Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment
Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment
Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment
of Materials, 4th ed
Donald R. Askeland Pradeep P. Phul
Objectives of Chapter 11
Chapter Outline
Section 11.1
Nucleation and Growth in
Solid-State Reactions
Strain energy - The energy required to permit a
precipitate to fit into the surrounding matrix during
nucleation and growth of the precipitate.
Avrami relationship - Describes the fraction of a
transformation that occurs as a function of time. This
describes most solid-state transformations that involve
diffusion, thus martensitic transformations are not
described.
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Example 11.1
Activation Energy for the Recrystallization
of Copper
Determine the activation energy for the recrystallization of
copper from the sigmoidal curves in Figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2
The effect of
temperature
on
recrystallizati
on of coldworked
copper.
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Figure 11.4
Arrhenius plot of
transformation rate
versus reciprocal
temperature for
recrystallization of
copper (for Example
11.1.
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Section 11.2
Alloys Strengthened by
Exceeding the Solubility Limit
Widmansttten structure - The precipitation of a second
phase from the matrix when there is a fixed
crystallographic relationship between the precipitate and
matrix crystal structures.
Interfacial energy - The energy associated with the
boundary between two phases.
Dihedral angle - The angle that defines the shape of a
precipitate particle in the matrix.
Coherent precipitate - A precipitate whose crystal
structure and atomic arrangement have a continuous
relationship with the matrix from which the precipitate is
formed.
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Section 11.3
Age or Precipitation Hardening
Age hardening - A special dispersion-strengthening heat
treatment. By solution treatment, quenching, and aging,
a coherent precipitate forms that provides a substantial
strengthening effect. Also known as precipitation
hardening, it is a form of dispersion strengthening.
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Section 11.4
Applications of Age-Hardened
Alloys
Figure 11.9 (a) A
stress-strain curve
showing the
increase in
strength of a bakehardenable steel as
a result of strain
hardening and
precipitation
hardening.
(Source: U.S. Steel
Corporation,
Pittsburgh, PA.)
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Section 11.5
Microstructural Evolution in
Age or Precipitation Hardening
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Example 11.2
Composition of Al-4% Cu Alloy Phases
Compare the composition of the a solid solution in the Al-4%
Cu alloy at room temperature when the alloy cools under
equilibrium conditions with that when the alloy is quenched.
Figure 11.5
The
aluminumcopper phase
diagram and
the
microstructur
es that may
develop curing
cooling of an
Al-4% Cu
alloy.
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Example 11.3
Design of an Age-Hardening Treatment
The magnesium-aluminum phase diagram is shown in Figure
11.11. Suppose a Mg-8% Al alloy is responsive to an agehardening heat treatment. Design a heat treatment for the alloy.
Figure 11.11
Portion of the
aluminummagnesium
phase diagram.
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Section 11.6
Effects of Aging Temperature
and Time
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Example 11.4
Effect of Aging Heat Treatment Time on
the Strength of Aluminum Alloys
The operator of a furnace left for his hour lunch break without
removing the Al-4% Cu alloy from the furnace used for the
aging treatment. Compare the effect on the yield strength of
the extra hour of aging for the aging temperatures of 190oC
and 260oC.
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Section 11.7
Requirements for Age
Hardening
The alloy system must display decreasing solid solubility
with decreasing temperature.
The matrix should be relatively soft and ductile, and the
precipitate should be hard and brittle.
The alloy must be quenchable.
A coherent precipitate must form.
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Section 11.8
Use of Age-Hardenable Alloys
at High Temperatures
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Figure 11.14
Microstructural
changes that
occur in agehardened alloys
during fusion
welding: (a)
microstructure
in the weld at
the peak
temperature,
and (b)
microstructure
in the weld after
slowly cooling to
room
temperature.
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Section 11.9
The Eutectoid Reaction
Austenite - The name given to the FCC crystal structure
of iron.
Ferrite - The name given to the BCC crystal structure of
iron that can occur as or .
Cementite - The hard, brittle ceramic-like compound
Fe3C that, when properly dispersed, provides the
strengthening in steels.
Pearlite - A two-phase lamellar microconstituent,
containing ferrite and cementite, that forms in steels
cooled in a normal fashion or isothermally transformed
at relatively high temperatures.
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Example 11.5
Phases and Composition of Pearlite
Calculate the amounts of ferrite and cementite present in
pearlite.
