Homework: 42, 44, 46, 54, 56, 78 (p.

533-535)
42. What is the internal energy of 2.0 mol of an ideal monatomic gas
at 273 K?
E  nCV T
3 -1 -1
CV  R  12.5 J mol K
2
E  2.0  12.5  273  6825 (J)

E  6.8 (kJ)
46. Under constant pressure, the temperature of 3.0 mol of an ideal
monatomic gas is raised 15.0 K. What are (a) the work W done by the
gas, (b) the energy transferred as heat Q, (c) the change ΔEint of the
gas, and (d) the change ΔK in the average KE per atom?
(a) At constant pressure:
W  pV  nRT  3.0  8.31 15.0  374 (J)
(b) 5 5
Q  nC p T  n  R  T  W  935 (J)
2 2
(c) We use the first law of thermodynamics:
3
Eint  Q  W (or Eint  nCV T  nRT )
2
Eint  935  374  561 (J)
3 3
(d) For a monatomic gas: K avg  kT  K avg  kT
3 2 2
K avg   1.38 10  23  15.0  3.1 10  22 (J)
2
 
54. We know that for an adiabatic process pV  constant. Evaluate
“constant” for an adiabatic process involving exactly 2.0 mol of an
ideal gas passing through the state having exactly p=1.5 atm and
T=300 K. Assume a diatomic gas whose molecules rotate but do not
oscillate.
1 atm  1.01 105 (Pa)
Equation of state: pV  nRT
nRT 2.0  8.31 300 3
V   0.033 (m )
p 1.5  1.01 105
f
C p CV  R 2 R  R
  
CV CV f
7 R
For a diatomic gas, f=5:  2
5 7
constant  pV   1.5  1.01 105  0.033 5  1.28  103 (N/m 2  (m 3 )1.4 )
constant  1.28  103 (N m 2.2 )
56. Suppose 1.0L of a gas with γ=1.30, initially at 285 K and 1.0
atm, is suddenly compressed adiabatically to half its initial volume.
Find its final (a) pressure and (b) temperature. (c) If the gas is then
cooled to 273 K at constant pressure, what is its final volume?

  1
piV i  p f V f ; V f  Vi
 2
 Vi 
p f  pi  
V 
 f 
 1
 Vi 
T f  Ti  
V 
 f  V' T'f
f
pV  nRT , p  constant  
Vf Tf
78. (a) An ideal gas initially at pressure p0 undergoes a free expansion
until its volume is 3.0 times its initial volume. What then is the ratio of
its pressure to p0? (b) The gas is next slowly and adiabatically
compressed back to its original volume. The pressure after compression
is (3.0)1/3p0. Is the gas monatomic, diatomic, or polyatomic? (c) What
is the ratio of the average kinetic energy per molecule in this final
state to that in the initial state?
1
(a) p0V0  p1V1 ; V1  3V0  p1  p0
 
3
(b) p1V1  p '1 V 0

 V1  1
p '1  p1    p0 3  3 1 p0
 V0  3 f
1
1 4 C p CV  R 2 f 2
  1        
3 3 CV CV f f
f  6 : polyatomic 2
(c) 3
K avg  kT
2
K 'avg T '1
r 
K avg T 0
'
T '1 p'1 V p '1
r  
1
 31/ 3  1.44 (since V1'  V0 )
T0 p 0V0 p0
 Chapter 4 Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics

4.1. Reversible, Irreversible Processes and Entropy

4.2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
4.3. Entropy in the Real World: Engines
4.4. A Statistical View of Entropy
 What is Physics?
• Time has direction, from the past to the future
• One-way processes that can occur only in a certain sequence and
never in the reverse sequence are irreversible, meaning that they
can not be reversed.
Examples: a pizza is baked, water flows from high level to low
level, current moves from high potential to low potential, etc.

