History and concept of Athletics

• Athletics is an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve

competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common

types of athletics competitions are track and field, road running, cross
country running, and race walking.
• Athletics not only builds you physically but it helps in body coordination

and gives you mental stiffness.

• The name "athletics" is derived from the Greek word "athlos" meaning

"contest". It is commonly known as track and field, is a collection of

sports events that involve running, throwing and jumping activities.
 History
• Organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from

776 BC, and most modern events are conducted by the member clubs of
the International Association of Athletics Federations.
• The athletics meeting forms the backbone of the modern Summer

Olympics, and other leading international meetings include the IAAF

World Championships and World Indoor Championships, and athletes
with a physical disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the
IPC Athletics World Championships.
 Types of Events
• There are three types of events in Athletics:-

• Track events A variety of running events are held on the track which fall

into three broad distance categories: sprints, middle-distance, and long-

distance track events.
• Relay races feature teams comprising four runners each, who must pass a

baton to their team-mate after a specified distance with the aim of being
the first team to finish.
• Hurdling events and the steeplechase are a variation upon the flat running

theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track during the race.
• Field events- The field events come in two types – jumping and
throwing competitions.
• In throwing events, athletes are measured by how far they hurl an

implement, with the common events being the shot put, discus,
javelin, and hammer throw. There are four common jumping
events: the long jump and triple jump are contests measuring the
horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while the high jump and
pole vault are decided on the height achieved.
•Combined events -Which include the decathlon (typically
competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women),
are competitions where athletes compete in a number of different
track and field events, with each performance going toward a final
points tally.
 Values and Purpose of Athletics
 It provides competition and exercise outside the wellness class
for those who have been given athletic talent.
 This competition allows the athlete to develop traits such as
character, discipline, and persistence that will benefit him later
in life.
 Athletics is a focal point to help develop genuine school spirit.
• Running

• Running events up to 10000m in distance are conducted on a 400m track

which is outdoors during summer competition and indoors during the winter.
• The track is made with a rubber surface to improve grip and lessen the risk

of slipping in poor weather conditions.

• Running events prove which athletes are the fastest and have the greatest

endurance.
• An outdoor track, usually dirt or all-weather material, has eight lanes, and

races are run counterclockwise.

• Officials initiate races with a starter pistol, and time them with stopwatches

or automatic timers with photo finishes.

• The winner crosses the finish line in the shortest amount of time.
• Races of different distances start at different places on the track, but
all races end at the same finish line.
• Running events are usually grouped into several classes, each
requiring substantially different athletic strengths and involving
different tactics, training methods, and types of competitors
 Chapter 2- Fundamental techniques in athletics
Track events
The Sprinting race (100m-400m)
• Sprinting is the art of running as fast as possible. Power and

coordination are the essential ingredients in the production of speed.

Coordination can be improved through practicing good running
mechanics. Speed is mostly an inherent factor; however, both
coordination and speed can be improved through proper training.
• The two main components that increase speed are how long steps are

(stride length) and how quickly they are made (stride frequency).
 Sprinting: - It can be broken down into nine components: the start,
acceleration, maintaining Momentum and the finish.
1.The Warm-up
• The competition warm-up is often overlooked when evaluating the entire

scope of a sprint race; however, it is essential for optimal performance,

readiness and injury prevention.
• While the purpose of the competition warm-up is to optimize readiness for

racing, the purpose of a training session warm-up is quite different.

• The training session warm-up can be a most effective means of training – not

merely a preparation for training. Later, several different training session

methods including the active-dynamic, the continuous, and the segment
variety will be identified.
There are three main reasons to warm up:
 To activate the muscles and tendons, particularly those that are

going to be used, and go through the range of muscle and joint

motion for the activity which follows
 To increase blood flow to the muscles and prepare the joints

ready to the work.

 To prepare athletes for what is to follow by stimulating them

mentally and physically.

