Semiconductor Science and Light Emitting Diodes
Semiconductor Science and Light Emitting Diodes
Semiconductor Science and Light Emitting Diodes
Semiconductor Science
and Light Emitting Diodes
1
The first transistor was demonstrated on Dec.
23, 1947, at Bell Labs by William Shockley.
This new invention consisting of P type and N
type semiconductive materials (in this case
germanium) has completely revolutionized
electronics.
3
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
4
Energy of electron in an atom or a
molecule
• The energy of the electron in an atom is
quantized and can have only certain
discrete values.
• The same concept also applies to the
electron energy in a molecule with several
atoms.
5
Energy levels of the Li atom
• Li: 1s22s1
– Two electrons in the 1s shell
– One electron in the 2s subshell
6
Energy bands of Li metal crystal
• When we bring together 1023 Li atoms to form a metal
crystal, the interatomic interaction result in the formation
of electron energy band.
• 2s energy level splits into some 1023 closely spaced
energy levels 2s energy band
• Other higher energy levels also form bands.
7
Energy band structure of a metal
• The energy bands overlap to form one continuous
energy band that represents the energy bands structure
of a metal.
• The 2s energy level in the Li atom is half full
The 2s band in the crystal will also be half full.
• Metals characteristically have partially filled energy
bands.
8
Electron energies in
semiconductor crystal
• Si: 1s22s22p63s23p2 4 valence electrons
• Si crystal:
Each Si atom is bonding to four neighbors.
The interactions between Si atoms and valence electrons results in
the electron energy falling into 2 bands valence band (VB) and
conduction band (CB) that are separated by bandgap (Eg)
9
Bandgap
• There are no allowed electron
energies in the bandgap.
• It represents the forbidden
electron energies in the crystal.
10
Valence band (VB)
• Electron wavefunctions correspond to
bonds between the atoms.
• Electrons that occupy these
wavefunctions are the valence
electrons.
• At 0 K, all the energy levels in the VB
are normally filled with these
electrons.
11
Conduction band (CB)
• The CB represents electron
wavefunctions in the crystal that
have higher energies than those
in the VB.
• CB are normally empty at 0 K.
• An electron placed in the CB is
free to move around the crystal.
12
Band diagram at 0 K
the bottom of CB
= Ec Ev
the top of VB
16
Thermal generation of electron-hole pair
17
Recombination
• When an electron in the CB meets a hole
in the VB, the electron falls from the CB to
the VB to fill the hole.
Recombination of EHP.
Annihilation of an electron from the CB
and a hole in the VB.
photon, e.g. in GaAs and InP
Excess energy
lattice vibration (heat), e.g. in Si and Ge
18
In steady state
• Thermal generation rate = Recombination
rate
Electron concentration n in CB = constant
Hole concentration p in VB = constant
• Both n and p depend on temperature:
n = n(T)
p = p(T)
19
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
B. Semiconductor Statistics
20
Two important concepts
• Density of states (DOS)
• Fermi-Dirac function
21
Density of states (DOS) g(E)
• The number of electronic
states (electron
wavefunctions) in a band per
unit energy per unit volume
of the crystal.
• For an electron confined
within a 3-D potential well
g(E) (E Ec)1/2
• DOS gives information only
available states and not on
their actual occupation. 22
Fermi-Dirac function f (E)
• The probability of finding an
electron in a quantum state
with energy E.
• It is a fundamental property
of a collection of interaction
electron in thermal equilibriu
m.
1
• f (E)
E EF
1 exp
k
B T
k B : Boltzmann constant, T : temperature (K)
EF : Fermi energy (chemical potential)
23
Fermi energy
• If V is the potential difference between two points
EF = eV A B
VA VB
EFA EFB
1
f (E)
E EF
1 exp
k
B T
f(E): the probability of
finding an electron 25
Electron concentration n in CB
• nE(E) = gCB(E) f (E) : the actual number of
electrons per unit energy per unit volume
in the CB.
• nE(E)dE = gCB(E) f (E)dE is the number of
electron in the energy range E to E+dE per
unit volume in the CB.
• Electron concentration in the CB
Ec Ec
n nE ( E )dE g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec Ec
26
Nondegenerate semiconductor
• Whenever (Ec – EF) >> kBT, i.e. EF is at least a few
kBT below Ec, then
f ( E ) exp ( E EF ) / k BT
( Ec EF )
n N c exp
k B T
3/ 2
2 m k T
Nc 2 e B
2 : Effective density of states at the CB edge
h
nE ( E ) g CB ( E ) f ( E )
pE ( E ) gVB ( E )(1 f ( E ))
31
Electron and hole concentrations
3/2
( Ec EF ) 2 m k T
• n N c exp , Nc 2
e B
2
k BT h
3/2
( EF Ev ) 2 m k T
• p N v exp , Nv 2
h B
2
k B T h
32
Fermi level in intrinsic crystal
• In an intrinsic semiconductor (a pure crystal)
n p
( Ec EFi ) ( EFi Ev )
n N c exp p N v exp
k B T k BT
Nc 1 1
exp ( EFi Ev Ec EFi ) exp (2 E Fi 2 Ev E g )
Nv k BT k BT
1 1 Nc
EFi Ev Eg k BT ln Fermi level in
2 2 N
v
intrinsic crystal
Nc
Typically, N c N v ln 0
Nv
1
EFi Ev Eg EFi is very approximately in the middle of the bandgap
2 33
Mass action law
( Ec EF ) ( EF Ev )
np N c exp N v exp
k BT k BT
Ec Ev Eg
N c N v exp N N
c v exp ni
2
k BT k BT
2
temperature T
ni is a constant that depends on
energygap Eg
does not depend on Fermi level EF
• Intrinsic concentration in an undoped (pure)
crystal ni = n = p
34
Average energy of electrons in CB
• The electron in the CB is “free” in the
crystal with an effective mass me
Average kinetic energy
1 2 3
me v k BT
2 2
• Thermal velocity (root mean square
velocity)
2
v 105 m/s
35
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
C. Extrinsic Semiconductors
36
Extrinsic semiconductors
• Extrinsic semiconductor Pure crystal +
small amount of impurities
• e.g.
