Chap7 Sec5

7
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
As we have seen, integration is more

challenging than differentiation.
 In finding the derivative of a function, it is obvious

which differentiation formula we should apply.
 However, it may not be obvious which technique

we should use to integrate a given function.
Until now, individual techniques have been

applied in each section.
For instance, we usually used:
 Substitution in Exercises 5.5

 Integration by parts in Exercises 7.1
 Partial fractions in Exercises 7.4
7.5
Strategy for Integration
In this section, we will learn about:

The techniques to evaluate miscellaneous integrals.
STRATEGY FOR INTEGRATION
In this section, we present a collection

of miscellaneous integrals in random order.
 The main challenge is to recognize which

technique or formula to use.
No hard and fast rules can be given as to

which method applies in a given situation.
 However, we give some advice on strategy

that you may find useful.
A prerequisite for strategy selection

is a knowledge of the basic integration
formulas.
In the upcoming table, we have

collected:
 The integrals from our previous list
 Several additional formulas we have learned

in this chapter
Most should be memorized.
 It is useful to know them all.
 However, the ones marked with an asterisk

need not be memorized—they are easily derived.
TABLE OF INTEGRATION FORMULAS
n 1
x 1
1.  x dx 
n
(n  1) 2.  dx  ln | x |
n 1 x
x
a
3.  e dx  e
x x
4.  a dx 
x
ln a
5.  sin x dx   cos x 6. cos x dx  sin x
7.  sec2 x dx  tan x 8. csc2 x dx   cot x
9. sec x tan x dx  sec x 10. csc x cot x dx   csc x
11.  sec x dx  ln sec x  tan x 12.  csc x dx  ln csc x  cot x

13.  tan x dx  ln sec x 14.  cot x dx  ln sin x
15. sinh x dx  cosh x 16. cosh x dx  sinh x
dx 1 1  x  dx x
17. 2  tan   18. 1
 sin  
x a 2
a a a2  x2 a
dx 1 xa dx
*19. 2  ln *20.  ln x  x 2  a 2
x a 2
2a x  a x2  a2
 Formula 19 can be avoided by using partial fractions.
 Trigonometric substitutions can be used instead of

Formula 20.
Once armed with these basic integration

formulas, you might try this strategy:
1. Simplify the integrand if possible.
2. Look for an obvious substitution.
3. Classify the integrand according to its form.
4. Try again.
1. SIMPLIFY THE INTEGRAND
Sometimes, the use of algebraic

manipulation or trigonometric identities
will simplify the integrand and make
the method of integration obvious.
1. SIMPLIFY THE INTEGRAND
Here are some examples:
  
x 1  x dx    
x  x dx
tan  sin 
     d   sin  cos d   sin 2 d
2 1
d cos
sec  cos 
2 2
     
2 2 2
(sin x cos x ) dx (sin x 2sin x cos x cos x) dx
  (1  2sin x cos x) dx
2. LOOK FOR OBVIOUS SUBSTITUTION
Try to find some function u = g(x) in

the integrand whose differential du = g’(x) dx
also occurs, apart from a constant factor.
x
 For instance, in the integral  x 2  1
dx
,
notice that, if u = x2 – 1, then du = 2x dx.
 So, we use the substitution u = x2 – 1

instead of the method of partial fractions.
3. CLASSIFY THE FORM
If Steps 1 and 2 have not led to

the solution, we take a look at the form
of the integrand f(x).
3 a. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
We use the substitutions recommended

in Section 7.2 if f(x) is a product of:
 sin x and cos x
 tan x and sec x
 cot x and csc x

