An Introduction to the

Prokaryotic Cell, BIO 1101

Godfrey M Begumisa
Dept. of Biology
MUST

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Characteristics of Cells and Life
All living things (single and multicellular) are
made of cells that share some common
characteristics:
– Basic shape – spherical, cubical, cylindrical
– Internal content – cytoplasm, surrounded by a
membrane
– DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic
capabilities
Two basic cell types: eukaryotic and prokaryotic
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 2
 Characteristics of Cells
Eukaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and
protists
– Contain membrane-bound organelles that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm and perform specific
functions
– Contain double-membrane bound nucleus with DNA
chromosomes
Prokaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea
– No nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 3

 Characteristics of Life
• Reproduction and heredity – genome composed of
DNA packed in chromosomes; produce offspring
sexually or asexually
• Growth and development
• Metabolism – chemical and physical life processes
• Movement and/or irritability – respond to
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion of many
organisms
• Cell support, protection, and storage mechanisms – cell
walls, vacuoles, granules and inclusions
• Transport of nutrients and waste
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 4
 Prokaryotic Profiles

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 5

 Structure of a bacterial cell

1/25/2023 6
 External Structures
• Appendages
– Two major groups of appendages:
• Motility – flagella and axial filaments (periplasmic
flagella)
• Attachment or channels – fimbriae and pili
• Glycocalyx – surface coating

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 7

 Flagella
• The bacterial flagellum is an apparatus of motility commonly
found among motile species.
• The flagellum is a supramolecular structure composed of about
20 protein components and divided into three parts:
– Filament – long, thin, helical structure composed of protein Flagellin
– Hook – curved sheath; links the filament to its basal body
– Basal body – stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall
• Rotates 360o
• Number and arrangement of flagella varies:
– Monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, peritrichous
• Functions in motility of cell through environment

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 8

 Flagella

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 9

 Flagellar Arrangements
1. Monotrichous – single flagellum at one end
(Pseudomonas, vibrio cholera).
2. Lophotrichous – small bunches emerging
from the same site (spirillum)
3. Amphitrichous – flagella at both ends of cell
e.g. Aquaspirillum serpens
4. Peritrichous – flagella dispersed over surface
of cell; slowest (Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella
typhi, E.coli)
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 10
 Electron micrographs of flagellar
arrangements

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 11

 Periplasmic Flagella
• Internal flagella, enclosed in the space between
the cell membrane and the cell wall
peptidoglycan
• Produce cellular motility by contracting and
imparting twisting or flexing motion
• Bacteria such as spirochetes have a specialized
type of flagellum called axial filament
– is located in the Periplasmic space,
– the rotation causes the entire bacterium to move
forward in a corkscrew-like motion
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 12
1/25/2023
Periplasmic flagella

13
 Fimbriae
• Fine, proteinaceous, hairlike bristles emerging
from the cell surface
• Function in adhesion to other cells and surfaces

14
 Pili
• Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
• Found only in gram-negative cells
• Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
transfer called conjugation

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 15

 Glycocalyx
• Coating of molecules external to the cell wall,
made of sugars and/or proteins
• Two types:
1. Slime layer - loosely organized and attached
2. Capsule - highly organized, tightly attached
• Functions:
– Protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss
– Inhibit killing by white blood cells by phagocytosis,
contributing to pathogenicity
– Attachment - formation of biofilms

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 16

1/25/2023 17
 The Cell Envelope
• External covering outside the cytoplasm
• Composed of two basic layers:
– Cell wall and cell membrane
• Maintains cell integrity
• Two different groups of bacteria demonstrated
by Gram stain:
– Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall composed
primarily of peptidoglycan and cell membrane
– Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane,
thin peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 18
Gram negative and gram positive cell wall structure