As + Si n-type semiconductor n >> p
38
Energy diagram for n-type Si doped As
Ed : Donor level
Ec Ed ~ 0.05 eV
39
Donor impurity
• As atom : donates an electron into CB
donor impurity
• Nd : donor atom concentration
• If Nd >> ni
n = Nd at room temp.
p =ni2/n = ni2/Nd
p << ni
40
Conductivity
ene ep h
e : drift mobility of electrons
h : drift mobility of holes
For n - type semiconductors
n Nd , p n / Nd2
i
eN d e e(n / N d ) h
2
i
eN d e ( N d p n / N d )
i
2
n-type conductivity 41
Arsenic doped Si crystal
• When B substitutes for a Si
atom one of its bonds has
an electron missing and
therefore a hole.
• Bonding energy of hole ~
0.05eV
• At room temperature, the
thermal vibrations of the
lattice can free the hole
away from the B site.
A free hole exits in the VB.
42
Energy diagram for p-type Si doped B
Ea : Acceptor level
Ea Ev ~ 0.05 eV
44
Conductivity
ene ep h
e : drift mobility of electrons
h : drift mobility of holes
For p - type semiconductors
p Na , n n / Na
2
i
e(n / N a ) e eN a h
2
i
eN a h ( N a n n / N a )
2
i
p-type conductivity 45
Energy band diagrams
• EFi: intrinsic, EFn:n-type, EFp: p-type
• The energy distance of EF from Ec and Ev determines the
electron and hole concentrations by 3/2
( Ec EF ) 2 mek BT
n N c exp , Nc 2 2
k B T h
3/2
( EF Ev ) 2 mhk BT
p N v exp , Nv 2 2
k B T h
46
n-type semiconductors
• n >> p
• Electrons: majority carriers
• Holes: minority carriers
• n nn0 in equilibrium
n type
nn0 = Nd
• p pn0
• Mass action law nn0 pn0 = ni2
47
p-type semiconductors
• p >> n
• Electrons: minority carriers
• Holes: majority carriers
• n np0 in equilibrium
p type
• p pp0
pp0 = Na
• Mass action law np0 pp0 = ni2
48
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
D. Compensation Doping
49
Compensation doping
• Compensation doping describes the doping of
a semiconductor with both donors and acceptors
to control the properties.
• A p-type semiconductor can be converted to an
n-type semiconductor by simply adding donors
until Nd > Na
• Electron concentration n Nd Na
• The effect of donors compensates for the effect
of acceptors and vice versa.
50
When both acceptors and donors
are present
• Electrons from donors recombine with the holes
from the acceptors so that the mass action law
np = ni2 is obeyed.
We can not simultaneously increase the electron
and hole concentrations because that leads to
an increase in the recombination rate.
• If we have more donors than acceptors
n = Nd Na
• If we have more acceptors than donors
p = Na Nd
51
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
52
Non-degenerate semiconductors
• Number of states in CB >> Number of
electrons
Probability of 2 electrons occupying the
same state ~ 0
Pauli exclusion principle can be neglected
and electron statistics can be described by
the Boltzmann statistics
f ( E ) exp ( E EF ) / k BT
53
Non-degenerate semiconductors
54
Degenerate semiconductors
• When semiconductor has been excessively doped
with donors
n ~ 1019-1020 cm-3 n is comparable to Nc
• The Pauli exclusion principle becomes important
and we have to use the Fermi-Dirac statistics.
• Such a semiconductor are more metal-like, e.g.
resistivity as T .
• Semiconductors that have n > Nc or p > Nv are
called degenerate semiconductors.
55
Degenerate semiconductors
• Heavy doping Donor atoms become so close to each
other Their orbitals overlap to form a narrow band,
which overlaps and becomes part of the conduction
band.
• Degenerate n-type semiconductor EFn > Ec
• Degenerate p-type semiconductor EFp < Ev
56
Degenerate semiconductors
• The dopant concentration is so large that
they interact with each other.
Not all dopants are ionized
Carrier concentration saturates ~ 1020 cm-3
n Nd or p Na
• The mass action law np = ni2 is not valid
for degenerate semiconductors.
57
3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPTS AND
ENERGY BANDS
58
Band diagram in an applied field
• A n-type semiconductor is
connected to a voltage
supply of V.
-
• The whole band structure
tilts because the electron
now has an electrostatic
potential energy as well.