3 b. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
If f is a rational function, we
use the procedure of Section 7.4
involving partial fractions.
3 c. INTEGRATION BY PARTS
If f(x) is a product of a power of x (or

a polynomial) and a transcendental function
(a trigonometric, exponential, or logarithmic
function), we try integration by parts.
 We choose u and dv as per the advice in Section 7.1
 If you look at the functions in Exercises 7.1, you

will see most of them are the type just described.
3 d. RADICALS
Particular kinds of substitutions are

recommended when certain radicals appear.
i. If  x 2  a 2 occurs, we use a trigonometric

substitution according to the table in section 7.3
ii. If n ax  b occurs, we use the rationalizing

substitution u  n ax  b.
More generally, this sometimes works for n g ( x) .
4. TRY AGAIN
If the first three steps have not produced

the answer, remember there are basically
only two methods of integration:
1. Substitution
2. Parts
4 a. TRY SUBSTITUTION
Even if no substitution is obvious (Step 2),

some inspiration or ingenuity (or even
desperation) may suggest an appropriate
substitution.
4 b. TRY PARTS
Though integration by parts is used most

of the time on products of the form described
in Step 3 c, it is sometimes effective on single
functions.
 Looking at Section 7.1, we see that it works on tan-1x,

sin-1x, and ln x, and these are all inverse functions.
4 c. MANIPULATE THE INTEGRAND
Algebraic manipulations (rationalizing the

denominator, using trigonometric identities)
may be useful in transforming the integral
into an easier form.
 These manipulations may be more substantial

than in Step 1 and may involve some ingenuity.
4 c. MANIPULATE THE INTEGRAND
Here is an example:
dx 1 1  cos x
 1  cos x   1  cos x  1  cos x dx
1  cos x
 dx
1  cos x
2
1  cos x
 2
dx
sin x
 2 cos x 
   csc x  2  dx
 sin x 
4 d. RELATE TO PREVIOUS PROBLEMS
When you have built up some experience in

integration, you may be able to use a method
on a given integral that is similar to a method
you have already used on a previous integral.
 You may even be able to express the given

integral in terms of a previous one.
4 d. RELATE TO PREVIOUS PROBLEMS
For instance, ∫ tan2x sec x dx is

a challenging integral.
 If we make use of the identity tan2x = sec2x – 1,

we can write:
   x dx   sec x dx
2 3
tan x sec x dx sec
 Then, if ∫ sec3x dx has previously been evaluated,
that calculation can be used in the present problem.
4 e. USE SEVERAL METHODS
Sometimes, two or three methods

are required to evaluate an integral.
 The evaluation could involve several successive

substitutions of different types.
 It might even combine integration by parts

with one or more substitutions.
In the following examples, we

indicate a method of attack, but
do not fully work out the integral.
SIMPLIFY INTEGRAND Example 1
3
tan x
 cos3 x dx
 In Step 1, we rewrite the integral:

tan 3 x
 cos3 x  
3 3
dx tan x sec x dx
 It is now of the form ∫tanmx secnx dx with m odd.
 So, we can use the advice in Section 7.2

TRY SUBSTITUTION Example 1
Suppose, in Step 1, we had written:
tan 3 x sin 3 x 1
 cos3 x dx   cos3 x cos3 x dx
3
sin x
 6
dx
cos x
Then, we could have continued as follows.

Substitute u = cos x:
sin 3 x 1  cos 2 x
 cos6 x dx   cos6 x sin x dx
1 u 2
 6
( du )
u
u 1
2
 6
du
u
  (u 4 6
 u ) du

x
e dx
 According to (ii) in Step 3 d, we substitute u = √x.
 
 Then, x = u2, so dx = 2u du and e x dx  2 ueu du
 The integrand is now a product of u and

the transcendental function eu.
 So, it can be integrated by parts.

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS Example 3
x 1
5
 x3  3x2  10 x dx
 No algebraic simplification or substitution is obvious.
So, Steps 1 and 2 don’t apply here.
 The integrand is a rational function. So, we apply

the procedure of Section 7.4, remembering that
the first step is to divide.
dx
 x ln x
 Here, Step 2 is all that is needed.
 We substitute u = ln x, because its differential is

du = dx/x, which occurs in the integral.
MANIPULATE INTEGRAND Example 5
1 x
 1 x
dx
1 x
 Although the rationalizing substitution u   dx
works here [(ii) in Step 3 d], it leads to 1 x
a very complicated rational function.
 An easier method is to do some algebraic manipulation

