Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1 Objectives
• Know the difference between computer

organization and computer architecture.
• Understand units of measure common to computer
systems.
• Understand the computer as a layered system.
• Be able to explain the von Neumann architecture
and the function of basic computer components.
2
1.1 Overview
Why study computer organization and

architecture?
– Design better programs, including system software
such as compilers, operating systems, and device
drivers.
– Optimize program behavior.
– Evaluate (benchmark) computer system
performance.
– Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.
3
1.1 Overview
• Computer organization
– Encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.
– Operational units & their interconnections.
– Hardware detail transparent to programmers.
– E.g., circuit design, control signals, memory types, interface
between compute and peripheral
– How does a computer work?
• Computer architecture ( Structure and behavior) (HW+ISA)
– Logical aspects of system implementation as seen by the
programmer.
– Visible for the programmer
– Have direct impact on the execution of instruction
– E.g., instruction sets, instruction formats, data types, addressing
modes, no bits to represent different data type, IO mechanism,
4
– How do I design a computer?
• There is no clear distinction between matters
related to computer organization and matters
relevant to computer architecture.
• Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and
Software:
– Anything that can be done with software can
also be done with hardware, and anything that
can be done with hardware can also be done
with software.*
* Assuming speed is not a concern.

5
COMPUTER TYPES
Computers are classified based on the

parameters like
– Speed of operation
– Cost
– Computational power
– Type of application
DESKTOP COMPUTER
• Processing &storage units, visual display &audio units,

keyboards
• Storage media-Hard disks, CD-ROMs
• Eg: Personal computers which is used in homes and offices
• Advantage: Cost effective, easy to operate, suitable for general
purpose, educational or business application
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER
• Compact form of personal computer (laptop)

• Advantage is portability
WORK STATIONS
• More computational power than PC
• Costlier
• Used to solve complex problems which arises in engineering
application (graphics, CAD/CAM etc)
ENTERPRISE SYSTEM (MAINFRAME)
• More computational power

• Larger storage capacity
• Used for business data processing in large organization
• Commonly referred as servers or super computers
SERVER SYSTEM
• Supports large volumes of data which frequently need to be
accessed or to be modified
• Supports request response operation
SUPER COMPUTERS
• Faster than mainframes

• Helps in calculating large scale numerical and algorithm
calculation in short span of time
• Used for aircraft design and testing, military application and
weather forecasting
HANDHELD
• Also called a PDA (Personal
Digital Assistant).
• A computer that fits into a
pocket, runs on batteries, and is
used while holding the unit in
your hand.
• Typically used as an
appointment book, address book,
calculator, and notepad.
• Can be synchronized with a
personal microcomputer as a
backup.
Basic Terminology
• Computer • Software
– A device that accepts input, – A computer program that tells the
processes data, stores data, and computer how to perform
produces output, all according to particular tasks.
a series of stored instructions.
• Hardware • Peripheral devices

– Includes the electronic and – Used to expand the computer’s
mechanical devices that process input, output and storage
the data; refers to the computer capabilities.
as well as peripheral devices.
Basic Terminology
• Input
– Whatever is put into a computer system.
• Data
– Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
• Information
– The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words,
numbers, sounds, and graphics.
• Output
– Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
• Processing
– Manipulation of the data in many ways.
• Memory
– Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed,
stored, or output.
• Storage
– Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it is not
immediately needed for processing.
Basic Terminology
• Assembly language program (ALP) – Programs are written

using mnemonics
• Mnemonic – Instruction will be in the form of English like form
• Assembler – is a software which converts ALP to MLL

(Machine Level Language)
• HLL (High Level Language) – Programs are written using

English like statements
• Compiler - Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading

source program at once
Basic Terminology
• Interpreter – Converts HLL to MLL, does this job

statement by statement
• System software – Program routines which aid the user

in the execution of programs eg: Assemblers,
Compilers
• Operating system – Collection of routines responsible

for controlling and coordinating all the activities in a
computer system
1.2 Computer Components
• At the most basic level, a computer is a

device consisting of three pieces:
– A processor to interpret and execute programs
– A memory to store both data and programs
– A mechanism for transferring data to and from the
outside world.
15
1.3 An Example System
Consider this advertisement: z? ?