• EF is not uniform throughout
the whole system.
EF = EF(A) – EF(B) = eV
• CB, VB and EF all bend by
the same amount.
59
EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Fermi level in
semiconductors
① n-type Si, doped with 1016 cm-3
antimony (Sb) (donor) Nd = 1016cm-3
Calculate EFn – EFi @ 300 K
② When the wafer is further doped with
boron (B), Na = 21017 cm-3 > Nd =
1016cm-3 p-type
Calculate EFp – EFi @ 300 K
60
EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Fermi level in
semiconductors
Solution
① Nd = 1016cm-3 Nd >> ni (= 1.451010 cm-3)
n = Nd = 1016cm-3
• For intrinsic semiconductor
ni N c exp ( Ec EFi ) / k BT
• For doped Si
n N c exp ( Ec EFn ) / k BT N d
61
EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Fermi level in
semiconductors
Solution
ni N c exp ( Ec EFi ) / k BT
n N c exp ( Ec EFn ) / k BT N d
Nd
exp ( EFn EFi ) / k BT
ni
Nd 1016
EFn EFi k BT ln( ) (0.259 eV) ln( )
ni 1.45 1010
0.348 eV
62
EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Fermi level in
semiconductors
Solution
② Si doped with boron (B)
Na = 2 1017cm-3 > Nd = 1016 cm-3
p = Na – Nd = 2 1017cm-3 1016 cm-3
= 1.9017 cm-3
• For intrinsic semiconductor
p ni N c exp ( EFi Ev ) / k BT
3
1.45 10 cm
10
• For doped Si
p N v exp ( EFp Ev ) / k BT 63
EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Fermi level in
semiconductors
Solution
p ni N v exp ( EFi Ev ) / k BT
p N v exp ( EFp Ev ) / k BT
p
exp ( EFp EFi ) / k BT
ni
p 1.9 1017
EFp EFi k BT ln( ) (0.259 eV) ln( )
ni 1.45 1010
0.424 eV
64
EXAMPLE 3.1.2 Conductivity
65
EXAMPLE 3.1.2 Conductivity
Solution
Since N d 1016 cm 3 ni 1.45 1010 cm 3
n Nd
2
ni
Conductivity ene ep p ene (p N d )
Nd
(1.6 1019 C)(11016 cm 3 )(1350 cm 2 V 1s 1 )
=2.16 1cm 1
66
3.2
DIRECT AND INDIRECT
BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTOR:
E-k DIAGRAMS
67
Infinite potential well
• When the electron is within an infinite potential energy w
ell, the wavevector kn is a quantum number
V(x)=
n V(x)=
kn , n 1, 2,3,
L
V(x)
• The electron momentum is kn
• Its energy is quantized Electron
e
( k n ) 2
En 0
2me L
72
Crystal momentum
k :crystal momentum
k is the momentum invloved in its interacti
on with external fields, such as those invol
ved in photon absorption processes.
•
d ( k )
Fext
Fextdt: the externally applied force , such as d
ue to an electric field E Fext = eE
73
E-k diagram
• E-k diagram Energy
vs. crystal momentum
plot.
• Lower E-k curve
Valence band (VB).
• Upper E-k curve
Conduction band (CB).
• All the valence electrons
at 0K fill the states in the
lower E-k diagram.
74
E-k diagram
• The E-k curve consists of
many discrete points with e
ach point corresponding to
a possible state k(x).
• In the energy range from Ev
to Ec, there are no solution
s to the Schrödinger equati
on.
• E-k behavior is not a simple
parabolic relationship exce
pt near the bottom of the C
B and the top of the VB.
75
Direct bandgap semiconductor
• e.g. GaAs
• The minimum of the CB is
directly above the maximum of
the VB.
• Electron-hole pairs can
recombine directly and emit a
photon
• The majority of light-emitting
devices use direct bandgap
semiconductors to make use
of direct recombination.
76
Indirect bandgap semiconductor
• e.g. Si, Ge
• The minimum of the CB is
not directly above the
maximum of the VB, but it is
displaced on the k-axis.
• An electron at the bottom of
the CB cannot recombine
directly with a hole at the top
of the VB because it is not
allowed by the law of
conservation of momentum.
77
Indirect bandgap semiconductor
with a recombination center
• Recombination center
– Crystal defects
– Impurities
• The electron is first captured by the d
efect at Er.
• The change in the energy and mome
ntum of the electron by this capture p
rocess is transferred to lattice vibratio
ns, i.e., to phonons.
• The captured electron at Er can readil
y fall down into an empty state at the
top of the VB and thereby recombine
with a hole.
• The electron transition from Ec to Ev i
nvolves the emission of further lattice
vibration.
78
GaP doped nitrogen impurities
• GaP: indirect bandgap semico
nductor
• Nitrogen (N) impurities
Recombination center
• The recombination of the electr
on with a hole at the recombin
ation centers results in photon
emission.
• The electron transition from Ec
to Ev involves photon emission.
79
3.3
pn JUNCTION PRINCIPLES
80
3.3 pn JUNCTION PRINCIPLES
A. Open Circuit
81
pn junction
• One side is n-type and the other is p-type.