(either as Step 1 or as Step 4 c).
MANIPULATE INTEGRAND Example 5
Multiplying numerator and denominator
by 1  x , we have:
1 x 1 x
 1 x
dx  
1  x2
dx
1 x
 dx   dx
1  x2 1  x2
1
 sin x  1  x  C
2
CAN WE INTEGRATE ALL CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS?
The question arises:
Will our strategy for integration enable us to

find the integral of every continuous function?
2
 For example, can we use it to evaluate ∫ ex dx?
CAN WE INTEGRATE ALL CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS?
The answer is ‘No.’
 At least, we cannot do it in terms

of the functions we are familiar with.
ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
The functions we have been dealing

with in this book are called elementary
functions.
 For instance, the function

x2  1
f ( x)   ln(cosh x )  xe sin 2 x
x3  2 x  1
is an elementary function.
If f is an elementary function, then f’

is an elementary function.
However, ∫ f(x) dx need not be

an elementary function.
x2
Consider f(x) = e .
 Since f is continuous, its integral exists.
x
 If we define the function F by F ( x)  
t2
e dt
0
then we know from Part 1 of the Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus (FTC1) that F '( x)  e
2
x
2
 Thus, f(x) = ex has an antiderivative F.
However, it has been proved that F is not

an elementary function.
 This means that, however hard we try, we will never

2
succeed in evaluating ∫ e dx in terms of the functions
x
we know.
 In Chapter 11, however, we will see how to express

2
∫ e dx as an infinite series.
x
The same can be said of the following

integrals:
x
e
 x dx  sin( x ) dx  cos(e ) dx
2 x
1 sin x
 x  1 dx  ln x dx  x dx
3
In fact, the majority of elementary

functions don’t have elementary
antiderivatives.
 You may be assured, though, that the integrals

in the exercises are all elementary functions.

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7

As we have seen, integration is more

 In finding the derivative of a function, it is obvious

 However, it may not be obvious which technique

Until now, individual techniques have been

For instance, we usually used:

 Substitution in Exercises 5.5

In this section, we will learn about:

In this section, we present a collection

 The main challenge is to recognize which

No hard and fast rules can be given as to

 However, we give some advice on strategy

A prerequisite for strategy selection

In the upcoming table, we have

 The integrals from our previous list

 Several additional formulas we have learned

Most should be memorized.

 It is useful to know them all.

 However, the ones marked with an asterisk

5.  sin x dx   cos x 6. cos x dx  sin x

7.  sec2 x dx  tan x 8. csc2 x dx   cot x

9. sec x tan x dx  sec x 10. csc x cot x dx   csc x

11.  sec x dx  ln sec x  tan x 12.  csc x dx  ln csc x  cot x

13.  tan x dx  ln sec x 14.  cot x dx  ln sin x

15. sinh x dx  cosh x 16. cosh x dx  sinh x

 Formula 19 can be avoided by using partial fractions.

 Trigonometric substitutions can be used instead of

Once armed with these basic integration

1. Simplify the integrand if possible.

2. Look for an obvious substitution.

3. Classify the integrand according to its form.

Sometimes, the use of algebraic

Here are some examples:

Try to find some function u = g(x) in

 So, we use the substitution u = x2 – 1

If Steps 1 and 2 have not led to

We use the substitutions recommended

 sin x and cos x

 tan x and sec x

 cot x and csc x

If f(x) is a product of a power of x (or

 We choose u and dv as per the advice in Section 7.1

 If you look at the functions in Exercises 7.1, you

Particular kinds of substitutions are

i. If  x 2  a 2 occurs, we use a trigonometric

ii. If n ax  b occurs, we use the rationalizing

If the first three steps have not produced

Even if no substitution is obvious (Step 2),

Though integration by parts is used most

 Looking at Section 7.1, we see that it works on tan-1x,

Algebraic manipulations (rationalizing the

 These manipulations may be more substantial

When you have built up some experience in

 You may even be able to express the given

For instance, ∫ tan2x sec x dx is

 If we make use of the identity tan2x = sec2x – 1,

Sometimes, two or three methods

 The evaluation could involve several successive