TOPIC 3:

GEOMETRY OF
AERIAL PHOTO &
TILTED AERIAL
PHOTO

PREPARED BY:
PN. KHALILAH BINTI MUHAMAD

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 Lesson Objectives:
Objectives:

At the end of this sessions students should be able to:

3.1 Understand geometry of aerial photo

3.1.1 Define the important of terminologies in

aerial photo geometry.
3.1.2 Explain the principles and characteristics
of perspective projection
3.1.3 Differentiate the characteristic between
perspective projection and orthogonal
projection.
 3.1.1:
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
IN AERIAL PHOTO GEOMETRY

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1) Vertical aerial Photo
- Vertical aerial : Photographs are taken with the camera
optical axis completely or nearly vertical in the plane (in line with the
vertical axis).

- For photos intended to be vertical, however tilts are

usually less than 1° and rarely exceed 3°.

Negative
Camera

Lens Direction of
Camera Axis flight

Vertical

Ground Datum
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2) Tilted Photographs
-Unavoidable aircraft tilts cause photographs to be
exposed with the camera axis tilted slightly from
vertical and the resulting pictures are called tilted
photographs.

Direction of flight

Photos taken with tilt

angles of more than 3° is A x is

known as Oblique photo

Camera

Ground Datum

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3) Principal Point (p)

- In aerial photographs, the principle point are

determined from the signs of the fidusial mark in the fourth
side. The principle point is located on the optical axis of
the camera.
Fidusial
Marks

Principle
point

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4) Focal length (c) or (f)

-The focal length is the distance on the optical axis of

the camera optical center of camera lens to the focal plane
of an object on earth.

-The scale of a vertical photograph over flat terrain is

simply the ration of photo distance, ab to
corresponding ground distance, AB.

S = ab = f
S=
AB H

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5) Exposure Station

Exposure station is the point in the air occupied by the

camera lens while filming and also known as the air station.

Exposure Station

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6) Air Base (B)

Air base is the distance of a line that connects points

in the air from sequential photographs taken in the flight path.

Camera
Air Air

Line of flight Base Base

Air Base
ground

Air Base

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7) Center of Perspective (o)

- Perspective center is a point at which the bond

emission of air entering the camera perspective to do a
perspective projection.

- In a perfect camera lens system:

i) external perspective center is corresponding to

the front nodal point of camera lens.
ii) internal perspective center is
corresponding to the rear nodal point of the
camera lens

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 Negative Plane

Center of Perspective

Projection Plane (positive)

Figure 7: Center of Perspective ( o)

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8) Flying Height ,Z or H

- Is a measure of height measurement of the

exposure station above the particular datum, usually
known as mean sea level (MSL).

- Flying Height also known as the flight altitude.

- Flying Height can be calculated using ground

line of known length that appears on the photograph.

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 negative
negative

positive
positive

Figure 8: Flying Height ,Z or H

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9) RELIEF DISPLACEMENT
i) Displacement is the radial distance between where an
object appears in an image to where it actually should be
according to a planimetric coordinate system.

ii) Relief displacement is caused by changes in the distance

between ground and the camera as the plane flies over
the ground.

iii) The nadir point is always free of any relief displacement.

Relief Displacement is:

a) radially outward for features above the nadir
elevation
b) radially inward for features below the nadir
elevation

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Formula for Relief Displacement :

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 Relief Displacement for tilted photo

- The principle is same as vertical photograph but the

differences is only where the shift at tilt photography
occurs in a radial from the nadir point.
   (Nadir point is not localized to the principle point).

ra ph
o tog
Ph
i l ted
T

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RELIeF Displacement fot Tilted Photograph

h
i l ted grap
T oto
Ph

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3.2.4 : Calculate relief displacement

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3.1.2 Explain the principles and characteristics of
perspective projection

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 3.1.2: PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

References:
http://www.perspectiveprojection.com/perspective-princples.php

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 3.1.2: PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
a) The projection rays from the ground surfaces pass
and focus through the perspective centre of lenses
before forming images at the negative.

b) Also known as the focal point of the perspective

center.

c) Characteristic of Perspective projection:

i) There are changes in direction and
orientation despite the projected line is a
straight line.
ii) Scale across image changes at each
point due to the high or low inclination of the
earth's surface and aerial photo
iii) Aerial Photo are the product of this
projection
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3.1.3 Differentiate the characteristic between perspective
projection and orthogonal projection

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 3.1.3: ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
a)Projected on a plane surface of the projection
rays occurred 90 º to the plane of vertical and
horizontal projection of the earth.

b)Characteristic of Orthogonal projection:

i) The projection rays from the ground
surfaces is perpendicular to the plane of
projection and the earth’s flat surface.
ii) The scale is constant through out the map
iii) Map are the product of this projection

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 ……CONTINUE
Projection Plane

emission projections produce

orthographic projections

Earth
Topography

Datum Plane

Figure 1: Orthogonal Projection

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…..continue

Negative Plane

Center of
Perspective
Projection Plane
(positive)

The projection rays from the ground

surfaces pass and focus through the
perspective centre of lenses before
forming images at the negative..

Earth
Topography

Datum Plane

FIGURE 2 : PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

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 Projections
Differences
Orthogonal Perspective
The projection rays from The projection rays from the
the ground surfaces is ground surfaces pass and
perpendicular to the focus through the perspective
1.
plane of projection and centre of lenses before
the earth’s flat surface. forming images at the
negative..
The scale is constant The photo scale is not
2. through out the map constant through out the
photo
Map are the product of Photo is the product of this
this projection where projection where the image
the points are at their positions are not at their
3.
correct positions and correct positions and are not
are relative to each relative to each other
other
3.2 Calculate scale for vertical and tilted aerial
photo

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 3.3.1 : Photo Scale

a) Photo scale is not uniform for all photography.