2.The Start
• The start is a series of complicated motor skills that, when executed
properly, produce the force necessary to overcome inertia and begin
acceleration.
• Often occurring in less than one second, the start includes reaction
time, force application and the first two running steps.
• The fundamentals of the start involve three commands: on your mark,
set and go.
• Set Command :- (Note: Not used in races longer than 400m).
• Go Command: - Starter s Pistol or Whistle. It is for the athlete to start
moving. The go command usually created by the sound of a starter’s
pistol or other device, such as a whistle.
 Crouch Start

On your mark set position GO /drive phase

 Start from different positions
• Objectives-To improve concentration and acceleration.
• Starting Blocks placement and adjustment: -
• The use of starting blocks is optional. Starting blocks should be
anchored behind the starting line so that when in the start position,
the athlete's hands are set just behind the starting line. The blocks
must be adjustable to allow the athlete to attain the most beneficial
starting position.
• Objective-To set the starting blocks to suit the sprinter’s size and ability.
 Technical characteristics
• Front block is placed 1½ foot lengths behind the starting line.
• Rear block is placed 1½ foot lengths behind the front block.
• Front block is usually set flatter.
• Rear block is usually set steeper.
 3. Acceleration
• This performance phase is the first of two links between the initial
movements of the start and maximum velocity sprinting. The
initial eight to ten steps represent this phase.
• The sprint mechanics of acceleration are very different from
maximum velocity sprinting. The body position desired here is
similar to the posture found when pushing a car or pulling a sled.
4.Transition
• This racing phase completes the link to maximum velocity
sprinting. It must be differentiated from pure acceleration because
of gradual and subtle mechanical changes in the running stride.
Transition skills are among the last lessons learned by the
developing sprinter.
5. Maximum Velocity
• Usually achieved after four-to-five seconds of utmost effort, the
maximum velocity phase of the sprint race is characterized by the
highest stride frequency and the most optimal stride length. The duration
of maximum velocity is often as short as two to three seconds.
• Maximum Velocity should be the first training focus.
6. Speed Maintenance
• What some refer to as the deceleration phase, should be referred to as
speed maintenance. This is a lesson in neuro-linguistics.
• Coaches should never suggest to their sprinters, even subtly, they should
expect to slow down at any time in a sprint race!
• Rather, the performance objective should be to maintain as much top
speed as possible.
• Of course, it is likely that a gradual decline in velocity will occur due to
various elements of fatigue.
7. Finishing Form
• Many races have been lost or qualifying standards barely missed
because of the lack of finishing technique. Perfecting this skill can
reduce a sprinter’s time by that critical one or two one-hundredths of a
second needed for victory.
8. Coast and Stop
The truth is the majority of sprinting injuries do not occur at the start
or during the race.
All too often, athletes turn off their concentration while passing the
finish line and allow the ground to apply abrupt breaking forces to
their legs. Proper coasting and stopping techniques are essential in
preventing post-race trauma and injury.
9. Restoration and Recovery
• Sprinters are routinely required to run several events during the

course of a single track meet.

• After the race is run, the sprinter’s work is not finished. It is

necessary to bring the body’s physiological systems back to the

basal level quickly and then effectively prepare for either the next
race or tomorrow’s training session.
 Phases description in sprinting
• Each stride comprises a support phase (which can be divided into a

front support phase and a drive phase) and a flight phase (which can
be divided into a front swinging phase and a recovery phase).
• In the support phase the sprinter’s body is decelerated (front

support) then accelerated (drive).

• In the flight phase the free leg swings ahead of the sprinter’s body

and extends for the touchdown (front swing) while the

• other leg bends and swings to the sprinter’s body (recovery).
 1. Support Phase
A. Front Support phase
The objective is- To minimize deceleration at touchdown and to maximize forward
drive.

• Technical characteristics
• Landing is on the ball of the foot. (1)
• Knee bend of the support leg is minimal during amortization; the
swing leg is doubled up. (2)
• Hip, knee and ankle joints of the support leg are strongly extended at take off.
• Thigh of the swing leg rises quickly towards a horizontal position. (3)
B. Drive at support phase
• Objective- To minimize deceleration at touchdown and to maximize forward drive.