Insert figure 4.12

Comparative cell envelopes

1/25/2023 19
 Structure of Cell Walls
• Determines cell shape, prevents lysis
(bursting) or collapsing due to changing
osmotic pressures
• Peptidoglycan is primary component:
– Unique macromolecule composed of a
repeating framework of long glycan chains
cross-linked by short peptide fragments

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 20

 21
1/25/2023
Peptidoglycan
 Gram-Positive Cell Wall
• Thick, homogeneous sheath of peptidoglycan
– 20-80 nm thick
– Includes teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid:
function in cell wall maintenance and enlargement
during cell division; move cations across the cell
envelope; stimulate a specific immune response
– Some cells have a periplasmic space, between the
cell membrane and cell wall

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 22

Gram negative and gram positive cell wall structure

1/25/2023 23
 Gram-Negative Cell Wall
• Composed of an outer membrane and a thin
peptidoglycan layer
• Outer membrane is similar to cell membrane bilayer
structure
– Outermost layer contains lipopolysaccharides and
lipoproteins (LPS)
• Lipid portion (endotoxin) may become toxic when released
during infections
• May function as receptors and blocking immune response
• Contain porin proteins in upper layer – regulate molecules
entering and leaving cell
– Bottom layer is a thin sheet of peptidoglycan
• Periplasmic space above and below peptidoglycan
1/25/2023 24
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 25
 Comparison of Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative

1/25/2023 26
 The Gram Stain
• Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a gram-
positive cell wall from those with a gram-negative cell
wall
– Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and stain purple
– Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and stain red from
safranin counterstain
• Important basis of bacterial classification and
identification
• Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding drug
treatment

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 27

1/25/2023 28
 Nontypical Cell Walls
• Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall
structure, i.e., Mycobacterium and Nocardia
– Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid
mycolic acid (cord factor)
• Pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to certain
chemicals and dyes
• Basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of infections
caused by these microorganisms
• Some have no cell wall, i.e., Mycoplasma
– Cell wall is stabilized by sterols
– Pleomorphic
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 29
 Cell Membrane Structure
• Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins –
fluid mosaic model
• Functions in:
– Providing site for energy reactions, nutrient processing, and
synthesis
– Passage of nutrients into the cell and the discharge of wastes
• Cell membrane is selectively permeable

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 30

 Cell Membrane Structure

1/25/2023
31
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Cell cytoplasm:
– Dense gelatinous solution of sugars, amino acids,
and salts
– 70-80% water
• Serves as solvent for materials used in all cell functions

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 32

 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Chromosome
– Single, circular, double-stranded DNA
molecule that contains all the genetic
information required by a cell
– Aggregated in a dense area called the nucleoid
• DNA is tightly coiled

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 33

 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Plasmids
– Small circular, double-stranded DNA
– Free or integrated into the chromosome
– Duplicated and passed on to offspring
– Not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism
– May encode antibiotic resistance, tolerance to toxic
metals, enzymes, and toxins
– Used in genetic engineering - readily manipulated
and transferred from cell to cell

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 34

 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Ribosomes
– Made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein
– Consist of two subunits: large and small
– Prokaryotic differ from eukaryotic ribosomes in
size and number of proteins
– Site of protein synthesis
– Present in all cells

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 35

 Prokaryotic ribosome

1/25/2023 36
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Inclusions and granules
– Intracellular storage bodies
– Vary in size, number, and content
– Bacterial cell can use them when environmental
sources are depleted
– Examples: glycogen, poly b-hydroxybutyrate, gas
vesicles for floating, sulfur and phosphate
granules (metachromatic granules), particles of
iron oxide

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 37

 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Cytoskeleton
– Many bacteria possess an internal network of
protein polymers that is closely associated with
the cell wall

1/25/2023 38
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Endospores
– Inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus, and Sporosarcina
• Have a 2-phase life cycle:
– Vegetative cell – metabolically active and growing
– Endospore – when exposed to adverse environmental conditions;
capable of high resistance and very long-term survival
– Sporulation - formation of endospores
• Hardiest of all life forms
• Withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation, and
chemicals
• Not a means of reproduction
– Germination - return to vegetative growth
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 39
 Sporulation cycle

