Nonideal Effects in SC - Rev - 2
Nonideal Effects in SC - Rev - 2
Nonideal Effects in SC - Rev - 2
Gabor C Temes
School of EECS
Oregon State University
Rev. 9/4/2011
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Components and Nonidealities
• Switches:
Nonzero “on”-resistance
Clock feedthrough / charge injection
Junction leakage, capacitance
Noise
• Capacitors:
Capacitance errors
Voltage and temperature dependence
Random variations
Leakage
• Op-amps:
DC offset voltage
Finite dc gain
Finite bandwidth
Nonzero output impedance
Noise
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Switched-Capacitor Integrator
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Nonzero Switch “On”-Resistance
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Digital CMOS Scaling Roadmap
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Floating Switch Problem in Low-Voltage
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Using Low-Threshold Transistors
• Precise control over process and temperature difficult
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Using Clock Voltage Booster
• Boosted clock voltage (e.g. 0 2Vdd) is used to sufficiently overdrive
the NMOS floating switch – useful in systems with low external power
supply voltage and fabricated in high-voltage CMOS process
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Using Boostrapped Clock
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Switched-Opamp Technique
• Floating switch is eliminated
• Opamp output tri-stated and pulled to ground during reset ϕ2
Slow transient response as opamp is turned back on during ϕ1
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Switched-Opamp Example
Crols et al., JSSC-1994
Peluso et al., JSSC-1997
The entire opamp is turned off during ϕ2 .
Demonstrated 1.5-V operation (ΔΣ)with Vtn=|Vtp|=0.9V.
115kHz at -60dB THD & 500kHz at -72dB THD.
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Opamp-Reset = Unity-Gain Configuration
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Floating Reference Avoids Fwd Bias
• C3 is precharged during ϕ1
• C3 (floating reference) in feedback during ϕ2
• DC offset circuit (C4=C1/2) compensates for Vdd reset of C1
effective virtual ground = Vdd/2
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Switched-RC = Resistor Isolation
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Switched-RC = Resistor Isolation
Ahn et al., ISSCC-2005 Paper 9.1
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Charge Injection (1)
• Simple SC integrator
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Charge Injection (1) (Cont’d)
• The lateral field is v/L , the drift velocity is μv/L. Therefore, the current
is
• The on-resistance is
• and hence
holds.
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Charge Injection (2)
From device physics,
When S1 cuts off, part of qch(qs) enters C1 and introduces noise, nonlinearily,
gain and offset error.
To reduce qs, choose L small, but and Ron large. However, for 0.1% settling
Hence
and
where
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Clock Feedthrough
Capacitive coupling of clock signal via overlap Cov between gate and
source. The resulting charge error is
It adds to qs . Usually,
Linear error .
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Methods for Reducing Charge Injection
• Transmission gates: cancellation if areas are matched. Poor for
floating switches, somewhat better for fixed-voltage operation.
• Dummy devices: better for d~0.5.
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Advanced-Cutoff Switches
• Signal-dependent charge injection leads to nonlinear distortions;
signal-independent one to fixed offset. Advanced-cutoff switches can
reduce signal dependence.
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Advanced-Cutoff Switches (Cont’d)
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Floating Clock Generator
• To reduce signal dependence, reference the clock signal to vin:
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Charge Injection in a Comparator
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Delta-Sigma ADC
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Junction Leakage
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Capacitances Inaccuracies
• Depends only on C ratios. Strays are often p-n junctions, leading to
harmonic distortion also. For stray-sensitive integrator, all strays
should be < 0.1% of αC.
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Capacitances Inaccuracies (Cont’d)
• Oxide gradient
• Common-centroid geometry
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Capacitances Inaccuracies (Cont’d)
• Voltage and temperature coefficients
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OPAMP Input Offset
• In most analog IC, the active element is the opamp. It is used to
create a virtual ground (or virtual short circuit) at its input terminals:
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Techniques for Reducing the Effect of
Imperfect Virtual Grounds
• Autozeroing or Correlated Double Sampling Schemes:
Scheme A: Stores and subtracts v at the input or output of the opamp;
Scheme B: Refers all charge redistributions to a (constant) v instead
of ground;
Scheme C: Predicts and subtracts v, or references charge
manipulations to a predicted.