• Technical characteristics
• Landing is on the ball of the foot. (1)
• Knee bend of the support leg is minimal during amortization; the
swing leg is doubled up. (2)
• Hip, knee and ankle joints of the support leg are strongly extended at
take off.
• Thigh of the swing leg rises quickly towards a horizontal position. (3)
 2. Flight phase
A. Recovery
• Objective-To maximize the forward drive and to prepare for an effective foot
plant at touchdown.
• Technical characteristics
• Knee of the swing leg moves forwards and upwards (to continue the
• drive and increase stride length). (1)
• Knee of the support leg flexes markedly in the recovery phase (to achieve a
short pendulum). (2)
• Arm swing is active but relaxed.
• Next support leg sweeps backwards (to minimize the braking action
• at touchdown). (3)
 Flight Phase
B. Front Swinging
• Objective To maximize the forward drive and to prepare for an effective foot
plant at touchdown.
Technical characteristics
• Knee of the swing leg moves forwards and upwards (to continue the
• drive and increase stride length). (1)
• Knee of the support leg flexes markedly in the recovery phase (to achieve a
short pendulum). (2)
• Arm swing is active but relaxed.
• Next support leg sweeps backwards (to minimize the braking action at
touchdown). (3)
Basic Exercises for Sprinting
• Objectives: To develop basic running skills.
• Use the basic exercises to complete the warm-up:
• Ankling, High Knees, Heel Kick-up, High Knees with extension
• BASIC DRILLS
• Objectives: To develop the drive phase and specific strength
• Pursuit runs
• Objectives: To develop reaction speed and acceleration.
• Acceleration runs
• Objectives: To develop acceleration and maximum speed.
 Middle & Long Distance /800m- 10km/

• Phase Description

• The structure of a middle and long distance stride is similar to a sprint stride

with the following differences:

• Foot position at touchdown varies with the running pace.

• Free leg swings forwards with an open knee

• angle (the lower leg nearly parallel to the ground)

• Extension of the hip, leg and foot in the drive phase can be complete (middle

distance) or incomplete (long distance).

• Knee lift is lower.

• Arm movement is less pronounced.

 Support phases flight support phases

• Objective- To achieve an efficient foot action.

• foo
• f

Heel Strike Toe-Off

Foot placement
Standing Start
•1 2 3 4

Objective -To start effectively from a standing

position.
 Training for Middle & Long Distance
• Middle and long distance runners, and all athletes, must develop general
endurance as well as the endurance which is specific to the energy demands of
their event. This endurance comes from correctly developing the energy
• systems. The training that is described in this section is also suitable for the race
walking events.
• There are three metabolic energy systems operating in our bodies. These energy
systems operate continuously and it is how long and how hard we do whatever
physical activity that determines which system contributes most.
• The longer the race the greater the emphasis on aerobic endurance, the shorter
the race the greater the emphasis shifts to the lactate system endurance.
• The most important types of running training for middle and long
distance runners are:
• Continuous Training: Running without rest. Continuous training may be used to

develop general endurance, specific endurance and for recovery.

• It usually takes place away from the track and provides a variety of pace, location

and running surface in the athlete’s training.

• Runs may be short, medium or long but it should be remembered that ‘long’ and

‘short’ are relative to the stage of development of the athlete and their fitness levels.
• The same distance might be a ‘short’ run for one athlete and a ‘long’ run for another

athlete.
• The other type of continuous training which may be used throughout the year is

‘Fartlek’ training, where the athlete ‘plays’ with a variety of running speeds or
rhythms.
• Repetition Training: Repetition training is breaking a total distance into smaller

units which are repeated, hence repetitions, where the pace, distance and
rest/recovery intervals and activity are prescribed.
• Usually done on the track but may be done in a park on grass or anywhere.

Repetition training can be divided into two main types by pace or running
rhythm: extensive and intensive.
• When the training emphasis is on general endurance, extensive repetition

training is used.
• when the emphasis is on event specific endurance, particularly for the middle

distance events, intensive repetition training is used.

• Continuous and repetition training loads are usually defined by the following

parameters:
• Pace, rhythm or running speed (min/km, min/mile, seconds per 400m lap, etc.)

• Volume can be described by the running distance (m, km, miles) or the running time

(sec, min, hours) or by the number of repetitions or number of sets of repetitions.

• Rest/Recovery is the time, or interval, between different repetitions or sets of

repetitions (sec, min or distance).

• Developing General Endurance
• General endurance is developed mainly through continuous training,
extensive repetition training and fartlek training.
• The pace used for these methods should be based on the athlete’s running
rhythms.
• These methods should be applied throughout the training year using the
following guidelines:
• Note: Continuous training runs should also be used throughout the year for
recovery and regeneration.
• Slow Continuous Runs (Goal: recovery and regeneration)
• Pace: Easy rhythm; Volume: up to 30 minutes; Rest: not applicable.