MH
e? ?
a ch
C MB?
L1 ?
CI ? ?
P
US
B? ?
What does it all mean??
16
Common Prefixes to Measure capacity and

speed:
• Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 103 and 210
• Mega- (M) = 1 million = 106 and 220
• Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 109 and 230
• Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 1012 and 240
• Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 1015 and 250
Whether a metric refers to a power of ten or a power of
two typically depends upon what is being measured.
17
• Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

– 1MHz = 1,000,000Hz
– Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz.
• Byte = a unit of storage
– 1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes
– 1MB = 220 = 1,048,576 Bytes
– Main memory (RAM) is measured in MB
– Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems, TB
for large systems.
18
Common Prefixes' used to Measure time and

space:
• Milli- (m) = 1 thousandth = 10 -3
• Micro- () = 1 millionth = 10 -6
• Nano- (n) = 1 billionth = 10 -9
• Pico- (p) = 1 trillionth = 10 -12
• Femto- (f) = 1 quadrillionth = 10 -15
19
• Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second

– Hard disk drive access times are often 10 to 20
milliseconds.
• Nanosecond = 1 billionth of a second
– Main memory access times are often 50 to 70
nanoseconds.
• Micron (micrometer) = 1 millionth of a meter
– Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.
20
• We note that cycle time is the reciprocal of clock

frequency.
• A bus operating at 133MHz has a cycle time of
7.52 nanoseconds:
133,000,000 cycles/second = 7.52ns/cycle
Now back to the advertisement ...
21
The microprocessor is the “brain” of

the system. It executes program
instructions. This one is a Pentium III
(Intel) running at 667MHz.
A system bus moves data within the

computer. The faster the bus the better.
This one runs at 133MHz.
22
• Computers with large main memory capacity can

run larger programs with greater speed than
computers having small memories.
• RAM is an acronym for random access memory.
Random access means that memory contents
can be accessed directly if you know its location.
• Cache is a type of temporary memory that can
be accessed faster than RAM.
23
This system has 64MB of (fast)

synchronous dynamic RAM
(SDRAM) . . .
… and two levels of cache memory, the level 1 (L1)

cache is smaller and (probably) faster than the L2 cache.
Note that these cache sizes are measured in KB.
24
Hard disk capacity determines
the amount of data and size of
programs you can store.
This one can store 30GB. 7200 RPM is the rotational

speed of the disk. Generally, the faster a disk rotates,
the faster it can deliver data to RAM. (There are many
other factors involved.)
25
EIDE stands for enhanced integrated drive electronics,

which describes how the hard disk interfaces with (or
connects to) other system components.
A CD-ROM can store about 650MB of data, making

it an ideal medium for distribution of commercial
software packages. 48x describes its speed.
26
Ports allow movement of data
between a system and its external
devices.
This system has

four ports.
27
• Serial ports send data as a series of pulses along

one or two data lines.
• Parallel ports send data as a single pulse along
at least eight data lines.
• USB, universal serial bus, is an intelligent serial
interface that is self-configuring. (It supports
“plug and play.”)
28
System buses can be augmented by
dedicated I/O buses. PCI, peripheral
component interface, is one such bus.
This system has two PCI devices: a

sound card, and a modem for
connecting to the Internet.
29
The number of times per second that the image on
the monitor is repainted is its refresh rate. The dot
pitch of a monitor tells us how clear the image is.
This monitor has a dot pitch of

0.28mm and a refresh rate of 85Hz.
The graphics card contains memory and

programs that support the monitor.
30
Throughout the remainder of this course you

will see how these components work and how
they interact with software to make complete
computer systems.
This statement raises two important questions:

What assurance do we have that computer
components will operate as we expect?
And what assurance do we have that
computer components will operate together?
31
1.4 Standards Organizations
• There are many organizations that set

computer hardware standards-- to include
the interoperability of computer components.
• Some are adhoc trade association or
consortia made up of industry leaders
• Some are registered ,have formal charter
and recognized internationally.
• Some of the most important standards-
setting groups are . . .
32
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic

Engineers (IEEE)
– Promotes the interests of the worldwide electric
and computer engineering community.
– Establishes standards for computer components,
data representation, and signaling protocols,
among many other things.
33
• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

– Concerns itself with the interoperability of
telecommunications systems, including data
communications and telephony.
– Telegraphy ,telecommunication,
• National groups establish standards within their
respective countries:
– The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– The British Standards Institution (BSI)
34
• The International Organization for

Standardization (ISO)
– Establishes worldwide standards for everything
from screw threads to photographic film.
– Is influential in formulating standards for
computer hardware and software, including their
methods of manufacture.
Note: ISO is not an acronym. ISO comes from the Greek,
isos, meaning “equal.”
35
1.5 Historical Development
• To fully appreciate the computers of today, it is

helpful to understand how things got the way they
are.
• The evolution of computing machinery has taken
place over several centuries.
• In modern times computer evolution is usually
classified into four generations according to the
salient technology of the era.
We note that many of the following dates are approximate.
36
• Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines

(1642 - 1945)
– Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard (1592 - 1635).
– Pascaline - Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662).
– Difference Engine - Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871),
also designed but never built the Analytical Engine.
– Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith
(1860 - 1929).
Hollerith cards were commonly used for
computer input well into the 1970s.
37
• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

(1945 - 1953)
– Atanasoff Berry
Computer (1937 -
1938) solved systems
of linear equations.
– John Atanasoff and
Clifford Berry of
Iowa State University.
38

(1945 - 1953)
– Electronic Numerical
Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC)
– John Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert
– University of
Pennsylvania, 1946
The first general-purpose computer.
39

(1945 - 1953)
– IBM 650
(1955)
– Phased out
in 1969.
The first mass-produced computer.

40
• The Second Generation: Transistorized

Computers (1954 - 1965)
– IBM 7094 (scientific)
and 1401 (business)
– Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC)
PDP-1
– Univac 1100
– . . . and many others.
DEC PDP-1
41
• The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit

Computers (1965 - 1980)
– IBM 360
– DEC PDP-8 and
PDP-11
– Cray-1
supercomputer
– . . . and many
IBM 360
others.
Cray-1
42
• The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers

(1980 - ????)
– Very large scale integrated circuits
(VLSI) have more than 10,000
components per chip.
– Enabled the creation of
microprocessors.
Intel
– The first was the 4-bit Intel 4004. 4004
Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, and 8088

spawned the idea of “personal computing.”
43
• Moore’s Law (1965)

– Gordon Moore, Intel founder
– “The density of transistors in an integrated circuit
will double every year.”
• Contemporary version:
– “The density of silicon chips doubles every 18
months.”
But this “law” cannot hold forever ...
44
• Rock’s Law
– Arthur Rock, Intel financier
– “The cost of capital equipment to build
semiconductors will double every four years.”
– In 1968, a new chip plant cost about $12,000.
At the time, $12,000 would buy a nice home in

the suburbs.
An executive earning $12,000 per year was
“making a very comfortable living.”
45
• Rock’s Law
– In 2003, a chip plants under construction will
cost over $2.5 billion.
$2.5 billion is more than the gross domestic
product of some small countries, including
Belize, Bhutan, and the Republic of Sierra
Leone.
– For Moore’s Law to hold, Rock’s Law must fall,
or vice versa. But no one can say which will
give out first.
46
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy
• Computers consist of many things besides

chips.
• Before a computer can do anything worthwhile,
it must also use software.
• Writing complex programs requires a “divide
and conquer” approach, where each program
module solves a smaller problem.
• Complex computer systems employ a similar
technique through a series of virtual machine
layers.
47
• Each virtual machine

layer is an abstraction of
the level below it.
• The machines at each
level execute their own
particular instructions,
calling upon machines at
lower levels to perform
tasks as required.
• Computer circuits
ultimately carry out the
work.
48
• Level 6: The User Level

