the electrical resistance in ohms .

Electrical conductivity (symbol: σ) is a measure of a material's intrinsic

ability to conduct electric current. It is a bulk property of the material itself.
• Units: The unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per meter (S/m).
• Formula: σ = 1/ρ, where ρ is the electrical resistivity of the material.

Some imp information regarding conductivity

(1). σ α n (Electrical conductivity is directly proportional to number of electrons per

unit volume).

(2). σ α τ (Electrical conductivity is directly proportional to average relaxation time).

3). σ α 1/T (Electrical conductivity is inversly proportional to temperature of the

conductor).

CURRENT DENSITY (J)

Current density at a point in a conductor is
defined as the amount of current flowing per
unit area of the conductor around that point
provided the area is held in a direction normal
to the current .
J is the current
density ( A/m2)
Ampere/meter2 (SI
unit)
I = neavd where I is current , n is no of electrons
per unit volume , e is magnitude of charge on
electron which is 1.6 x 10-19 C , a is the area of
cross section of a wire and Vd is drift velocity

Note
Current is independent of area of cross
section . On changing the area of cross
section current will remain constant.
Current density depends on area of cross
section .
 Electrical resistivity or specific resistance-
At constant temperature, the resistance of conductor depends
upon following factors .
1. Length NOTE
As long as the temperature of the
material is constant, the resistivity of
Resistor having fixed material also remains constant. As the
resistance 2. Area of cross-section temperature of the material increases,
the relaxation time tau decreases, the
resistivity increases, and hence the
resistance also increases. As the
number of electrons per unit volume
goes up the, resistance decreases. This
3. Nature of material can be easily visualized, since if the
density of electrons increases, more
Combining above factors electrons can flow in response to the
potential difference and hence the
current will increase. Therefore, the
resistance will decrease.

Where rho is the constant of proportionality known as electrical resistivity or specific

resistance of material of the conductor .

If l=1 and A=1 then rho = R or R = rho

Thus, resistivity or specific resistance of a material may be defined as the resistance of a

conductor having unit length and unit area of cross-section.

Unit length (SI unit) = 1m

Unit Cross sectional area (SI unit) = 1m2
Factors affecting Resistivity of the material are -

(1).Nature of material

(2). Temperature

S.I unit of resistivity:

Length of conductor -
Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
If we increase the length of a wire (conductor),its resistance increases and hence less current
can pass through it.
If we reduce length,resistance decreases and hence more current can pass through it.

Area of cross section of conductor-

zIf we cut a wire and see through it horizontally, it is in form of a circle this area of Circle is
called Area of Cross Section of the Wire.
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross- section.
If we double Area of Cross Section (by increasing thickness of wire) resistance gets halved
and hence more electricity can pass through it .
But if we reduce area of cross section (example we take thin wire) resistance increases and
hence less electricity can pass through it .

Note - This is the reason that we use thick wire to carry more electrical load as thick wire has
more area of cross section and offers less resistance and more electricity can pass through
it .

Nature of material-
The nature of material also determines the resistance of the conductor i.e. Different
conducting materials have different ability to conduct electric currents. For instance, copper
has low resistance compared to steel.

Temperature-
In case of pure metals, resistance increases on increasing temperature and decreases on
decreasing temperature . As the temperature of the conductor rises, the velocity of the free-
charged particles increases. And the increased temperature also affects the amplitude of
vibration due to this the vibration rate of metallic atoms also increases. The free charge
particles that carry the charge collide with the atoms more frequently as they try to go through
the metal. And this phenomenon causes some extra resistance in the path of free electrons.
But in case of alloys (like nichrome), Temperature has no effect on the resistance.

Resistor-
Any material that offers certain obstruction/opposition to the flow of current through it is
resistor.
There are two types of resistors-

-Resistor having fixed resistance

- Resistor having variable resistance (rheostat)

Variable resistor (rheostat)

Current = q/t = neAL/L/vd

l = neAvd

OHM’S LAW-
To produce an electric current in a circuit, a difference in
potential is required.One way of producing a potential
difference along a wire is to connect its ends to the opposite
terminals of a battery. It was Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)
who established experimentally that the current in a metal wire
is proportional to the potential difference V applied to its two
ends:

If, for example, we connect a wire to the two terminals of a 6-V battery, the current in the wire
will be twice what it would be if the wire were connected to a 3-V battery. It is also found that
reversing the sign of the voltage does not affect the magnitude of the current.
Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substance which obeys ohm’s law are known as ohmic
substance for such ohmic substances graph between V and i is a straight line as shown. At
different temperatures V-i curves are different.

