Frederick A.

Bettelheim
William H. Brown
Mary K. Campbell
Shawn O. Farrell
www.cengage.com/chemistry/bettelheim

Chapter 2
Atoms

William H. Brown • Beloit College

Classification of Matter
Matter is divided into pure substances and mixtures.
Matter
anything that occupies
space and has mass

Physically
Pure substances separable into Mixtures
fixed composition; cannot a combination of two
be further purified or more pure substances

Combine
Elements chemically Compounds Homogenous Heterogenous
cannot be to form elements united matter matter
subdivided by in fixed ratios uniform nonuniform
chemical or composition composition
physical means throughout
2-2
Classification of Matter
Compound: A pure substance that is made up of two or
more elements in a fixed ratio by mass.
Formula of a compound: tells us the ratios of its
constituent elements and identifies each element by its
atomic symbol.
• NaCl: the ratio of sodium atoms to chlorine atoms in
sodium chloride is 1:1
• H2O: the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in
water is 2:1

2-3
Classification of Matter
Element: A substance (for example, carbon, hydrogen,
and iron) that consists of identical atoms.
• There are 116 known elements.
• Of these, 88 occur in nature; the others have been
made by chemists and physicists.
• Their symbols consist of one or two letters.
• Names are derived from a variety of sources: the
English name of the element, people important in
atomic science, geographic locations, planets,
mythological sources, etc.

2-4
A Water Molecule
Shows there are
two H atoms
and one O atom
Each element is Space-filling model
represented shows the relative sizes
H2 O by a different of H and O atoms
colored ball in a water molecule
Molecular
formula

Lines represent
connections
between atoms

O Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model

H H
Structural
formula 2-5
Classification of Matter
Mixture: A combination of two or more pure substances.
• The substances may be present in any mass ratio.
• Each substance has a different set of physical
properties.
• Mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• If we know the physical properties of the individual
components of the mixture, we can use appropriate.
physical means to separate the mixture into its
component parts.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• John Dalton (1766-1844)
• All matter is composed of very tiny particles, which
Dalton called atoms.
atoms
• All atoms of the same element have the same chemical
properties. Atoms of different elements have different
chemical properties.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of
two or more of the same or different kinds of atoms.
• A molecule is a tightly bound combination of two or more
atoms that acts as a single unit.

2-7
Evidence for Dalton’s Theory
Law of Conservation of Mass
• Matter can be neither created or destroyed.
• As Dalton explained, if matter is made up of
indestructible atoms, then any chemical reaction just
changes the attachments among atoms, but does not
destroy the atoms themselves.

+ Pb O O C O + Pb
C O

Carbon Lead Carbon Lead

monoxide oxide dioxide

2-8
Evidence for Dalton’s Theory
Law of Conservation of Mass
Monatomic elements consist of single atoms; for
example, helium (He) and neon (Ne).
Diatomic elements: There are seven elements that occur
as diatomic molecules:
• H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
Polyatomic elements: Some elements have three or more
atoms per molecule:
• O3 , P4 , S 8
• Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded
together to form one gigantic cluster.

2-9
Subatomic Particles
Table 2.1 Properties and Location within Atoms of
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Mass (amu);
to one
Subatomic Mass Mass significant Location in
particle Charge (g) (amu) figure an atom
Proton +1 1.6726 x 10-24 1.0073 1 In the nucleus
Electron -1 9.1094 x 10-28 5.4859 x 10-4 0.0005 Outside the ucleus
Neutron 0 1.6749 x 10-24 1.0087 1 In the nucleus

• The unit of mass is the atomic mass unit (amu).

• One amu is defined as the mass of an atom of carbon
with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus.
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g
2-10
A Typical Atom
Figure 2.6
Relative sizes
of the atomic
nucleus and an
atom.

2-11
Mass and Atomic Number
Mass number: The sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• The mass of the electrons in an atom is so small
compared to that of its protons and neutrons that
electrons are not counted in determining mass number.
Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Mass number (number of protons & neutrons) 12
Atomic number (number of protons) 6C

A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as

carbon-12.

2-12
Periodic Table
Figure 2.8 Four halogens 9
F
18.99 8
7A
17
Cl
35.45 3
35
Br
79.90 4
53
I
126.9 0
2-13
Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
• Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons
• Carbon-13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons
• Carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons
Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes.
• Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and
24.23% chlorine-37 (20 neutrons).