1/25/2023 40
 Endospores
• Resistance linked to high levels of calcium and
dipicolinic acid
• Dehydrated, metabolically inactive
• Thick coat
• Longevity verges on immortality, 250 million
years
• Resistant to ordinary cleaning methods and boiling
• Pressurized steam at 120oC for 20-30 minutes will
destroy

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 41

 Bacterial Shapes,
Arrangements, and Sizes
• Vary in shape, size, and arrangement but
typically described by one of three basic
shapes:
– Coccus – spherical
– Bacillus – rod
• Coccobacillus – very short and plump
• Vibrio – gently curved
– Spirillum – helical, comma, twisted rod,
• Spirochete – spring-like

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 42

 Common bacterial shapes

1/25/2023 43
 Comparison of Spiral-Shaped Bacteria

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 44

Bacterial Shapes, Arrangements, and Sizes
• Arrangement of cells is dependent on pattern of
division and how cells remain attached after division:
– Cocci:
• Singles
• Diplococci – in pairs
• Tetrads – groups of four
• Irregular clusters
• Chains
• Cubical packets (sarcina)
– Bacilli:
• Diplobacilli
• Chains
• Palisades
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 45
 46
1/25/2023
Arrangement of cocci
 Classification Systems
in the Prokaryotae
1. Microscopic morphology
2. Macroscopic morphology – colony appearance
3. Bacterial physiology
4. Serological analysis
5. Genetic and molecular analysis

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 47

 Bacterial Taxonomy Based on
Bergey’s Manual
• Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology –
five volume resource covering all known
prokaryotes
– Classification based on genetic information –
phylogenetic
– Two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
– Five major subgroups with 25 different phyla

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 48

Major Taxonomic Groups of Bacteria
• Domain Archaea – primitive, adapted to
extreme habitats and modes of nutrition
• Domain Bacteria:
– Phylum Proteobacteria – Gram-negative cell
walls
– Phylum Firmicutes – mainly gram-positive
with low G + C content
– Phylum Actinobacteria – Gram-positive with
high G + C content

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 49

 Universal phylogenetic tree

1/25/2023 50
General Classification Scheme

51
1/25/2023 52
 Species and Subspecies
• Species – a collection of bacterial cells which share an
overall similar pattern of traits in contrast to other
bacteria whose pattern differs significantly
• Strain or variety – a culture derived from a single
parent that differs in structure or metabolism from
other cultures of that species (biovars, morphovars)
• Type – a subspecies that can show differences in
antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar), susceptibility
to bacterial viruses (phage type) and in pathogenicity
(pathotype)

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 53

Prokaryotes with Unusual Characteristics
• Free-living nonpathogenic bacteria
• Photosynthetic bacteria – use photosynthesis, can
synthesize required nutrients from inorganic
compounds
– Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
• Gram-negative cell walls
• Extensive thylakoids with photosynthetic chlorophyll pigments
and gas inclusions
– Green and purple sulfur bacteria
• Contain photosynthetic pigment bacteriochlorophyll
• Do not give off oxygen as a product of photosynthesis
– Gliding, fruiting bacteria
• Gram-negative
• Glide over moist surfaces
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 54
 Archaea: The Other Prokaryotes
• Constitute third Domain Archaea
• Seem more closely related to Domain Eukarya than to
bacteria
• Contain unique genetic sequences in their rRNA
• Have unique membrane lipids and cell wall construction
• Live in the most extreme habitats in nature,
extremophiles
• Adapted to heat, salt, acid pH, pressure, and atmosphere
• Includes: methane producers, hyperthermophiles,
extreme halophiles, and sulfur reducers
1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 55
 Comparison of Three Cellular Domains

1/25/2023 BIO 1101 Prokaryotic Structure 56