• There is an abrupt discontinuity between the p and n
region. Metallurgical junction, M
• n region:
– fixed (immobile) ionized donors
– free electrons (in CB)
• p region :
– fixed ionized acceptors
– holes (in VB)
82
Hole concentration gradient
• p = pp0 (p-side) > p = pn0 (n-side)
Holes diffuse towards the right and enter the n-region and
recombine with the electrons (majority carriers) in this re
gion.
The n-side near the junction becomes depleted of majorit
y carriers and has exposed positive donors of concentrat
ion Nd.
83
Electron concentration gradient
• n = nn0 (n-side) > n = np0 (p-side)
Electrons diffuse towards the left and enter the p-region
and recombine with the holes (majority carriers)
The p-side near the junction becomes depleted of
majority carriers and has exposed negative acceptors of
concentration Na.
84
Space charge layer
• The regions on both sides of M becomes
depleted of free carriers in comparison with the
bulk regions far away from the junction.
• There is a space charge layer (SCL) around M.
• Also known as the depletion region around M.
85
Electron and hole concentration profiles
logarithmic scale
87
Net space charge density net(x)
• For uniformly doped p and
n regions
eN a , W p x 0
net ( x)
eN d , 0 x Wn
N aW p N dWn
88
Depletion widths
• NaWp = NdWn
• If Na > Nd Wp < Wn
Depletion width of heavily dop
ed side < Depletion width of li
ghtly doped side
• If Na >> Nd Wp << Wn
The depletion region is almos
t entirely on the lightly doped
side.
• We generally indicate heavy
doped regions with the super
script plus sign as p+.
89
Built-in field
Gauss's law
net (r) net (r) dE net ( x)
E( r )
0 r dx
net ( x ')
E ( x) dx '
eN a , W p x 0
net ( x)
eN d , 0 x Wn
x (eN a ) eN a x
Wp dx ', E
0
, Wp x 0
E ( x)
0 (eN a ) dx ' x (eN d ) dx ', E eN d x ,
Wp 0 0 x Wn
0
eN aW p eN dWn Bulit-in field
where E 0 E (0) 90
Built-in potential
dV x
E V ( x) E ( x ')dx '
dx O
eN a x
E0 , W p x 0
E ( x)
E eN d x , 0 x Wn
0
Wn
V0 V (Wn ) E ( x ')dx '
O
1 eN a N dWo 2
V0 E0W0
2 2 ( N a N d )
in which W0 Wn W p Bulit-in potential
If we know V0, we can calculate W0.
91
Boltzmann statistics
• If carrier concentration in the CB << Nc
we can use Boltzmann statistics Effective density of states
at the CB edge
n( E ) exp( E / k BT )
• The concentrations n1 and n2 of carriers at potenti
al energies E1 and E2 are related by
n2 ( E2 E1 )
exp
n1 k B T
eN a N dWo 2
V0
2 ( N a N d )
95
3.3 pn JUNCTION PRINCIPLES
B. Forward Bias
96
Forward Bias
• A battery with a voltage V is connected across a pn juncti
on:
– Positive terminal p-side.
– Negative terminal n-side.
The applied voltage drops mostly across the depletion wi
dth W.
V directly opposes V0 and the potential barrier against diff
usion is reduced to (V0-V).
97
Injection of excess minority carriers
• The applied voltage effectively reduces the guilt-in
potential and the built-in field that acts against diffusion.
• Excess holes can diffuse across SCL and enter the n-
side.
• Excess electrons can diffuse across SCL and enter the
p-side.
Injection of excess minority carriers
98
Small increase in the majority carriers
• When holes are injected into the neutral n-side, they draw
some electrons from the bulk of n-side (and hence from the
battery).
• There is a small increase in the electron concentration in the
n-side.
• Similarly, there is a small increase in the hole concentration
in the p-side.
99
Hole concentration just outside SCL
• pn(0) = pn (x = 0): the hole concentration just outside the
depletion region.
• pn(0) is determined by the probability of surmounting the
new potential energy barrier e(V0V),
pn (0) p p 0 exp[e(V0 V ) / k BT ]
100
Law of the junction
• Holes are injected from the p-side to the n-side
pn (0) p p 0 exp[e(V0 V ) / k BT ]
pn 0 / p p 0 exp(eV0 / k BT )
pn (0) pn 0 exp(eV / k BT )
104
Total current
• In n-region
The field in the neutral
– Jhole Minority carrier diffusion current
region is not totally zero
– Jelec Majority carrier drift current but a small value, just
• In p-region sufficient to drift the huge
– Jhole Majority carrier drift current number of majority carriers.
105
Hole diffusion current density
eDh x'
J D ,hole ( x ') pn (0) exp
Lh Lh
eV
pn (0) pn 0 exp Law of the junction
k BT
pn 0 ni2 / nn 0 ni2 / N d
eV ni2 eV
pn (0) pn (0) pno pn 0 exp pno exp 1
k BT Nd kBT
eDh eDh ni2 eV Hole diffusion
J D ,hole pn (0) exp 1 current
Lh Lh N d k BT
x ' 0
106
Total current density
• We assume that the electron and hole currents do not
change across the depletion region because, in general,
the width of this region is narrow.
eDh ni2 eV
J D ,hole x W or W J D ,hole x '0 exp 1
n p
Lh N d k BT
eDe ni2 eV
J D ,elec x W or W exp 1
n p
Le N a k BT
• The total current density is
eDh eDe 2 eV
J J D ,hole J D ,elec ni exp 1
Lh N d Le N a k BT
eV
J J so exp 1 Schockley diode equation
k BT
107
eDh ni2 eV eDe ni2 eV
J D ,hole exp 1 J D ,elec exp 1
Lh N d k BT Le N a k BT
eDh eDe 2 eV
J ni exp 1
Lh N d Le N a k BT
108
Shockley equation
eV eDh eDe 2
• J J so exp k T 1 , where J so ni
B Lh N d Le N a
• The constant Jso depends Na, Nd, ni, Dh, De, Lh and
Le.
