Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

Boylestad

Chapter 1

Some of the slides are modified for the consumption of this class
Sources used are : 1. Electronic Devices by FLOYD
2, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Boylestad
1

Characteristics :
Characteristics can be define by its physical attributes.
ION:
An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the
loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal device.

Anode

Cathode

A diode ideally conducts

in only one direction.

Characteristics of a Diode:

The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and

characteristics as
shown in the Fig

The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can

conduct current in only one direction.

Semiconductor Materials
Materials commonly used in the development of
semiconductor devices:

Silicon (Si)/ Doped Silicon

Germanium (Ge)/ Doped Germanium
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)/Doped GaAs

Forward-biased diode connections

A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and

the voltage due to the barrier potential across the depletion
region.

Effects of Forward/Revise Biasing on

the Depletion Region
depletion region.(Forward Bias)

depletion region.(No Bias)

depletion region.(Reverse Bias)

7

Effects of Forward/Revise Biasing on

flow of Majority Carriers
Reverse Bias

The extremely small reverse current

in a reverse-biased diode is due to
the minority carriers from thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.

Forward Bias

A forward-biased diode showing the

flow of majority carriers and the
voltage due to the barrier potential
across the depletion region.

Diode Operating Conditions

Forward Bias
The forward voltage
causes the depletion
region to narrow.
The electrons and holes
are pushed toward the
p-n junction.
The electrons and holes have sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
9

Diffusion current
Diffusion current occurs even though there isn't an
electric field applied to the semiconductor.
Drift current
Drift current depends on the electric field applied on
the p-n junction diode.

10

VOLTAGE-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTIC OF A DIODE
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
Forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode
Forward current is established
External resistor is added to limit the forward
current to protect junction from overheating.
Zero volts across the diode, no forward current
Gradually increase in VBIAS will increase VF
forward-bias voltage and forward current

11

Current Established by Majority and Minority Carrier

No Bias Current
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction due to electron or holes in a semiconductor diode is zero.

Forward Bias Current

All current due to electron no reverse current
Reverse Bias Current
Due to movement of minority carrier the
current that exists under reverse-bias
conditions is called the reverse saturation
current and is represented by Is.

12

pn-junction Diode

Up to now we have learned:

A diode is a pn-junction device.
How the pn-junction physically behave.
How does the current flow at the pn-junction.
_________________________________________________________
Next:
How a diode can be modeled for circuit analysis (three different models)
Bias connections
Diode approximations
Ideal diode model
Practical diode model
Complete diode model

13

pn-junction Diode
Logic/Schematic Symbol

14

Forward-Biasing Circuit

The positive terminal of the source is connected to the anode through

a current-limiting resistor.

The negative terminal of the source is connected to the cathode.

The forward current (IF) is from anode to cathode as indicated.

The forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential is from
positive at the anode to negative at the cathode.
anode

cathode

15

Reverse-Biasing-Circuit

The negative terminal of the source is connected to the anode through

a current-limiting resistor.

The positive terminal of the source is connected to the cathode.

The forward current (IF) is from anode to cathode as indicated.

The forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential is from
positive at the anode to negative at the cathode.
anode

cathode

16

Forward Biased Diode

The diode behaves like a ON switch in this mode
Resistance R and diodes body resistance limits the current
through the diode
VBIAS has to overcome VBARRIER in order for the diode to
conduct

17

Reverse Biased Diode

The diode behaves like a OFF switch in this mode
If we continue to increase reverse voltage VB
breakdown voltage of the diode is reached
Once breakdown voltage is reached diode conducts
heavily causing its destruction

18

Thermal Breakdown
Diode breakdown is caused by thermally
generated electrons in the depletion region
When the reverse voltage across diode reaches
breakdown voltage these electrons will get
sufficient energy to collide and dislodge other
electrons
The number of high energy electrons increases
in geometric progression leading to an
avalanche effect causing heavy current and
ultimately destruction of diode

19

Diode Approximations
1. The Ideal Diode Model
2. The Practical Diode Model
3. The Complete Diode Model

20

The Ideal Diode Model

The ideal model of a diode:
Suppose Approximation is used and diode is considered
as and represented by a simple switch (or wire).
When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a
closed (on) switch (or wire/path is connected)
When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like a
opened (off) switch (or wire/path is disconnected).

21

The Ideal Diode Model

The ideal model of a diode:
Suppose VF = 0V and IR = 0
then

For Reverse Bias Ideal Diode

VR = VBIAS

22

The Practical diode Model

The practical model of a diode:
Barrier potential caused by the depletion region
is taken into account in the practical model
that is 0.7v for Si
0.3v for Ge
For the current to flow the source voltage must
need to over come the barrier.

23

The Practical diode Model

The practical model of a diode:

Forward current can be determined by

applying Kirchhoffs voltage law

24

2. The Practical Diode Model

The diode is assumed to have
zero reverse current,

The practical model is useful for:

Troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits.
Excepting the 0.7 V drop across a good diode
The practical model is also useful when
basic diode used in the design circuits.

25

2. The Practical Diode Model

Forward current can be determined by applying Kirchhoffs
voltage law

The practical model is useful for:

Troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits.
Excepting the 0.7 V drop across a good diode

The diode is assumed to

have zero reverse current,

The practical model is also useful when

basic diode used in the design circuits.