2-14
Atomic Weight
Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in
amu) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
• Example: Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 and 24.23%
chlorine-37
chlorine-35 chlorine-37 17
Cl
75.77 x 34.97 amu + 24.23 x 36.97 amu = 35.45 amu 35.4527
100 100
atomic weight in
the Periodic Table
is given to four
decimal places

2-15
Mass and Size of an Atom
Consider an atom of lead-208.
• It has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 126 neutrons.
• It has a mass of 3.5 x 10-22 g.
• It requires 1.3 x 1024 atoms to make 1 lb of lead-208.
• The diameter of the nucleus is about 1.6 x 10-14 m.
• The diameter of the atom is 3.5 x 10-10 m.
• The density of the atom is 11.3 g/cm3.
• The density of the nucleus is 1.8 x 1014 g/cm3.

2-16
2 Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
• Arranged the known elements in order of increasing
atomic weight beginning with hydrogen.
• He observed that when elements are arranged in this
manner, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
• He then arranged elements with recurring sets of
properties in the same column (vertical row); Li, Na,
and K, for example, fall in the same column and start
new periods (horizontal rows).

2-17
Figure 2.8 The four halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are
gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
9
F
18.998
7A
17
Cl
35.453
35
Br
79.904
53
I
126.90

2-18
Classification of the Elements
Figure 2.9 Classification of the elements.

2-19
Classification of the Elements
Metals
• Are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is
a liquid), shiny, conduct electricity, and are ductile and
malleable.
• Form alloys (solutions of one metal dissolved in
another); brass, for example, is an alloy of copper and
zinc.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to give up electrons.
Nonmetals
• Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the
Periodic Table.
• Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons.
2-20
Classification of the Elements
Metalloids
• They have some of the properties of metals and some
of nonmetals; for example, they are shiny like metals
but, unlike metals, do not conduct electricity.
• Six elements are classified as metalloids: boron,
silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
• One of the metalloids, silicon, is a semiconductor; it
does not conduct electricity under certain applied
voltages, but becomes a conductor at higher applied
voltages.

2-21
Examples of Periodicity
Table 2.2 Melting and Boiling Points of the Halogens
(Group 7A Elements) 9
F
18.998
17 Melting Boiling
Cl Point Point
7A 35.453 Element (°C) (°C)
35 Fluorine -220 -188
Br
79.904 Chlorine -101 -35
53 Bromine -7 59
I Iodine 114 184
126.90
Astatine 302 337
85
At
(210)

2-22
Examples of Periodicity
Table 2.3 Melting and Boiling Points of the Alkali Metals
(Group 1A elements)
3
Li
Melting Boiling 6.941
Point Point 11 1A
Element (°C) (°C) Na
22.990
Lithium 180 1342 19
Sodium 98 883 K
Potassium 63 760 39.098
Rubidium 39 686 37
Rb
Cesium 28 669 85.468
55
Cs
132.91

2-23
Examples of Periodicity
Table 2.4 Melting and Boiling Points of the Noble Gases
(Group 8A Elements)
2
He
4.003
10 Melting Boiling
Ne Point Point
8A 20.18 Element (°C) (°C)
18
Ar Helium -272 -269
39.95 Neon -249 -246
36 Argon -189 -186
Kr
83.80 Krypton -157 -152
54 Xenon -112 -107
Xe Radon -71 -62
131.3
86
Rn
(222)

2-24
Electron Configuration
Electron configuration: The arrangement of electrons in
the extranuclear space.
• The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized,
quantized which
means that an electron in an atom can have only certain
allowed energies.
Ground-state electron configuration: The electron
configuration of the lowest energy state of an atom.

2-25
Electron Configuration
Table 2.5 Distribution of Electrons in Shells
Relative
Number of energies
electrons shell of electrons
Shell can hold in each shell
4 32 higher
3 18
2 8
1 2 lower

2-26
Electron Configuration
Table 2.6 Distribution of Orbitals within Shells

Maximum Number
of Electrons Shell
Shell Orbitals Contained in Each Shell Can hold
4 One 4s, three 4p, five 4 d, and seven 4 f orbitals 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
3 One 3s, three 3p, and five 3 d orbitals 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
2 One 2s and three 2p orbitals 2+6=8
1 One 1s orbital 2

2-27
Electron Configuration
Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with
spins paired.
• With four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and
are written 1s2 2s2.
• With an additional six electrons, the three 2p orbitals
are filled and are written either 2px2 2py2 2pz2, or they
may be written 2p6.