• If we apply a reverse bias V = Vr > kBT/e (= 25 m
V)
eVr
J J so exp 1 J SO
k BT
110
Recombination current
• pM = hole concentration at M
• nM = electron concentration at M A symmetrical pn junction
• pM = nM (due to symmetry)
• area ABC electrons recombining in p-side
• area BCD holes recombining in n-side
• Recombination current
eABC eBCD
J recom
e h
1 1
e W p nM e Wn pM
2 2
e h
e : mean electron recombination time in Wp
h : mean hole recombination time in Wn
111
Recombination current
• PE = 0 at A, PE = e(V0V)/2 at M
pM ( PE M PE A ) e(V0 V )
exp exp
p p0 k B T 2 k BT
k BT N a N d
V0 ln 2 , p p 0 N a
e ni
e(V0 V ) eV
pM p p 0 exp ni exp nM
2 k BT 2 k BT
1 1
e W p nM e Wn pM en W W eV
J recom 2 2 i p
n
exp
e h 2 e h 2 k
B T
• From a better quantitative analysis
J recom J r 0 exp(eV / 2k BT ) 1
112
Total current
• The total current into the diode will supply carriers
for minority carrier diffusion in the neutral regions
and recombination in SCL.
eV
J J so exp 1
k BT
eV
J recom J r 0 exp 1
2 k BT
eV
I I 0 exp 1
k BT
: the diode ideality factor
is 1 for diffusion controlled and 2 for SCL recom
bination controlled characterisitics. 113
3.3 pn JUNCTION PRINCIPLES
C. Reverse Bias
114
Reverse Bias
• Positive terminal n-side
Electrons in n-side move away from SCL
• Negative terminal p-side
Holes in p-side move away from SCL
Wider SCL
• The movement of electrons
in the n-region towards the
positive terminal cannot be
sustained because there is
no electron supply to this n-
side.
115
Reverse Bias
• Built-in potential V0+Vr
• Electric field in SCL E0+E
• Small number of holes on the n-side near the SCL become
extracted and swept by the field across the SCL over to the
p-side.
• This small current can be
maintained by the diffusion
of holes from the n-side
bulk to the SCL boundary.
116
Minority carrier diffusion current
• pn(0) pn0 exp(eVr/kBT) law of the junction
• If Vr > 25 mV = kBT/e pn(0) 0 < pn0
Small concentration gradient
Small hole diffusion current toward SCL
• Similarly, there is a small
electron diffusion current
from bulk p-side to SCL.
• Within the SCL, these
carriers are drifted by the
field.
117
Reverse current
• J J so exp eVr 1 Shockley equation
k BT
• If Vr >> KBT/e = 25 mV
J Jso Reverse saturation current density
eDh eDe 2 Dh = hkBT/e, De = ekBT/e
J so ni
• Lh N d Le N a
Lh = (Dhh)1/2, Le = (Dee)1/2
119
EHP thermal generation in SCL
g: the mean time to generate an EHP by thermal vibrati
ons of lattice (mean thermal generation time)
• ni/g :the rate of thermal generation per unit volume
• A : the cross-sectional area of the depletion region
• WA: the volume of the depletion region
The reverse current density component due to thermal ge
neration of EHPs within SCL:
ni 1 eWni
J gen e AW
g A g
120
The total reverse current density
• The total reverse current density is the sum of th
e diffusion and generation component:
J rev J diffusion J gen
eDh eDe 2 eWni
ni
Lh N d Le N a g
121
The total reverse current density
• J rev J diffusion J gen
• T > 238 K
slope of ln(Irev) vs. 1/T
0.63 eV 0.66 eV (Eg of Ge)
Irev is controlled by ni2
• T < 238 K
slope of ln(Irev) vs. 1/T
0.33 eV (Eg/2 of Ge)
Irev is controlled by ni
124
3.3 pn JUNCTION PRINCIPLES
125
Stored charge in depletion region
• The depletion region of a pn junction has positiv
e and negative charges separated over a distanc
e W similar to a parallel plate capacitor.
• Storged charge:
+Q +eNdWnA on n-side
Q eNaWpA on p-side
• Unlike in the case of a parallel plate capacitor, Q
does not depend linearly on the voltage V across
the device.