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27

The Complete Diode Model

Tin complete model approximation includes the
followings:
1.The barrier potential
2.The small forward dynamic resistance
3.The large internal reverse resistance
The reverse resistance is taken into account
because it provides a path for the reverse
current, which is included in this diode model.
When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts
as an open switch in parallel with the large
internal reverse resistance as shown

28

The Complete Diode Model

The curve slopes because the voltage drop due to dynamic
resistance
increases as the current increases. For the
complete model of a silicon diode, the following formulas
apply:

29

Example
Use the practical model to determine the current
in the circuit:
R
3.3 k

+
VBIAS

12 V

VR VBIAS 0.7 V 12 V 0.7 V 11.3 V

VR 11.3 V

3.4 mA
R 3.3 k
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Example:

31

Example:

32

Example:

33

1.Circuit analysisis the process of

finding the voltages across, and the
currents through, every component
in the circuit.

Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse

biased.

34

Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for no
bias, reverse bias, and
forward bias
conditions.
Carefully note the scale
for each of these
conditions occurs.

35

Zener Region
The Zener region is in the diodes reverse-bias region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage
is so large the diode breaks down and
the reverse current increases
dramatically.
The maximum reverse voltage that
wont take a diode into the zener
region is called the peak inverse
voltage or peak reverse voltage.
The voltage that causes a diode to
enter the zener region of operation is
called the zener voltage (VZ).

36

Forward Bias Voltage

The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition
to forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and
holes are given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
This energy comes from the external voltage applied across
the diode.
The forward bias voltage required for a:

gallium arsenide diode 1.2 V

silicon diode 0.7 V

germanium

diode 0.3 V
37

Temperature Effects
As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.
It reduces the required forward bias voltage for forwardbias conduction.
It increases the amount of reverse current in the reversebias condition.
It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche voltage.
Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations
than silicon or gallium arsenide diodes.

38

Temperature Effects
As temperature increases it adds energy to the electrons
The reverse saturation current Is will
just about double in magnitude for
every 10C increase in temperature.

Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations than silicon or gallium
arsenide diodes.
39

Resistance Levels
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.
There are three types of resistance:

DC (static) resistance
AC (dynamic) resistance
Average AC resistance

40

DC (Static) Resistance
For a specific applied DC
voltage (VD) the diode has
a specific current (ID) and
a specific resistance (RD).

VD
RD
ID

41

Example:

42

Small-Signal Model of a Diode

iD as a function of vD is non-linear

Therefore tools of linear circuit analysis cannot be

applied, in general, to circuits containing diodes

Diode bias voltage with small AC signal can be written as

where VD and ID are dc bias values and vd and id are smallsignal changes about the bias values

Linear circuit analysis can be used to predict the change in current for a
given change in voltage, provided the change is not very large. Such an
approach is called a small-signal analysis.

Small-Signal Model of a Diode

id
rd = vd / id
OR

AC (Dynamic) Resistance
In the forward bias region:

26 mV
rd
rB
ID

The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.

The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26 mV for 25C).

Body resistance B introduced by the connection between the

semiconductor material and the external metallic conductor (called
contact resistance)
rB ranges from a typical 0.1 for high power devices to 2 for low
power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.

In the reverse bias region:

rd

The resistance is effectively infinite. The diode acts like an open.

45

Average AC Resistance
rav

Vd

Id

pt. to pt.

AC resistance can be
calculated using the
current and voltage values
for two points on the diode
characteristic curve.

46

Effects of Operating Point on the Dynamic Resistance

47

Effects of Operating Point on the AC Signal

48

Q-point

Defining the dynamic or ac

resistance

The designation Q-point is derived from the

word quiescent, which means still or
unvarying
Small AC signal applied at Q-Point
Quiescent
OR
Q-point

49

Example:

(c) Compare Static resistance VS. Dynamic resistance

resistance at each current level

50

Diode Equivalent Circuit

51

Reverse Recovery Time (trr)

Reverse recovery time is the time required for a diode to
stop conducting when switched from forward bias to
reverse bias.

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53

Diode Symbol and Packaging

The anode is abbreviated A

The cathode is abbreviated K

54

Diode Testing
Diodes are commonly tested using one of these
types of equipment:

Diode checker
Ohmmeter
Curve tracer

55

Diode Checker
Many digital multimeters have a diode checking function.
The diode should be tested out of circuit.
A normal diode exhibits its forward voltage:

Gallium arsenide 1.2 V

Silicon diode 0.7 V
Germanium diode 0.3 V

56

Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test
a diode. The diode should be tested out of circuit.

57

Curve Tracer
A curve tracer displays
the characteristic curve of
a diode in the test circuit.
This curve can be
compared to the
specifications of the
diode from a data sheet.

58

Curve Tracer

59

Other Types of Diodes

There are several types of diodes besides the standard
p-n junction diode. Some of common diode are:

Zener diodes
Light-emitting diodes
Diode arrays

60

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is one that
is designed to safely
operate in its zener
region; i.e., biased at the
Zener voltage (VZ).
Common zener diode voltage ratings
are between 1.8 V and 200 V
More detail in next module

61

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

An LED emits light when it is forward biased,
which can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.

The forward bias voltage is usually

in the range of 2 V to 3 V.

62

The Light-Emitting Diode

The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes

corresponds to the energy of visible light
When recombination takes place, at the pn junction the
recombining electrons release energy in the form of
photons

A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semi conductive

material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light.

63

The Light-Emitting Diode

64

COLORED
LED

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Material

Wavelength

Color

VF @ 20mA

GaAs

850-940nm

Infra-Red

1.2v

GaAsP

630-660nm

Red

1.8v

GaAsP

605-620nm

Amber

2.0v

GaAsP:N

585-595nm

Yellow

2.2v

AlGaP

550-570nm

Green

3.5v

SiC

430-505nm

Blue

3.6v

GaInN

450nm

White

4.0v

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Power Dissipation of a Diodes

Power dissipation in forward bias diode

where ID and VD are the diode current and voltage at a

particular point of operation

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