STATISTICS

Statistics, in a broad sense, is a

collection of methods for planning
studies and experiments,
gathering data, and then
organizing, summarizing,
presenting, and analyzing,
interpreting, and drawing
conclusions based on the data
To conduct a To describe
statistical study, situations, draw
we must gather conclusions, or
data (values make inferences
(measurements or about events, we
observations) that must organize the
variables can data in some
assume). meaningful way.

◦ Data collected in its ◦ Most convenient

original form is method for
called RAW DATA organizing data is a
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
Organizing Data
Data when collected in original form is called “raw
data”.
For example
Frequency Distribution
We organize the raw data by using a frequency
distribution.
The frequency is the number of values in a
specific class of data.
A frequency distribution is the organizing of raw
data in table form, using classes and frequencies.
A Frequency distribution is a grouping of data
into mutually exclusive categories showing the
number of observations in each class.
Frequency Distribution
For the raw data set, a frequency distribution is
shown as follow:
Class limits Tally Frequency
1-3 ///// ///// 10
4-6 ///// ///// //// 14
7-9 ///// ///// 10
10-12 ///// / 6
13-15 ///// 5
16-18 ///// 5

Class is a quantitative or qualitative category

Frequency of a class is the number of data values
contained in a specific class
Why Construct Frequency
Distributions?
To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.

To enable the reader to make comparisons

among different data sets.

To facilitate computational procedures

for measures of average and spread.

To enable the reader to determine the

nature or shape of the distribution.
To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs
for the presentation of data.
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Types of Frequency
Distributions
A categorical frequency distribution is used when
the data is nominal.

A grouped frequency distribution is used when the

range is large and classes of several units in width
are needed.

An ungrouped frequency distribution is used for

numerical data and when the range of data is small.

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Categorical Frequency
Distribution
Used for data that What's your major?
can be used in
specific categories, Major Frequency
such as nominal or
ordinal level data. Finance 6

Marketing 10
Examples: Political
affiliations, religious Accounting 18
affiliations, major field
of study Advertising 6
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CATEGORICAL DISTRIBUTION
Marital Status of Women

Marital status Freq. %

Single 65 46.8

Married 32 23.0

Divorced 27 19.4

Widowed 10 7.2

Separate 5 3.6
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Completed Frequency Table-
Favorite Color (category)

Color Tallies Frequency

llll
Blue 5
lll
Red 3
l
Yellow 1
ll
Purple 2
llll
Orange 4

Green
ll
Black 2
 Frequency Distributions for
Nominal Variables
Gender Tallies Freq. (f) Percentage
Male ||||||||||||||| 15 37.5
Female ||||||||||||||||||||||||| 25 62.5
Total (N) 40 100.0

Note: The categories for nominal variables (male,

female) need not be listed in any particular
order.
 Frequency Distributions for
Ordinal Variables
Happiness Freq. (f) Percentage
Very Happy 9 22.5
Pretty Happy 25 62.5
Not too happy 6 15.0
Total (N) 40 100.0

Note: Because the categories or values of ordinal

variables are rank- ordered, they must be listed in a
way that reflects their rank – from the lowest to the
highest or from the highest to the lowest.
Ungrouped Frequency
Distribution

It is used for numerical data and

when the range of data is small.

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The frequency f is the number of times the
value x occurs in the sample.

Ungrouped x f
3 2 2 3
2 4 4 1 2 frequency 0 1
distribution
2 4 3 2 1 3
0 2 2 1 3 2 8
3 1
3 5

We say ungrouped because each value4 of 3x in

the distribution stands alone.
Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Relative
Rent ($) Frequency Frequency
used when the range 330-399 3 0.11
is large and classes 400-469 4 0.14
of several units in 470-539 7 0.25
540-609 9 0.32
width are needed.
610-679 3 0.11
680-750 2 0.07
Total 28 1.00

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Construction of Frequency
Distribution
1. Choose the number of classes.
Quick Guide to Number of Classes for a Frequency
Distribution
Sample Size Number of Classes
Fewer than 50 5 – 6 classes
50 to 100 6 – 8 classes
over 100 8 – 10 classes

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 Sturges Formula
k = number of
classes
k= n N = number of
cases or
observations

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 Class guidelines:
◦ There should be between 5 and 20 classes.
◦ It is preferable, but not absolutely necessary
that the class width be an odd number
◦ The classes must be mutually exclusive
(nonoverlapping values)
◦ The classes must be continuous (no gaps, even
if frequency is 0)
◦ The classes must be exhaustive (use all the
data)
◦ The classes must be equal in width
2. Determine Class Width
First compute: Largest value - smallest value
Desired number of classes

Increase the value computed to the next highest

whole number.
The lower class limit of a class is the lowest data
that can fit into the class,
the upper class limit is the highest data value
that can fit into the class.
 The class width is the difference between lower
class limits of adjacent classes.
3. Determine Class Limits

The lower class limit is the lowest
data value that belongs in a class and
the upper class limit is the highest.
Use the minimum value as the lower
class limit in the first class.
4. Mark a tally.

Mark a tally | in appropriate
class for each data value.

After all data values are tallied,
count the tallies in each class for
the class frequencies.
5. Computing Class Midpoints
Class mark (class mid-point) is the
numerical value that is exactly in the
middle of each class.

lower class limit + upper class limit

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Class Boundaries
Upper limit of one class + lower limit of next class
2
Class boundaries cannot belong to any class.
Class boundaries between adjacent classes
are the midpoint between the upper limit of
the first class, and the lower limit of the
higher class.
Differences between upper and lower
boundaries of a given class is the class width.
Relative Frequencies
The relative frequency of a class is f/n
where f is the frequency of the class,
and n is the total of all frequencies.
Relative frequency tables are like
frequency tables except the relative
frequency is given.
Relative frequency is a propotional
measure of the frequency of an
occurence.
 Proportions and Percentages
• Proportion (P): a relative
frequency obtained by dividing
f
the frequency in each category by
the total number of cases. P
• Percentage (%): a relative
frequency obtained by dividing
N
the frequency in each category by
the total number of cases and
multiplying by 100.

• N: total number of cases

(%)  P (100 )
• Proportions and percentages are
relative frequencies
Cumulative Frequencies
The cumulative frequency of a class is
the frequency of the class plus the
frequencies for all previous classes.
Cumulative Distributions
Cumulative frequency distribution:
shows the number of items with values less than or
equal to a particular value (or the upper limit of
each class when we divide the data in classes)
Cumulative relative frequency distribution:
shows the proportion of items with values less than
or equal to a particular value (or the upper limit of
each class when we divide the data in classes)
Usually only used with quantitative data!