• Long Slow Distance Runs (Goal: general endurance)

• Pace: Marathon rhythm and slower; Volume: 60-150 minutes; Rest: not
applicable.

• Medium Continuous Runs (Goal: general endurance)

• Pace: Half-Marathon to Marathon rhythm; Volume: 30-60 minutes; Rest: not
applicable.

• Fast Continuous Runs (Goal: general endurance)

• Pace: 10 Km to Half-Marathon rhythm; Volume: up to 10-45 minutes; Rest: not
applicable.
 Cont…
• Fartlek Runs (Goal: aerobic and lactate system endurance)
• Pace: rhythmic ‘speed-play’; Volume: 10-45 minutes, increases with
the competition distance;
• Rest: not applicable but the ‘easier’ sections should still be active
running.
• Extensive Repetition Training (Goal: emphasize aerobic endurance)
• Pace: 3000m to 10,000m rhythm; Volume: increases with the
competition distance; Rest: depends on the individual runs in the
sessions (see sample sessions).
• Sample extensive repetition sessions:
• a) 2 x 10 x 200 m (3000m pace) [between reps = to running time, between
sets: 5 min]
• b) 15 x 400 m (5000m pace) [between reps = to running time]
• c) 1 min, 2 min, 3 min, 2 min, 1 min (10,000m pace) [between runs = to
running time]
• In standard Repetition Training the rest period between repetitions and sets
may be passive, walking or easy running.

• But in the ‘New Interval Training’, which is used because of its effectiveness
in developing both the aerobic and lactate energy systems, the recovery in the
intervals is a very active ‘roll-on’, running recovery.

• This roll-on, active running recovery will depend on the fitness and experience
of the athlete.
• For an experienced athlete a 100m roll-on recovery, for example, is frequently
less than 25-30 seconds.

• New interval training, then, is a specific type of repetition training where the
training effect occurs in the interval between the faster sections.
• Only repetition training that has the training effect taking place in the interval
should be called ‘interval training’.
• To compare a classic repetition session of 15 x 400 (3000m pace) [90 secs] with
new interval training:
• Examples of new interval training sessions based on a classic repetition session:
• a) 15 x 400 (5000m pace) [100m roll-on]
• b) 3 x 5 x 400 (3000m pace) [100m roll-on & 3 mins]
• c) 3 x 5 x 400 (5000m, 3000m, 5000m, 1500m, 5000m) [100m roll-on & 800m
roll-on].
• All repetition training can, therefore, be varied by:
• Repetitions The total number of repetitions in a session - may be divided into
sets.
• Duration Length of time or distance of one repetition
• Intensity Rhythm, pace, speed or velocity of the repetitions
• Recovery Time of the intervals between repetitions and sets
• Recovery activity From a walk to easy running or more active running, as in new
interval training.
Pace for Endurance Training
• Pace can be used as a guide for an athlete’s running rhythms for either their

continuous on repetition training.

• ‘3000m pace’ means the running rhythm for this repetition will be the same

rhythm as the athlete would have used mid-race if they had been racing in a
3000m race that day. Coaches planning training for running sessions should
avoid using ‘target times’ for most of the year for their athlete’s repetition
training because these ‘targets’ do not reflect actual running rhythm.
• For example, an 82 seconds time for 400m might be an ‘easy’ effort for an

athlete on a day when they are ‘fresh’. The same time of 82 seconds may feel
much harder, be a different rhythm and produce a different physiological
response for that same athlete, if the athlete is very fatigued.
Developing Event Specific Endurance
• Event specific endurance is developed mainly through intensive repetition
training. The pace used for this method should usually be the athlete’s running
rhythm for that event, but may be based on ‘goal pace’, the target time for the
• competition distance very close to and during the competition period.

• Note: The most intense ‘intensive repetition’ training (called acidosis training)
leads to high concentrations of acid in the body and should be used carefully, if
at all, with younger athletes.

• Intensive Repetition Training (Goal: event specific endurance)

• Pace: Based on event specific rhythm; Volume: increases with the competition
distance; Rest: depends on individual efforts in the session: passive, active or,
in interval training, very active. Full recovery between sets.