Influenced by: -
- Flying height
- Point height / objects on earth.
- Focal length.
b)The size and scale of an area depends on: -
- Point height and flying height above the earth's
surface.
- The inclination of the camera optical axis

c)For the points / objects that have the same height

        above the earth’s surface : -
         - The higher flight line the smaller photo scale
         - The lower flight line the greater photo scale

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Map Scale
Map scale is ordinarily interpreted as the ratio of a map
distance to the corresponding distance on the ground.

The scale of a photograph is the ratio of a distance on the

photo to the corresponding distance on the ground.

Formula

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FORMULA for Calculation:
Photo Scale =
C

Z-hA

Photo Scale = Photo Distance x Map Scale

Map Distance

Photo Scale = Photo Distance Notes:

Map Distance C = Focus Lenght
Z = Flying Height
Relief Displacement, ∆r = rhA hA = Point height above datum
Z (Tinggi titik di atas permukaan bumi)
r = Radial Distance (jarak radian )
z = Flying altitude
Height = (Z- hA) ∆r
rb

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Formula of relief displacement

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Formula of relief displacement

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3.3 Explain the tilted photo and the rotation of
omega, phi and kappa.
3.3.1 Explain tilted photo
3.3.2 Explain the rotation of omega, phi and kappa
3.3.3 Calculate the translation of X,Y,Z axis
3.3.4 Calculate the Euler rotation matrix

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 3.3.1 Explain tilted photo
 Aircraft tilts cause photographs to be exposed with the camera axis
tilted slightly from vertical and the resulting pictures are called tilted
photographs.

 If vertical photography is intended, the amount by which the optical

axis deviates from vertical is usually less than 1º and rarely exceeds 3º.

Figure 1 illustrates the

principal plane of a tilted
photograph taken over
approximately flat ground.
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 Camera Axis Rotation

 Six independent parameters called the elements of exterior orientation

express the spatial position and angular orientation of a tilted photograph.

 The spatial position is normally given by X, Y and Z, the three-

dimensional coordinates of the exposure station in a ground coordinates
system (Z is called the flying height above datum).

Angular orientation is the amount and direction of tilt in the photo are
describe omega – phi – kappa.

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 Figure 2: Illustrates a tilted photo in
space

(Orientation of a tilted photograph in the omega-phi-kappa).

X , Y , Z = Ground Control
x’ , y’ , z’ = Vertical Photograph
x , y , z = Tilted Photograph

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Figure 2: Illustrates a tilted photo in space

Diagram ..

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 3.3.2 Explain the rotation of omega, phi and kappa
1.2 Rotation Parameter
(a) Omega Rotation (ω)
x’ axis will change
- y’ axis to y omega
- z’ axis to z omega
(b) Phi Rotation (φ)
y omega axis will change
- x’ axis to x omega phi
- z omega axis to z omega phi
(c) Kappa Rotation (ĸ)
z omega phi axis will change
- x omega phi axis to x omega phi kappa
- y omega to y omega phi kappa

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Figure 3: Rotation parameter

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 3.3.4 Calculate the Euler rotation matrix

The standard for omega/phi/kappa in photogrammetry

(by plane or drone) is that omega is a rotation around X,
phi is a rotation around Y and kappa is a rotation around
Z. The figure below illustrates the case of omega;

This rotation will be done using a 3*3 matrix that does not modify the X values.
Similar matrices are used to rotate around Y and Z (then the Y (or Z) row and
column values are set to 0 except the diagonal that is 1)

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Now, if you want the rotation matrix (Euler angle) you need to multiply
the 3 individual rotation matrices in the good order. omegaphikappa

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 1:

On a vertical photograph the length of an

airport runway measures 160mm. On a map
which is plotted at a scale of 1:24 000 the
runway scales 103mm.
Calculate the photo scale.

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 2:

The horizontal distance between the

center’s of two street intersection A and B
was measured on the ground as 500m. Point
A and B appears as images a and b on a
vertical photograph and the length of ab is
measured as 90.5mm.
Calculate the photo scale.

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 3:

A tower was photographed on to a vertical

photograph at a flying height of 2500m above
mean sea level. On the photograph, the radial
distance from the principle point to the top
base of the image of the tower were measured
as 12.5mm and 7.3 mm respectively.
If the reduced of base tower is 250m, compute
the height of tower.

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 4:

The image of Mechanical Engineering

Department whose elevation is 200m above
datum appears 12.2cm from the principle
point of vertical aerial photograph taken
from a flying height of 540m above datum.
Calculate the actual height of Mechanical
Engineering Department.

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 5:

The distance from the principle point to an

image P on an aerial photograph in 5.20cm
and elevation of that image above datum is
220m.Calculate the relief displacement of
that image if the photo scale is 1:5000 and
the focal length of the camera is 130mm are
used.

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 Exercise:
QUESTION 6:

A vertical aerial photograph was taken from

flying height of 3200m above datum with
200mm focal length camera. Highest, lowest
and average terrains appearing in the photo
are 2000m, 900m and 1450m respectively.
Calculate the maximum, minimum and
average photo scales.

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 Exercise:
Solution (QUESTION 6):

Maximum photo scale = f/ (H-hmax)

= 200mm/(3200-2000)m x
1000mm
= 1:6000

Minimum photo scale = f/ (H-hmin)

= 200mm/(3200-900)m x 1000mm
= 1:11 500

Average photo scale = 1: (6000 + 11 500) /2

= 1: 8750
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THANK YOU FOR
ATTENTION

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