Chapter 4

An Introduction to Cells and

Procaryotic Cell

Structure and Function
All living things (single and multicellular) are
made of cells that share some common
characteristics:

basic shape spherical, cubical, cylindrical
internal content cytoplasm, surrounded by a
membrane
DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic
capabilities

Two basic cell types: eucaryotic and procaryotic


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Eucaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and
protists
contain double-membrane bound nucleus with DNA
chromosomes
contain membrane-bound organelles that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm and perform specific
functions

Procaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea
no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
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Growth and development
Reproduction and heredity genome
composed of DNA packed in chromosomes;
produce offspring sexually or asexually
Metabolism chemical and physical life
processes
Movement and/or irritability respond to
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion of
many organisms
Cell support, protection, and storage
mechanisms cell walls, vacuoles, granules
and inclusions
Transport of nutrients and waste
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Appendages
two major groups of appendages:
Motility flagella and axial filaments (periplasmic
flagella)
Attachment or channels fimbriae and pili
Glycocalyx surface coating
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3 parts:
filament long, thin, helical structure composed of
protein flagellin
hook- curved sheath
basal body stack of rings firmly anchored in cell
wall
Number and arrangement of flagella varies:
monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous,
peritrichous
Functions in motility of cell through
environment
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1. Monotrichous single flagellum at one end

2. Lophotrichous small bunches arising from
one end of cell

3. Amphitrichous flagella at both ends of cell

4. Peritrichous flagella dispersed over
surface of cell; slowest
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Guide bacteria in a direction in response to
external stimulus:

chemical stimuli chemotaxis; positive and negative

light stimuli phototaxis
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Fine, proteinaceous, hairlike bristles from
the cell surface
Function in adhesion to other cells and
surfaces
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Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
Found only in Gram negative cells
Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
transfer called conjugation
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Coating of molecules external to the
cell wall, made of sugars and/or
proteins
Two types:
1. slime layer - loosely organized and attached
2. capsule - highly organized, tightly attached
Functions:
protect cells from dehydration and nutrient
loss
inhibit killing by white blood cells by
phagocytosis contributing to pathogenicity
attachment - formation of biofilms
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External covering outside the cytoplasm
Composed of two basic layers:
cell wall and cell membrane
Maintains cell integrity
Two generally different groups of bacteria
demonstrated by Gram stain:

Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall composed
primarily of peptidoglycan and cell membrane

Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane, thin
peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane

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Insert figure 4.12
Comparative cell envelopes
Determines cell shape, prevents lysis
(bursting) or collapsing due to changing
osmotic pressures
Peptidoglycan is primary component:
unique macromolecule composed of a repeating
framework of long glycan chains cross-linked by
short peptide fragments

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Thick, homogeneous sheath of peptidoglycan
20-80 nm thick

function in cell wall maintenance and enlargement
during cell division; move cations across the cell
envelope; stimulate a specific immune response
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Composed of an outer membrane and a thin
peptidoglycan layer
Outer membrane is similar to cell membrane
bilayer structure
outermost layer contains lipopolysaccharides and
lipoproteins (LPS)
endotoxin that may become toxic when released during
infections
may function as receptors and blocking immune response
contains porin proteins in upper layer regulate
molecules entering and leaving cell
Bottom layer composed of phospholipids and
lipoproteins


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Single, thin sheet of peptidoglycan
Protective structure while providing some
flexibility and sensitivity to lysis
Periplasmic space surrounds peptidoglycan
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Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a
Gram-positive cell wall from those with a
Gram-negative cell wall

Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and stain purple

Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and stain red from
safranin counterstain

Important basis of bacterial classification and
identification
Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding
drug treatment
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Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall
structure i.e. Mycobacterium and Nocardia

Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic
acid (cord factor)
pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to certain
chemicals and dyes
basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of
infections caused by these microorganisms

Some have no cell wall i.e. Mycoplasma
cell wall is stabilized by sterols
pleomorphic
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Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
Functions in:
providing site for energy reactions, nutrient
processing, and synthesis
transport into and out of the cell
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Cell cytoplasm:
dense gelatinous solution of sugars, amino acids,
and salts
70-80% water
serves as solvent for materials used in all cell functions

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Chromosome
single, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
that contains all the genetic information
required by a cell
DNA is tightly coiled around a protein,
aggregated in a dense area called the nucleoid.