126
Depletion layer capacitance
• We can define an incremental capacitance
:
When V changes by dV to V+dV, then W al
so changes and the Q becomes Q+dQ. Th
e depletion layer capacitance Cdep is defi
ned by dQ
Cdep
dV
127
Depletion layer width
• If the applied voltage is V, the voltage
across the depletion layer W is V0 V
eN a N dW 2
V0 V Built-in potential
2 ( N a N d )
2 ( N a N d ) V0 V
1/2
W
eN a N d
128
Depletion layer capacitance
Q eN dWn A eN aW p A
Wn Q / (eN d A), W p Q / (eN a A)
2 ( N a N d ) V0 V
1/2
Q 1 1 Q Na Nd
W Wn Wp ( )
eN N
a d eA N a N d eA N a N d
eAN a N d 2 ( N a N d ) V0 V
1/2
Q
( Na Nd ) eN a N d
1/2
dQ eAN a N d 1 2 ( N a N d ) V0 V 2 ( N a N d )
Cdep
dV ( N a N d ) 2 eN a N d eN a N d
1/2
eN a N d A
Cdep A
2 ( N a N d 0
) V V W
129
Depletion layer capacitance
1/2
• C A eN a N d A
2 ( N a N d ) V0 V
dep
W
Cdep is given by the same expression as that for the par
allel plate capacitor, A/W, but with W being voltage-de
pendent.
• For reverse bias, V = Vr
1/2
eN a N d
Cdep A
2 ( N a N d ) V0 Vr
E. Recombination Lifetime
131
Excess carrier injection
• Consider recombination in a direct bandga
p semiconductor.
• Suppose that excess electrons and hole ha
ve been injected:
pp : the excess hole concentration in the n
eutral p-side.
np : the excess electrons concentration in t
he neutral p-side.
pp = np for charge neutrality
132
Net rate of change of np
• At any instant:
n p n po n p instantaneous minority carrier concentration
p p p po n p instantaneous majority carrier concentration
133
Net rate of change of np
• In equilibrium
n p
0
t
• Using np = np0, pp = pp0, we find
n p
Bn p p p Gthermal Bn p 0 p p 0 Gthermal 0
t
Gthermal Bn p 0 p p 0
135
Weak injection
• In practical cases: np >> np0 Actual equilibrium minority
carrier concentration
Comparing
n p nwith
p
t e
Weak injection
e 1/ BN a constant
recombination lifetime
136
Strong injection
• Strong injection: np >> pp0
n p
B n p p p n p 0 p p 0 B n p p p n p 0 p p 0
t
Bn p ( p p 0 p p ) Bn p p p B n p
2
Comparing with
n p n p
t e
1 1
e
Bn p n p
139
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandgap p
n junction
Solution
• Assuming weak injection
1 1
h e
BN a (7.211016 m3s 1 )(11023 m 3 )
1.39 108 s
140
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandgap p
n junction
Solution
• Einstein relation:
Diffusion coefficients are
Dh h k BT / e, De e k BT / e
Dh h k BT / e (0.2585)(250 10 )
4
4
6.46 10 2 -1
ms
De e k BT / e =(0.2585)(5000 104 )
2
1.29 10 2 -1
ms
141
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandga
p pn junction
Solution
• The diffusion length
Lh ( Dh h )1/2 [(6.46 10 4 m 2s -1 )(1.39 10 8 s)]1/2
3.00 106 m
Le ( De e )1/2 [(1.29 10 2 m 2s -1 )(1.39 10 8 s)]1/2
1.34 105 m
142
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandga
p pn junction
Solution
• The diffusion length
Lh ( Dh h )1/2 [(6.46 10 4 m 2s -1 )(1.39 10 8 s)]1/2
3.00 106 m
Le ( De e )1/2 [(1.29 10 2 m 2s -1 )(1.39 10 8 s)]1/2
1.34 105 m
143
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandga
p pn junction
Solution
• The reverse saturation current due to diffusion
in the neutral regions is
Dh De 2
IS0 A eni
Lh N d Le N a
6 6.46 10 4
1.29 10 2
19
(10 ) 6
5 23
(1.6 10 )(1.8 1012 2
)
(3.00 10 )(10 ) (1.34 10 )(10 )
23
6.13 1021 A
144
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandga
p pn junction
Solution
• The forward diffusion current
27 1.0 V
I diff I so exp(eV / K BT ) (6.13 10 A) exp
0.0258 V
3.9 104 A
2 ( N a N d ) V0 V
1/2
W
eN N
a d
1/2
2(13.2)(8.85 10 Fm )(10 10 )m (1.28 1)V
12 -1 23 23 3
19 3 3
(1.6 10 C )(10 23
m 10 23
m )
9.0 108 m or 0.090 m
146
EXAMPLE 3.3.1 A direct bandga
p pn junction
Solution
• For a symmetric diode, Wp = Wn = W/2, and taking e = h = r 10 ns
Wp Wn Aeni W
Aeni
I r0
2
e h 2 e
(106 )(1.6 1019 )(1.8 1012 ) 9.0 10 8 12
9 1.3 10 A
2 10 10
• So that
eV 12 1.0 V
I recom I r 0 exp (1.3 10 A)exp
2 k
B T 2(0.02585) V
3.3 104 A
The diffusion and recombination components are about the same orde
r.
147
3.4
THE pn JUNCTIONN BAND DI
AGRAM
148
3.4 THE pn JUNCTION BAND DIAGRAM
A. Open Circuit
149
Energy diagram of a pn junction under o
pen circuit
153
Energy diagram of a pn junction under fo
rward bias
• p exp [e(V0V)/kBT]
the probability that electron in the n-side overcomes th
e PE potential and diffuses to the p-side.