• Event specific endurance becomes important for athletes in the ‘Specialization’

and ‘Performance’ stages of athlete development when it takes place in the
specific preparation phase and competition period.
Teaching and Training Technique
• There are two basic technical skills in running, the athlete possessing the

movement skills of:

• 1. a functional and technically efficient biomechanical running action, and
• 2. an awareness, effective control and expression of running rhythm.

• In developing the skill of being aware of and controlling rhythm, experience has

shown that athletes of all abilities have a greater or lesser sense of rhythm, just in
the same way that some individuals are naturally more ‘musical’ than others.
Experience has also shown that all athletes can develop their sense of rhythm, in
the appropriate environment
• Increasing the Training Load
• Increasing the training load within an annual training programme, or in
successive training years, should be individualised, carefully planned and
systematic. The following steps provide a guide:
• Continuous Runs and Extensive Repetition Training:

• Step 1: Increase the number of weekly sessions of aerobic emphasis training.

• Step 2: Increase the volume of some of the training sessions (running

distance/duration or number of efforts), maintaining variety and shorter

recovery/regeneration runs.
• Step 3: Increase the pace (while decreasing the running distance/duration or

• number of efforts).

• Step 4: Adapt the pace and running rhythms individually.

• Intensive Repetition Training:

• Step 1: Increase the volume of a session by adding sets (maintaining the same

distance and pace of the efforts in the sets).

• Step 2: Increase the volume of some sessions by increasing the length of the

efforts (maintaining the number and pace).

• Step 3: Increase the intensity (pace and running rhythm) of the efforts.

• Step 4: Decrease the rest between efforts or, with new interval training, look for

improved speed in roll-on recoveries.

STEP 1 RUNNING DRILLS
• Objectives: To develop basic running skills and coordination

• Perform running drills over 20m-60m

• Emphasise correct action and frequency of movement:

• At the end of each drill immediately run out for 20m.

• Heel Flick

• High Knees

• Striding with High Knees

 STEP 2 STANDING START
• Objectives: To develop reaction, coordination and acceleration
from standing start.
• Stand about 2m behind the start line.
• “On your marks”, place one foot to the start line
• Other foot about shoulder width behind.
• Slight lean forward - weight on front foot.
• Arms synchronised with legs.
• At the ‘gun’, drive is off the front foot.
 Step 3 Resistance runs
• Objectives: To develop the drive phase and specific strength.

• Use the resistance of a partner or an implement.

• Do not exaggerate the resistance.
• Ensure full extension of support leg and short ground contacts
 RELAY RACE
• What is a relay?
A relay race is a track and field event in which athletes run a pre-set
distance carrying a baton before passing it onto the next runner.
• Often, a relay team is a team of four sprinters.
In athletics there are two standard relays:
1. 4 X 100m
2. 4 X 400m
How Does The Relay Work? (4 X 100m)
The relay consists of four people.  A team with four decent sprinters can
out-race a team with four better sprinters by beating the faster team in the
exchange zones. The initial runner in the 4 x 100 relay begins the race in
starting blocks. The next three runners receive the baton via exchanges.
• The exchange zones are 20 meters long and are preceded by a 10-meter

acceleration zone.

• The receiver begins running in the acceleration zone but the baton can

only be passed within the exchange zone. In the relay, runners do not
switch hands when carrying the baton.

• Therefore, if the first runner holds the baton in the right hand, the second

runner will receive the baton in the left hand, the third will receive and
carry the baton in the right hand and the final runner will handle it in the
left hand.
 The Acceleration Zone 
• Also known as the pre-changeover zone, it is the section of the track leading up to the

changeover zone which allows the athlete who is going to receive the baton to start
and pick up speed.

• NOTE: The baton cannot be exchanged in the acceleration zone but the outgoing

runner can wait within the 10m acceleration zone.