Note-
Slope of V-I graph will give us
resistance .

Slope of I-V graph will give us

reciprocal of resistance.

Because slope = y2-y1/x2-x1

Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.

Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
Resistance of a given conducting wire is due to the collisions of free electrons with each
other, the ions or atoms of the conductor and the walls of the conductor during their drift
towards the positive end of the conductor.
It depends upon following factors-
- Length of conductor
- Area of cross section of conductor
- Nature of material
- Temperature
MOBILITY
Mobility is the ability to move freely . Here term mobility is used for charge carriers . Mobility of the
charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity of the charge carrier per unit of the electric field.

Where tau is the average relaxation time of the charge while drifting towards the opposite
electrode, and m is the mass of the charge particle.

Mobility of electron,

Mobility of holes (positive charge particle in semi-conductor)

Where tau e and tau h are the average relaxation time
for electrons and holes.
Mobility is positive for both positive current carriers and negative current carriers, although
their drift velocity are opposite to each other .

i.e., the mobility is inversly proportional to the mass of current carriers. So

mobility of electron is more than the mobility of holes because mass of electron
is less than mass of holes .
The SI unit of mobility is m2v-1s-1

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY

Consider a conductor of length L and area of cross-section A. Suppose a potential
difference V is applied across the conductor. The magnitude of electric field set up across
the conductor will be

if n be the number of electrons per unit volume or electron

density, then
Total amount of electrons in the conductor = nAL
If e be the charge on each electron then
Total charge contained in conductor q = neAL.
All the electrons which enter the conductor at right end will
pass through the conductor at left end in time

T = distance / velocity = L/vd

(Vd be the drift velocity of
electrons)
The average velocity of all the free electrons in the conductor under the effect of external
electric field is the drift velocity of free electrons .

Where is the average time between two successive collisions.

The average time elapsed between two successive collisions of an electron is called as
relaxation time.

Using the value of a from equation (1) in (2)

NOTE-
Average collision time is
.....(3) constant for a given material at
a given temperature

.....(4)

Negative sign in equation (3) shows that vd is opposite to the direction of electric field.

A schematic picture of an electron moving from a point

A to another point B through repeated collisions, and
straight line travel between collisions (full lines). If an
electric field is applied as shown, the electron ends up at
point B’(dotted lines). A slight drift in a direction opposite
the electric field is visible.
 be the random velocities of N free electrons then

Thus there is no net flow of charge in any direction .

Force acting on the free electron in the conductor

Negative sign shows that the direction of the

force is opposite to the electric field.

If m is the mass of each electron, then acceleration produced in the electron is given by

Due to this acceleration, the free electrons, apart from its thermal velocity , aquires additional
velocity component in a direction opposite to the direction of electric field. However, the gain in
the velocity of the electron due to electric field is very small and is lost in the next collision with
atom or ion of the conductor . So the acceleration of electron is not proportional to the external
electric field applied . Also the positive ions experience force due to electric field but they can't
move as they are heavy and tightly bound in the metal .

If an electron having random thermal velocity U 1 accelerate for time T1 before it suffers next
collision, then it attain velocity.

similarly, the velocities acquired by other electrons in the conductor will be .

 Free electrons inside a solid conductor can have two motions :
(1) Random or thermal motion (speed pf the order of 105 m/s)
(2) Drift motion (speed of the order of 10-4 m/s)
Net current due to random or thermal motion is zero from any section, whereas net
current due to drift motion is non zero .
In the absence of any electric field or a potential difference across the conductor, free
electrons have only random motion. Hence , net current from any section is zero.
In the presence of an electric field or a potential difference across the conductor, free
electrons have both motions, random and drift. Therefore current is non zero due to
drift motion.
Drift motion of free electrons is opposite to the electric field. Therefore, direction of
current is in the direction of electric field from higher potential to lower potential.
CONCEPT OF DRIFT VELOCITY

Drift means खिस्कना in hindi and shift in english .