Forward current exp [e(V0V)/kBT] exp (V/kBT) 156
Energy diagram of a pn junction under re
verse bias
• When reverse bias:
V= Vr .
• PE barrier:
eV0 e(V0 + Vr)
• Field in SCL:
E0 E0 + E
There is hardly any reverse current because if an electron
were to leave the n-side to travel to the positive terminal, it
can not be replenished from the p-side.
157
Thermal generations
160
3.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
A. Principles
161
Light Emitting Diodes
165
Injection electroluminescence
• The phenomenon of light emission from
EHP recombination as a result of minority
carrier injection.
• Spontaneous emission process
The emitted photons are in random
direction.
166
3.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
B. Device Structure
167
Planar surface emitting LED devices
170
TIR in LED
174
Photon energy, wavelength and color
y = 0.45 y=0
y=1
x=0
176
GaAs1y Py
• Ga : group III, As, P: group V
• GaAs1y Py III-V ternary alloy
• Eg (GaAs1y Py ) as y
• y < 0.45
– direct bandgap
– EHP recombination is direct
– 630 nm < < 870 nm y = 0, GaAs
y = 0.45, GaAs0.55P0.45
• y > 0.45
– indirect bandgap
– EHP recombination occur through recombi
nation centers and involve lattice vibration
s rather than photon emission.
177
N doped indirect GaAs1-yPy (y > 0.45)
• N and P atoms
– same group V same valency
– different electric cores
The positive nucleus of N is less shielded by electron
s compared with that of the P atom.
• If some N atoms are added into GaAsP crystal
– N atoms are isoelectric impurities
– N atoms substitute for P atoms
• same number of bonds
• do not act as donors or acceptors
A conduction electron near an N atom will be attracted
and may become trapped at this site.
N atoms introduce localized energy levels, or elec
tron trap EN near the conduction band edge.
178
N doped indirect GaAs1-yPy (y > 0.45)
• N atom electron trap
• Trapped electron at EN can att
ract a hole by Coulomb attract
ion.
• Direct recombination between
a trapped electron and a hole
emits a photon.
• h EN– Ec < Eg
Inexpensive green, yellow, and orange LEDs
• Efficiency < Efficiency (direct bandgap semiconductors)
179
UV and blue LED materials
• InxGa1-xN alloy
– Direct bandgap
– Eg as x
– GaN: Eg = 3.4 eV UV emission
– InGaN: Eg = 2.7 eV blue emission
• Al doped silicon carbide (SiC)
– Indirect bandgap
– EHP recombination is through an acceptor level Ea
• ZnSe (II-VI compound)
– Direct bandgap
– Drawback: difficulty in appropriately doping to fabrica
ye efficient pn junction
180
AlxGa1xAs
• Al, Ga : group III
• As: group V
• AlxGa1xAs III-V ternary alloy
– Direct bandgap for x < 0.45
– Eg as x
– GaAs: Eg = 1.43 eV
= 870 nm IR emission
– AlxGa1-xAs (x < 0.45) : Eg = 1.941.43 eV
= 640 870 nm deep red to IR emission
181
In0.49Ga0.51-xAlxP
• Al, Ga, In : group III
• P: group V
• InGaAlP III-V quarternary alloy
– Direct bandgap
– Lattice-matched to GaAs substrates when in the com
position range In0.49Ga0.34Al0.17P to In0.49Ga0.452Al0.058P
– = 590 630 nm
Amber, orange, red LEDs
– Material for high-intensity visible LEDs
182
In1-xGaxAs1-yPy
• Ga, In : group III
• P, As: group V
• In1-xGaxAs1-yPy III-V quarternary alloy
– Direct bandgap
= 870nm (GaAs) 3.5 m (InAs)
includes the optical communication wavel
ength of 1.3 and 1.55 m
183
External quantum efficiency external
ext The efficiency of conversion of electrical en
ergy into an emitted external optical energy.
• It incorporates the “internal” efficiency of radiativ
e recombination process and the subsequent effi
ciency of photon extration from the device.
• Pout (Optical)
external 100%
IV
The input of electrical power into an LED
• Indirect bandgap LEDs: external < 1%
• Direct bandgap LEDs: higher external
184
LED materials
orange,
185
3.7
HETEROJUNCTION HIGH INT
ENSITY LEDs
186
Homo and heterojunctions
• Homojunction:
A junction (such as a pn junction) between two d
ifferently doped semiconductors that are of the s
ame material (same bandgap Eg)
• Heterojunction:
A junction between two different bandgap semic
onductors
• Heterojunction device (HD):
A semiconductor device structure that has juncti
ons between different bandgap materials
187
Refractive index and bandgap
• The refractive index n of semiconductor mat
erial depends on its bandgap Eg:
n as Eg
• By constructing LEDs from heterostructures
, we can engineer a dielectric waveguide wi
thin the device and thereby channel photon
s out from the recombination region.
188
Drawbacks of homojunction LEDs
The p-region must be narrow to allow the
photons to escape without much reabsor
ption.
189
Drawbacks of homojunction LEDs
• If the recombination occurs over a relative
large volume (or distance), due to long ele
ctron diffusion lengths, then the chances o
f reabsorption of emitted photons becomes
higher.