Example 11.5 SOLUTION
Since pearlite must contain 0.77% C, using the lever rule:
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Example 11.6
Tungsten Carbide (WC)-Cobalt (Co)
Composite and Pearlite
Tungsten carbide-cobalt composites, known as cemented
carbides or carbides, are used as bits for cutting tools and
drills (Chapter 1). What features are similar between these
cemented carbides and pearlite, a microconstituent in
steels? What are some of the major differences?
Example 11.6 SOLUTION
In both materials, we take advantage of the toughness of one
phase (ferrite or cobalt metal, in the case of pearlite in steel
and WC-Co, respectively) and the hard ceramic like phase
(WC and Fe3C, in WC-Co and steel, respectively). The metallic
phase helps with ductility and the hard phase helps with
strength.
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Example 11.7
Phases in Hypoeutectoid
Plain Carbon Steel
Calculate the amounts and compositions of phases and
microconstituents in a Fe-0.60% C alloy at 726oC.
Example 11.7 SOLUTION
The phases are ferrite and cementite. Using a tie line and
working the lever law at 726oC, we find:
6
.
67
0
.
60
(0.0218%C )%
100 91.3%
6.67 0.0218
0.60 0.0218
Fe3C (6.67%C )%Fe3C
100 8.7%
6.67 0.0218
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6
.
67
0
.
0218
22.7%
Austentite just above 727o C Pearlite : 0.77% C
0.60 - 0.0218
% Pearlite
100 77.3%
6
.
67
0
.
0218
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Section 11.10
Controlling the Eutectoid Reaction
Controlling the Amount of the Eutectoid
Controlling the Austenite Grain Size
Controlling the Cooling Rate
Controlling the Transformation Temperature
TTT diagram - The time-temperature-transformation
diagram describes the time required at any temperature
for a phase transformation to begin and end.
Isothermal transformation - When the amount of a
transformation at a particular temperature depends on
the time permitted for the transformation.
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Example 11.8
Design of a Heat Treatment to Generate
Pearlite Microstructure
Design a heat treatment to produce the pearlite structure
shown in Figure 11.16(b).
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Example 11.9
Heat Treatment to Generate Bainite
Microstructure
Excellent combinations of hardness, strength, and toughness
are obtained from bainite. One heat treatment facility
austenitized an eutectoid steel at 750oC, quenched and held
the steel at 250oC for 15 min, and finally permitted the steel
to cool to room temperature. Was the required bainitic
structure produced?
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Section 11.11
The Martensitic Reaction and
Tempering
Martensite - A metastable phase formed in steel and
other materials by a diffusionless, athermal
transformation.
Displacive transformation - A phase transformation that
occurs via small displacements of atoms or ions and
without diffusion. Same as athermal or martensitic
transformation.
Tempering - A low-temperature heat treatment used to
reduce the hardness of martensite by permitting the
martensite to begin to decompose to the equilibrium
phases.
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Example 11.10
Design of a Heat Treatment for a
Dual Phase Steel
Unusual combinations of properties can be obtained by
producing a steel whose microstructure contains 50%
ferrite and 50% martensite; the martensite provides
strength and the ferrite provides ductility and
toughness. Design a heat treatment to produce a dual
phase steel in which the composition of the martensite
is 0.60% C.
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(x
0.02)
100 50 or x 0.31% C
%
(0.60 0.02
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Section 11.12
The Shape-Memory Alloys (SMAs)
Shape-memory effect -The ability of certain materials to
develop microstructures that, after being deformed, can
return the material to its initial shape when heated (e.g.
Ni-Ti alloys).
Smart materials - Materials that can sense an external
stimulus (e.g., stress, pressure, temperature change,
magnetic field, etc.) and initiate a response. Passively
smart materials can sense external stimulus, actively
smart materials have sensing and actuation capabilities.
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Example 11.11
Design of a Coupling for Tubing
At times, you need to join titanium tubing in the field.
Design a method for doing this quickly.
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Example 11.12
Selection of Material for a Self-Expandable
Cardiovascular Stent
Close to a half million people in the world have coronary
stents. These are mostly made from 316 stainless steel, but
some are made from platinum. How would you go about
designing a material for making a cardiovascular stent?[15]
A conventional stent is essentially a slotted tube that is
inserted into an artery. This procedure is typically done by
doctors after a procedure known as an angioplasty is
conducted.
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Figure 11.34
Binary phase
diagrams for the
(a) copper-zinc,
(b) copper-tin, (c)
copper-aluminum,
and (d) copperberrylium systems
(for Problems
11.16 and 11.62).
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