The Changeover Zone

• This is the area in which the changeover of the baton to the next athlete takes

place. It is 20m long and the baton must be exchanged in this zone. A mark is
usually put down on the track by the runner to let the outgoing runner know
when to start, this mark is found through training before the event, usually 15 -
20 foot before the outgoing runner is
• The Changeover Zone

• This is the area in which the changeover of the baton to the next athlete

takes place. It is 20m long and the baton must be exchanged in this
zone. A mark is usually put down on the track by the runner to let the
outgoing runner know when to start, this mark is found through training
before the event, usually 15 - 20 foot before the outgoing runner is.
• Relay Baton: - One relay baton is needed for each participating

relay team. Batons measuring 10cm in circumference and weight

50 gram are made of anodized aluminium, or lightweight,
unbreakable plastic. For practice, the following materials cut into
30cm lengths and having smooth edges can be utilized: dowels,
old broom handles, or PVC pipe.
 How The Baton Can Be Transferred
Upsweep Technique /Visual pass /
The receiving hand is extended behind them at hip height with the palm facing
down and a wide angle between the thumb and the rest of the fingers.
• The incoming athlete passes the baton in an upward movement into the

receiving hand. The advantage of this method is that this is a normal position

for the receiving hand. A disadvantage is that it may require some manipulation
of the baton in the hand to make the next exchange safely.
 Down Sweep Technique (blind pass)
• The receiving hand is extended behind them at hip height with the palm

facing up and a wide angle between the thumb and the rest of the fingers.
The incoming athlete passes the baton in a downward movement into the
receiving hand. The advantage of this method is that it will require no
manipulation of the baton to safely make the next baton exchange. A
disadvantage is that it is not a natural position of the outgoing athlete's
hand to receive the baton.
 Push- Pass Technique
• The outgoing runner's arm is extended out behind them parallel to the

ground and the hand is open with the thumb pointing down. The
incoming runner holds the baton vertically and pushes it straight into
the open hand.
 AGoodSelectionof Team Members

• First Leg - Priority goes to an athlete who has a good start, can run the bend

and pass the baton well.

• Second Leg - The choice goes to an athlete who is confident in receiving and

passing the baton, runs well in the straight and possesses sufficient speed
endurance. 
• Third Leg - The selection goes to the sprinter who is confident and reliable in

receiving and passing the baton, can run the bend well and possess sufficient
speed endurance. 
• Fourth Leg - Here we normally select a runner who receives the baton well, is

efficient in running the straight and has a high degree of competitive spirit.
• 4 X 400 Meter Relay: - is the final running event in a track meet, so

the result of that event could very well determine the outcome of the
entire meet. However, even if a team has lost the overall meet a strong
effort in the 4 x 400m can lift an entire team‘s sprit. As with the 4 x
100m relay, a team that passes the baton well can gain on every ex-
change over a team that does not.

Team Selection
• Your six best 400m runners, whether they are 100/200m specialists,

hurdlers, 800m runners , should be the group from which you choose
the four members of your 4 x 400m relay from meet to meet.
• The Exchange Zone of 4x400m

• The baton must be passed within a 20-meter exchange zone marked

on the track by lines that cross all lanes of the track. Unlike the 4 x
100m relay, there is no acceleration zone in the 4 x 400m relay, and
the outgoing runners must stand within the 20m zone to await the
incoming runner. The baton must be received within the exchange
zone to be a legal pass.
• Responsibilities of the Incoming Runner:
• Drive all the way to the finish line and through the exchange zone.
Do not decelerate as the baton is extended to the outgoing runner.
• Do not extend the baton until you are close enough to make the pass to the
outgoing runner.
• Do not try to place the baton in the hand of the outgoing runner. Make the baton a
steady target and let the outgoing runner take it from you.

Responsibilities of the Outgoing Runner:

• Take the baton in full sprinting stride from the incoming runner, not standing still.
• Begin accelerating from the back of the zone looking straight ahead. After three
strides, look back and take the baton from the incoming runner with your left hand,
thumb-up.
• For the athletes running legs two and three, when safe, change the baton from the
left hand to the right hand.
 Rules of a relay
 A team may be disqualified from a relay for:
• Losing the baton (dropping the baton)

• Making an improper baton pass

• False Starting (usually once but sometimes twice)

• Improperly overtaking another competitor

• Preventing another competitor from passing

• Willfully impeding, improperly crossing the course, or in any other way

interfering with another competitor.

B
exch
on
atge

• The rules of relay competition require the baton to be exchanged within a 20

meters changeover zone. So that the outgoing runner can achieve maximum
acceleration at baton exchange the athlete can commence his/her run 10
meters before the changeover zone.