Drift velocity is defined as “Average velocity

with which the free electrons get drifted
towards the positive end of the conductor
under the influence of an external electric
field.”
Free electrons inside the wire gain Some
velocity through acceleration and the velocity
gained through acceleration is lost when
electrons strike the atoms or the positive ions
present inside the wire. At each, collision the
electron starts a fresh with the random thermal
velocity. As a result, electron acquires a small
velocity called drift velocity .

Let assume that there are N number of free electrons present inside a conductor. Flow of
free electrons is so oriented that the average thermal velocities of total number of free
electrons in a conductor is zero .
The random motion of free electrons inside a conductor, often referred to as thermal
motion, is indeed a result of the temperature difference. When a conductor is at a
nonzero temperature, its constituent particles, including free electrons, possess
thermal energy. This energy causes the particles to vibrate and move randomly within
the material. For any imaginary plane passing through the conductor , the number of
electrons crossing the plane in one direction is equal to the number of electrons
crossing it in the other direction. Therefore, net current is zero from any section.In the
context of electric current, this thermal motion plays a significant role. When a potential
difference (voltage) is applied across a conductor, it creates an electric field inside the
conductor. The free electrons, being negatively charged, experience a force in the
direction opposite to the electric field and start to drift. However, due to their thermal
motion, they also move randomly in all directions.
So, while the net drift of electrons constitutes the electric current, their random thermal
motion affects the overall conductivity and behavior of the material, especially at
higher temperatures.

NOTE

when a constant potential difference, V is applied between the ends of the conductor as
shown in the figure and electric field E is produced inside the conductor. The conduction
electrons within the conductor are then subjected to a force -eE and move overall in the
direction of increasing potential .

A conduction electron accelerate through a very small distance (about 5×10 -8 m) and then
collide with fixed ions or atoms of the conductor.

Each collision transfers some of the electron’s kinetic energy to the ions or atoms.

The magnitude of the drift velocity is of the order of 10 -4 m/s or about 109 times smaller
than the average speed of the electrons of their random or thermal motion .
NATURE OF CURRENT
Electric current has both magnitude as well as direction, yet it is a scalar quantity. It happens
because the law of simple algebra are used to add current and the law of vector algebra are
not applicable in the addition of electric current.
For example, suppose the currents of 5A and 2A flows through two mutually perpendicular
wires AO and BO meet at the junction O and then flow along wire OC. Here the current in
wire OC is 7A which is scalar addition of 2A and 5A currents and not 5.3A which is the result
from vector addition.
Formula to find out magnitude of resultant vector -

POINTS TO REMEMBER~

The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of non-uniform cross-
section. Similar to the water flow, charge flows faster where the conductor is smaller in
cross-section and slower where the conductor is larger in cross-section, so that charge
rate remains unchanged.

In a conductor , normally current flow or charge flow is due to flow of free electrons .

Charge is quantised (Can have only certain discrete values). The charge on any body will
be some integral multiple of e i.e.

Q = +- ne

Where , n = 1,2,3…

ELECTRIC CURRENT IN CONDUCTORS

Conductors contain free electrons which flows from lower potential to higher
potential .Lower potential being the negative terminal and high potential being the positive
terminal of the battery. These free electron shows random motion when circuit is not
connected with source of EMF (battery).
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3
CURRENT-
In layman language we can define current as flow of electrons . To be more specific we can
say that current is total amount of negative charge that passes through any cross
sectional area in unit time . Here unit time maybe 1 second , 1 minute or 1 hour . We
choose one second as the unit of time. Now definition of current will be total amount of
negative charge passing through any cross-section area in one second.

Current is of two type -

- Instantaneous current = dq/dt = current at any point of time

- Average current = q/t = ne/t [q=ne]

If the type of current is not specified by default we can assume that current to be
instantaneous current . Direction of current is assumed to be that in which positive charge
moves .

In the SI system , the unit of current is ampere (A).

1 A= 1 C/s

Electric current through a conductor is said to be 1 A if one

coulomb of charge flows through any cross-section of conductor
in one second .

Smaller units of electric current are milliampere (1 mA=10-3

ampere), micro ampere, (1 micro A = 10-6 A).

Note-
In any volume of wire, there are equal amount of positive and
negative charges. The wire is electrically neutral and does not
produce electric field.