2-28
Electron Configuration
Figure 2.13 Energy levels for orbitals through the third
shell.

2-29
Electron Configuration
Electron configurations are governed by three rules:
Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from
lowest to highest.
• Elements in the first, second, and third periods fill in
the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p.

2-30
Electron Configuration
Orbitals have definite shapes and orientations in space

2-31
Electron Configuration
Figure 2.14 The pairing of electron spins.

2-32
Electron Configuration
Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy,
each orbital becomes half filled before any of them
becomes completely filled.
• Example: After the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled, a 5th
electron is put into the 2px, a 6th into the 2py, and a 7th
into the 2pz. Only after each 2p orbital has one electron
is a second added to any 2p orbital.

2-33
Electron Configuration
Orbital box diagrams
• A box represents an orbital.
• An arrow represents an electron.
• A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions
represents a pair of electrons with paired spins.
Example:
Example carbon (atomic number 6)
Electron configuration
Expanded: 1s2 2s2 2p x1 2py 1
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Condensed: 1s2 2s2 2p 2

2-34
Electron Configuration
Noble gas notation
• The symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the
particular atom indicates the electron configuration of
all filled shells
Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Electron
Configuration Noble Gas
Orbital box diagram (condensed) Notation
2 2 2 2 2
1s 2s 2p [He]2s 2p

2-35
Electron Configuration
Valence shell: The outermost incomplete shell.
Valence electron: An electron in the valence shell.
Lewis dot structure:
• The symbol of the element represents the nucleus and
filled shells.
• Dots represent valence electrons.
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

2-36
Electron Configuration
Helium is
Main group elements; also an s block
s block (2 elements) Main group elements;
p block (6 elements) element

1A 8A
Transition elements;
1 1s 2A d block (10 elements) 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 1s 1
2 2s 2p 2
3 3s 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B 3p 3
4 4s 3d 5p 4
5 5s 4d 4p 5
6 6s 5d 6p 6
7 7s 6d 7p 7

Inner transition 6
elements; f block 4f
(14 elements) 7 5f
2-37
Electron Configuration
Table 2.9 Noble Gas Notation and Lewis dot structures for
the Alkali Metals (Group 1A Elements)
3
Noble Lewis Li
6.941
Gas dot
11
Element Notation Structure Na 1A

Li [He]2s1 Li• 22.990

1 19
Na [Ne]3s Na• K
1 39.098
K [Ar]4s K•
1 37
Rb [Kr]5s Rb• Rb
Cs [Xe]6s
1
Cs• 85.468
55
Cs
132.91

2-38
Periodic Property
• As we have seen, the Periodic Table was constructed on
the basis of trends (periodicity) in chemical properties.
• With an understanding of electron configuration,
chemists realized that the periodicity of chemical
properties could be understood in terms of periodicity in
electron configuration.
• The Periodic Table worked because elements in the same
column (group) have the same configuration in their outer
shells.
• We look at two periodic properties: Atomic size and
ionization energy.

2-39
Atomic Size
The size of an atom is determined by the size of its
outermost occupied orbital.
• Example: The size of a chlorine atom is determined by the
size of its three 3p orbitals, the size of a carbon atom is
determined by the size of if its three 2p orbitals.

Cl Cl C C

154 pm
198 pm

The radius of a chlorine The radius of a carbon

atom is 99 pm atom is 77 pm

2-40
Atomic Size
Figure 2.16
Atomic radii
of the main-
group
elements (in
picometers).

2-41
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy: The energy required to remove the
most loosely held electron from an atom in the gaseous
state.
• Example: When lithium loses one electron, it becomes
a lithium ion; it still has three protons in its nucleus,
but now only two electrons outside the nucleus, and
therefore has a positive charge.
Li (g ) + energy Li+ (g) + e-
Lithium Ionization Lithium Electron
energy ion

2-42
Ionization Energy
Figure 2.17 Ionization energy versus atomic energy for
elements 1-37.

2-43
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is a periodic property:

• In general, it increases across a row; valence electrons

are in the same shell and subject to increasing
attraction as the number of protons in the nucleus
increases.
• It increases going up a column; the valence electrons
are in lower principle energy levels, which are closer to
the nucleus and feel the nuclear charge more strongly.
2-44
Chapter 2 Atoms
-1 0
10 m
Nucleus (protons and neutrons)
Space occupied by electrons

Proton

Neutron
End
10-1 5 m Chapter 2
2-45