• The baton exchange should occur 5 meters before the end of the changeover

zone. Because of this, each athlete has to sprint more than 100 meters:

• 1st athlete 105 metres

• 2nd and 3rd athletes 125 metres

• 4th athlete 120 metres

 Running line and baton exchange
The running position in the lane and exchange of the baton for each
member of the relay team is as follows:
• first runner carries the baton in the right hand and runs on the inside

of the lane
• second runner takes the baton in the left hand and runs closer to the

outside of the lane

• third runner takes the baton in the right hand and runs close to
the inside of the lane
• fourth runner takes the baton in the left hand
 SPRINT HURDLES
• Hurdle events are rhythmic events. Speed is a basic requirement for
hurdling, but the ability to express speed within a rhythmic pattern is
more important. Hurdle events are not jumping events.

• Racing over hurdles demands an elongated sprint stride with as little

deviation from correct sprint form as possible. Technique, mobility,
poise, muscular strength and stamina are qualities needed for the hurdle
events. The hurdler’s most important physical asset is speed. The key to
success is maintain­ing speed between hurdles.

• Nine factors can be identified as contributing to successful hurdling:

speed, rhythm, technique, flexibility (which includes range-of-motion),
strength, stamina (to main­tain proper technique), poise and body type
(especially leg length).
 Phase Description
• Sprint hurdling comprises two elements: sprinting between the hurdles
and hurdle clearance (which can be broken down into take off, clearance
and landing phases).

• In the sprinting element the hurdler focuses on repeated three stride

accelerations.

• In the hurdle clearance element the hurdler minimizes the time in the air
and prepares for the next running stride.
 Approach phase
• To maximize acceleration to the first hurdle and speed between the
hurdles.
• Technical characteristics

• Usually eight strides to the first hurdle (take off leg is in the front

• position in the starting blocks).

• Upright body position is achieved earlier than in a sprint start.

• Three strides between the hurdles (short-long-short).

• High body position between the hurdles.

Take off Phase
• Objective -To establish a trajectory which minimizes the height over
the hurdle.
• Technical characteristics
• High body position for the attack.
• Drive is more forward than upward. (Run ‘into’ the hurdle, do not
jump) (1)
• Hip, knee and ankle joints of the support leg are fully extended.
• Thigh of the lead leg swings rapidly to the horizontal position.
 Clearance phase
• Objective To minimize the loss of speed and time in the air.
• Technical characteristics
• Take off is well in front of the hurdle from the ball of the foot (two thirds
of the overall hurdle stride).
• Lead leg is actively lowered as quickly as possible after the hurdle.
• Landing is active and on the ball of the foot (no heel contact at
touchdown).
 Clearance phase
• Lead Leg
• Objective To optimize forward lean and to minimize time over the
hurdle.
• Technical characteristics
• Lower part of the lead leg is actively extended forwards and then
downwards in the direction of running.
• Foot of the lead leg is flexed. (1)
• The lean forward of the trunk is more pronounced for ‘higher’(relative
to athlete’s height) hurdles, and only what is necessary for lower’
hurdles. Shoulders remain parallel to the hurdle and facing forwards.
• Trail Leg
• Objective To minimize the height over the hurdle and to prepare for an
active landing.
• Technical characteristics
• Trail leg is drawn alongside the body.
• Thigh of the trail leg is roughly parallel to the ground at clearance.

• Angle between the thigh and lower leg is about 90° or less.
• Ankle of the trail leg is dorsiflexed markedly. Toe is tilted upward. (1)
• Knee of the trail leg is kept high as it pulls through. (2)
Landing phase
• Objective- To make a fast transition to running.
• Technical characteristics
• Landing leg is ‘stiff’. Landing is on the ball of the foot. (1)
• Body should not lean backwards on landing.
• Trail leg stays tucked until touchdown then it pulls quickly and actively
forwards. (2)
• Contact with the ground is brief, the first stride is aggressive.
Steeplechase
• Phase Description

• The steeplechase comprises three elements:

• Running between the barriers, BARRIER clearance (which can

be broken-down into take off, clearance and landing phases) and

water jump Clearance (which can be broken down into take-off,
clearance, flight and landing phases)
• In the Running between the barriers element the runner covers the

distance using technique and tactics similar to other middle and

long distance races.
• In the barrier and water jump clearance phases the runner
minimizes time in the air and disturbance to the running action.
• In the barrier and water jump clearance elements the runner

minimizes time in the air and the disturbance to the running action.
• In the barrier and water jump clearance elements the runner

minimizes time in the air and the disturbance to the running action.
WATER JUMP CLEARANCE
• Take Off Phase

• Objective-To make a smooth transition from running to clearance

with minimum loss of speed.