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Plasmids
small circular, double-stranded DNA
free or integrated into the chromosome
duplicated and passed on to offspring
not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism
may encode antibiotic resistance, tolerance to toxic
metals, enzymes and toxins
used in genetic engineering- readily manipulated
and transferred from cell to cell
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Ribosomes
made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein
consist of two subunits: large and small
procaryotic differ from eucaryotic ribosomes in
size and number of proteins
site of protein synthesis
present in all cells
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Inclusions and granules
intracellular storage bodies
vary in size, number and content
Bacterial cell can use them when environmental
sources are depleted.
examples: glycogen, poly-b-hydroxybutyrate, gas
vesicles for floating, sulfur and phosphate granules
(metachromatic granules)

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Endospores
inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus and Sporosarcina
have a 2-phase life cycle:
vegetative cell metabolically active and growing
endospore when exposed to adverse environmental conditions;
capable of high resistance and very long-term survival
sporulation -formation of endospores
hardiest of all life forms
withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation and
chemicals
not a means of reproduction
germination- return to vegetative growth

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Resistance linked to high levels of
calcium and dipicolinic acid
Dehydrated, metabolically inactive
thick coat
Longevity verges on immortality -
25,250 million years.
Resistant to ordinary cleaning methods
and boiling
Pressurized steam at 120
o
C for 20-30
minutes will destroy
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Variety in shape, size, and arrangement
but typically described by one of three
basic shapes:
coccus - spherical
bacillus rod
coccobacillus very short and plump
vibrio gently curved
spirillum - helical, comma, twisted rod,
spirochete spring-like
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Arrangement of cells is dependent on pattern of
division and how cells remain attached after
division:
cocci:
singles
diplococci in pairs
tetrads groups of four
irregular clusters
chains
cubical packets
bacilli:
chains
palisades
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1. Microscopic morphology
2. Macroscopic morphology colony
appearance
3. Physiological / biochemical
characteristics
4. Chemical analysis
5. Serological analysis
6. Genetic and molecular analysis
G + C base composition
DNA analysis using genetic probes
Nucleic acid sequencing and rRNA analysis
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Bergeys Manual of Determinative Bacteriology
five volume resource covering all known
procaryotes
classification based on genetic information
phylogenetic
two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
five major subgroups with 25 different phyla
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Domain Archaea primitive, adapted to
extreme habitats and modes of nutrition
Domain Bacteria -
Phylum Proteobacteria Gram-negative cell
walls
Phylum Firmicutes mainly Gram-positive with
low G + C content
Phylum Actinobacteria Gram-positive with high
G + C content
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Uses phenotypic qualities in identification
restricted to bacterial disease agents
divides based on cell wall structure, shape,
arrangement, and physiological traits
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Species a collection of bacterial cells which
share an overall similar pattern of traits in
contrast to other bacteria whose pattern differs
significantly
Strain or variety a culture derived from a
single parent that differs in structure or
metabolism from other cultures of that species
(biovars, morphovars)
Type a subspecies that can show differences
in antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar),
susceptibility to bacterial viruses (phage type)
and in pathogenicity (pathotype)

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Free-living nonpathogenic bacteria
Photosynthetic bacteria - use
photosynthesis, can synthesize required
nutrients from inorganic compounds
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Gram-negative cell walls
extensive thylakoids with photosynthetic chlorophyll
pigments and gas inclusions
Green and purple sulfur bacteria
contain photosynthetic pigment bacteriochlorophyll
do not give off oxygen as a product of photosynthesis
Gliding, fruiting bacteria
Gram-negative
Glide over moist surfaces


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Unusual forms of medically significant obligate
intracellular parasites
Rickettsias
Very tiny, Gram-negative bacteria
Most are pathogens that alternate between mammals
and fleas, lice or ticks.
Obligate intracellular pathogens
Cannot survive or multiply outside of a host cell
Cannot carry out metabolism on their own
Rickettsia rickettisii Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Rickettsia prowazekii epidemic typhus
Coxiella burnetti Q fever
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Chlamydias
Tiny
Obligate intracellular parasites
Not transmitted by arthropods
Chlamydia trachomatis severe eye infection and
one of the most common sexually transmitted
diseases
Chlamydia psittaci ornithosis, parrot fever
Chlamydia pneumoniae lung infections
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Constitute third Domain Archaea
Seem more closely related to Domain Eukarya
than to bacteria
Live in the most extreme habitats in nature,
extremophiles
Adapted to heat, salt, acid pH, pressure and
atmosphere
Includes: methane producers,
hyperthermophiles, extreme halophiles, and
sulfur reducers

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