• Compensation using extra input: An added feedback loop generates
an extra input to force the output to a reset value for zero input signal.
• Chopper stabilization: The signal is modulated to a “safe” (low-noise)
frequency range, and demodulated after processing.
• Mixed-mode schemes: Establish a known analog input, use digital
output for correction.
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Circuits Using Autozeroing
• Comparators
• Amplifiers
• S/H, T/H, delay stages
• Data converters
• Integrators
• Filters
• Equalizers
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Simple Autozeroed Comparator
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Analysis of Compensated Gain Amplifier
Input-output relation for inverting operation:
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Finite Opamp DC Gain Effect (Cont’d)
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Model for Finite - Gain Effect
Y2
Vin
Y1 Vout
AO
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Model for Finite - Gain Effect (Cont’d)
For finite AO,
so the model is
(Y1+Y2)/AO
Y2
Vin
Y1 Vout
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Finite Opamp Bandwidth Effect
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Finite Opamp Bandwidth Effect (Cont’d)
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Time Constant of OTA-SC Integrator
C2
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Integrator Using a Two-Stage (Buffer) Opamp (1/2)
C2
C1 I
V- AV
- VC1 +
VO=-AVV-
CL Neglected
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Integrator Using a Two-Stage (Buffer) Opamp (2/2)
•Pole at:
•Time Constant:
•Settling level:
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High-Q Biquad
• For original phases, both opamps settle when Ф2→1. Changing the
*Φ1, they settle separately. V1 changes twice in one cycles, but OA1
still has the same T/2 time (T for the change at Ф1→1.) to settle and
to charge C3. The transient when Ф2→1 has a full period to settle in
OA1 and OA2 .
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Slew Rate Estimation (1)
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Slew Rate Estimation (2)
• Is ~ Cin.Vin,max/[x.T/2]
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Noise Considerations
• Clock feedthrough from switches
• External noise coupled in from substrate, power lines, etc
• Thermal and 1/f noise generated in switches and opamps
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Noise Considerations (Cont’d)
• Noise spectra
CDS:
1. Pick up noise, no signal;
2. Pick up noise, plus signal;
3. Substract the two.
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Chopper Stabilization
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Chopper Stabilization (Cont’d)
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Noise Aliasing
S/H PSD:
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Equivalent Circuit for Direct Noise
S(f) for direct noise: low-pass filtered and windowed white noise.
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Noise Aliasing
Aliasing for
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Noise Spectra
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Calculation of SC Noise (Summary)
• In the switch-capacitor branch, when the switch is on, the capacitor
charge noise is lowpass-filtered by Ron and C. The resulting charge
noise power in C is kTC. It is a colored noise, with a noisebandwidth
fn=1/(4RonC). The low-frequency PSD is 4kTRon.
• When the switch operates at a rate fc<<fn, the samples of the charge
noise still have the same power kTC, but spectrum is now white, with
a PSD=2kTC/fc. For the situation when only discrete samples of the
signal and noise are used, this is all that we need to know.
• For continuous-time analysis, we need to find the powers and spectra
of the direct and S/H components when the switch is active. The
direct noise is obtained by windowing the filtered charge noise stored
in C with a periodic window containing unit pulses of length m/fc. This
operation (to a good approximation)
• simply scales the PSD, and hence the noise power, by m. The low-
frequncy PSD is thus 4mkTRon.
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Calculation of SC Noise (Summary) (Cont’d)
To find the PSD of the S/H noise, let the noise charge in C be sampled
and- held at fc, and then windowed by a rectangular periodic window
w(t)=0 for n/fc<t<n/fc+m/fc
w(t)=1 for n/fc+m/fc<t<(n+1)/fc
n=0,1,2,…
Note that is windowing reduces the noise power by (1-m)
squared(!), since the S/H noise is not random within each
period.
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