Technical characteristics
• Take off angle is relatively flat.

• Hip, knee and ankle joints of the support leg are fully extended.

• Thigh of the lead leg swings quickly to the horizontal position.

• Clearance Phase
• Objective
• Technical characteristics
• Athlete either steps on barrier or hurdles the barrier
• Support leg is well bent.
• Trunk leans forwards.
• Touchdown on the barrier is with the middle of the foot. (1)
• Hurdling requires speed to be maintained
• Centre of mass stays low throughout. (2)-To minimize the time over
the barrier.
• Flight and Landing Phases
• Objective-To make a long, flat jump and an immediate transition to
running.
• Technical characteristics
• Push-off from the barrier is forward and downward.
• Arms provide balance during the flight.
• Trunk leans forwards.
• Support leg is almost fully extended for the touchdown.
• Free leg drives ahead quickly after landing.
Barrier Clearance
• Objective -To minimize the time in the air and the loss of speed.
• Technical characteristics
• Take off is well in front of the barrier, the distance dependent on the
speed.
• Clearance is low.
• Lead leg is actively lowered after clearance.
• Transition to the running stride is quick - running rhythm is
maintained.
Race walking
• Definition of Race Walking: “Race Walking is a progression of steps

so taken that the walker makes contact with the ground, so that no
visible (to the human eye) loss of contact occurs.”
Two basic rules therefore define Race Walking:
• 1. One foot must be on the ground at all times, the front foot must

make contact before the rear foot leaves the ground.

• 2. The support leg must be straightened (i.e. not bent at the knee) from

the moment of first contact with the ground until the vertical upright
position.
• Phase Description

• Each Race Walking stride comprises a single support phase

(which can be divided into front support and rear support phases)
and a Double Support Phase.
• The single support phase provides acceleration and includes

preparation for planting the foot of the free leg.

SINGLE SUPPORT PHASE
• Rear Support
• Objective-To provide acceleration and to prepare for the double
support phase.
• Technical characteristics
• Support leg is straight.
• Support leg remains extended as long as possible.
• Foot of the support leg points straight ahead and rolls along the
outside edge of the sole up to the tip of the toes.
• Free leg passes the support leg with the knee and the lower leg kept
low.
• Front foot is planted on the heel.
DOUBLE SUPPORT PHASE
• Objective -To link the rear and front support phases.

• Technical characteristics

• Front foot lands smoothly on the heel while the rear foot is in a

heel up position.
• Both knees are extended.
 SINGLE SUPPORT PHASE
• Front Support
• Objective -To minimize the braking forces.
• Technical characteristics
• Foot placement of the front leg is active with a backward sweeping
motion.
• Deceleration phase is as short as possible.
• Knee of the front leg must be extended.
• Swinging leg passes the support leg with the knee and the lower leg
kept low.
• FOOT Placement
• Objective -To place feet correctly for achieving optimum
stride length.

Left foot Landing

Left foot toe-off

• Technical characteristics

• Feet are placed in a straight line with the toes pointing straight

ahead.
• Touchdown is on the heel and is followed by a rolling movement

along outside of sole up to the ball of the foot.

• Push-off is from the ball of the foot and is followed by a rolling

off the tip of the big toe.

• HIP MOVEMENT
• Objective -To rotate the hips in a manner which ensures proper
foot placement and optimum stride length.

Head should remain on same level

Technical characteristics
• Lateral movement of the hips is visible but should not be exaggerated.
• Hip flexibility is essential.
Arm Movement
• Objective -To conserve forward momentum and balance.
• Technical characteristics
• Upper body should remain relaxed.
• Shoulder drops to counterbalance the drop of the opposite hip.
 Elbows are carried at approx. 90° angle and kept
close to the body.
• Hands should not move lower than waist level or
higher than mid chest height.
 THE END
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