The amount of reabsorption increases with
the material volume.
190
Double heterostructure (DH) device
• DH device based on two junctions between differ
ent semiconductor materials with different bandg
aps.
• Different materials
– Eg (AlGaAs) 2 eV
– Eg (GaAs) 1.4 eV
• Two heterjunctions
– n+ p heterojunction between n+-AlGaAS and p-GaAs
– p p heterojunction between p-GaAS and p-AlGaAs
• p-GaAS thin layer
– a fraction of m
– lightly doped
191
Band diagram with zero bias
193
Double heterojunction LED
• EHP recombination presents in the
p-GaAs layer
• Eg (AlGaAs) > Eg (GaAs)
The emitted photons do not get re
absorbed as they escape the activ
e region and can reach the surface
of the device.
• Since light is also not absorbed in
p-AlGaAs, it can be reflected to inc
rease the light output.
• DH LED is much more efficient tha
n homojunction LED
194
3.7
LED CHARACTERISTIC
195
Energy of an emitted photon
• The energy of an emitted
photon from an LED is no
t simply equal to Eg becau
se electrons in the CB ar
e distributed in energy an
d so are the holes in the
VB.
196
Energy distribution of carriers
• Electron concentration i
n CB as a function of e
nergy:
nE(E) = gCB(E)f(E) nE ( E ) gCB ( E ) f ( E )
A peak at (1/2) kBT abo pE ( E ) gVB ( E )(1 f ( E ))
ve Ec
Energy spread ~ 2KBT
• The hole concentration
is similarly spread from
Ev in VB
197
• Transition 2 (E = h2)
– has the maximum probability as both electron and hole
concentrations are largest at these energy.
Relative intensity is maximum, or close maximum
• Idealized spectrum
– Energy for the peak emission ~ Eg+KBT
– Linewidth (h) ~ 2.5 KBT to 3 KBT 198
Output spectrum from an LED
• The output spectrum from an LED depend
s not only on the semiconductor material b
ut also on the structure of the on junction d
iode, including the dopant concentration le
vel.
199
Effect of Heavy doping
• Electron wavefunctions at the donors overl
ap to generate a narrow impurity band o
verlaps the CB and effectively lowers Ec
Minimum emitted photon energy < Eg
200
Typical characteristics of a red GaA
sP LED
202
EXAMPLE 3.8.1 LED Output Spectrum
• Typical width of the relative intensity vs. phot
on energy spectrum ~ 3kBT
• Linewidth 1/2 = ?
203
EXAMPLE 3.8.1 LED Output Spectrum
Solution
• c / v hc / E ph d hc2
dE ph E ph
d hc hc
2 E ph E ph
E ph dE ph E ph (hc / ) 2
E ph
2
hc
We are given E ph ( h ) 3k BT
E ph 3k BT
2
2
hc hc 204
EXAMPLE 3.8.1 LED Output Spectrum
Solution
E ph 3k BT
• 2
2
hc hc
23
3(1.38 10 J/K)(300 K)
870 nm (870 nm) 2
206
EXAMPLE 3.8.2 LED Output
wavelength variations
Solution
• c / v hc / Eg
d hc dEg
2
dT Eg dT
(6.626 1034 )(3 108 ) 4 19
19 2
( 4.5 10 1.6 10 )
(1.42 1.6 10 )
2.77 1010 m K 1 0.277 nm K 1
(d / dT )T (0.277 nm K 1 )(10 K ) 2.8 nm
208
EXAMPLE 3.8.3 InGaAsP on InP substrate
Solution
• E hc E k T
ph g B
hc k BT
Eg (in eV)
e e
1.3 106 m, T 300 K
(6.626 1034 )(3 108 )
Eg 19 6
0.0259 eV 0.982 eV
(1.6 10 )(1.3 10 )
0.982 eV 1.35 0.72 y 0.12 y 2 y 0.66
y 2.2 x x y / 2.2 0.66 / 2.2 0.3
210
Light sources for optical
communications
• LEDs
– simpler to drive
– more economic
– have a longer lifetime
– provide the necessary output power
Short haul application (e.g. local networks)
• Laser diodes
– narrow linewidth
– high output power
– higher signal bandwidth capability
Long-haul and wide bandwidth communications
211
Two types of LED devices
• Surface emitting LED (SLED)
– The emitted radiation emerges from an area in the plane of the r
ecombination layer
• Edge emitting LED (ELED)
– The emitted radiation emerges from an area on an edge of the cr
ystal, i.e. from an area on a crystal perpendicular to the active la
yer.
• ELEDs provide a greater intensity light and also a beam t
hat is more collimated than the SLEDs.
212
Light coupling for SLEDs
213
Burrus type device
• The method is to etch a well in the planar LED structure
and lower the fiber into the well as close as possible to
the active region.
• An epoxy resin is used to bond the fiber and provide
refractive index matching between the fiber and the LED
material.
214
A microlens focuses light into fiber
• The method is to use a truncated spherical lens
(a microlens) with a high refractive index (n = 1.9
-2) to focus the light into the fiber.
215
Structure of a edge emitting LED
• The light is guided to the edge of the crystal by a dielect
ric waveguide formed by wider bandgap semiconductor
s surrounding a double heterostructure.
216
Light coupling for ELEDs