Irreversible
incubation & hatch
 Evolution

Credit:
Daniel Lee
Ir
re
ve
rs
ib
le

• In this chapter, we study why one-way processes are irreversible

• The key to understand why one-way processes cannot be reversed
involves a quantity known as Entropy
What is Entropy?

Entropy is the extensive property

of the system (depends on the
mass of the system) and its unit of
measurement is J/K. Entropy
is heat or energy change per degree
Kelvin temperature.
Entropy is denoted by ‘S’.
Clausius - author
of the entropy concept
Interdisciplinary applications of entropy
Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic
construct, it has been adapted in the other following fields of study:
 information theory
 psychodynamics
 thermoeconomics
 evolution
4.1. Reversible, Irreversible Processes and Entropy
a. Reversible processes:
A reversible process is a process that, after it has taken place, can
be reversed and causes no change in either the system or its
surroundings (i.e. without loss or dissipation of energy)

isothermal expansion

Reversible

isothermal compression
isothermal expansion

Vf
system W to surroundings Q  W  nRT ln
Vi
•At the end of the isothermal expansion:
Q from surroundings -surroundings have received work
-surroundings have given up heat

isothermal compression

system W from surroundings

•At the end of the isothermal compression:

-surroundings have done work
Q to surroundings -surroundings have received heat

Net result: the system and the surroundings back to the initial
state without any change => the process is reversible
• However, the presence of friction always results in the output
work of the system being smaller than the work transferred into the
system. Therefore, it is practically impossible to realize reversible
processes (i.e. ideal ones). But the concept of a reversible process
proves to be very useful in studying irreversible processes.
b. Irreversible processes:
• A process that is not reversible is called irreversible.
• In irreversible processes, both the system and the
surroundings can not return to their initial state on their own.

Free expansion

Irreversible
 Free expansion

system system
V1, T1 V2, T1 T  constant; Eint  Q  W  0

•To restore the system to the initial state at constant T, we

compress isothermally by some external agency:

isothermal compression
Vf
system W from surroundings Q  W  nRT ln
Vi
•At the end of the cyclic process:
-the system is back in the initial state
Q to surroundings
-surroundings have done work
-surroundings have received heat

Net result: the system is the same and the surroundings have
changed (W converted to Q)
=> the universe has changed => the process is irreversible
 •For irreversible processes, the entropy S of a closed system
always increases, because of this property, the change in entropy
ΔS is sometimes called “the arrow of time”.

Examples: eggs => chickens: ΔS > 0

chickens => eggs: ΔS < 0: it never happens
d. Change in Entropy:

There are two equivalent ways to define the change in entropy of a

system:

(1)in terms of the system’s temperature and the energy the system
gains or loses as heat (next slide)
(2)by counting the ways in which the atoms or molecules that make
up the system can be arranged (see next lecture)
 dQ f
S  S f  Si  i
T
Q: energy transferred as heat to or from the system during the
process; T (K): temperature of the system; Unit: J/K

• For free expansions: p, V and T fluctuate unpredictably, so we

cannot find a relation between Q and T to calculate ΔS.

Method to calculate ΔS:

- The difference in entropy only depends on the initial and final
states, we can therefore replace an irreversible process occurring
in a closed system with any reversible one that connects the same
initial and final states to calculate the entropy change.
• For the case of free expansions:

Ti = Tf

f dQ 1 f Q
S  i T

T idQ 
T

• For isotherms:
Vf
Q  W  nRT ln
Vi
Vf
S  nR ln
Vi
• Special Case: If the temperature change ΔT of a system is small
relative to the temperature (in K) before and after the process, the
change in entropy can be computed:
Q
S  S f  Si 
Tavg
Checkpoint 1 (p. 539): Water is heated on a stove. Rank the entropy
changes of the water as its temperature rises (a) from 200C to 300C,
(b) from 300C to 350C, and (c) from 800C to 850C, greatest first.
Q cmT
S  S f  Si    (a ), (b), (c)
Tavg Tavg
Homework: Read Sample Problems page 540 and page 541