– Program execution and user interface level.
– The level with which we are most familiar.
• Level 5: High-Level Language Level
– The level with which we interact when we write
programs in languages such as C, Pascal, Lisp, and
Java.
49
• Level 4: Assembly Language Level

– Acts upon assembly language produced from
Level 5, as well as instructions programmed
directly at this level.
• Level 3: System Software Level
– Controls executing processes on the system.
– Protects system resources.
– Assembly language instructions often pass
through Level 3 without modification.
50
• Level 2: Machine Level

– Also known as the Instruction Set Architecture
(ISA) Level.
– Consists of instructions that are particular to the
architecture of the machine.
– Programs written in machine language need no
compilers, interpreters, or assemblers.
51
• Level 1: Control Level

– A control unit decodes and executes instructions
and moves data through the system.
– Control units can be microprogrammed or
hardwired.
– A microprogram is a program written in a low-
level language that is implemented by the
hardware.
– Hardwired control units consist of hardware that
directly executes machine instructions.
52
• Level 0: Digital Logic Level

– This level is where we find digital circuits (the
chips).
– Digital circuits consist of gates and wires.
– These components implement the mathematical
logic of all other levels.
53
1.7 The von Neumann Model
• On the ENIAC,
all programming
was done at the
digital logic
level.
• Programming
the computer
involved moving
plugs and wires.
54
• Inventors of the ENIAC, John Mauchley and

J. Presper Eckert, conceived of a computer
that could store instructions in memory.
• The invention of this idea has since been
ascribed to a mathematician, John von
Neumann, who was a contemporary of
Mauchley and Eckert.
• Stored-program computers have become
known as von Neumann Architecture systems.
55
• Today’s stored-program computers have the

following characteristics:
– Three hardware systems:
• A central processing unit (CPU)
• A main memory system
• An I/O system
– The capacity to carry out sequential instruction
processing.
– A single data path between the CPU and main
memory.
• This single path is known as the von Neumann
bottleneck.
56
• This is a general
depiction of a von
Neumann system:
• These computers
employ a fetch-
decode-execute
cycle to run
programs as
follows . . .
57
• The control unit fetches the next instruction from

memory using the program counter to determine where
the instruction is located.
58
• The instruction is decoded into a language that the ALU

can understand.
59
• Any data operands required to execute the instruction

are fetched from memory and placed into registers within
the CPU.
60
• The ALU executes the instruction and places results in

registers or memory.
61
1.8 Non-von Neumann Models
• Conventional stored-program computers have

undergone many incremental improvements
over the years.
• These improvements include adding
specialized buses, floating-point units, and
cache memories, to name only a few.
• But enormous improvements in computational
power require departure from the classic von
Neumann architecture.
• Adding processors is one approach.
62
• In the late 1960s, high-performance computer

systems were equipped with dual processors
to increase computational throughput.
• In the 1970s supercomputer systems were
introduced with 32 processors.
• Supercomputers with 1,000 processors were
built in the 1980s.
• In 1999, IBM announced its Blue Gene
system containing over 1 million processors.
63
• Parallel processing is only one method of

providing increased computational power.
• More radical systems have reinvented the
fundamental concepts of computation.
• These advanced systems include genetic
computers, quantum computers, and dataflow
systems.
• At this point, it is unclear whether any of these
systems will provide the basis for the next
generation of computers.
64
Computing Systems
Computers have two kinds of components:

• Hardware, consisting of its physical devices
(CPU, memory, bus, storage devices, ...)
• Software, consisting of the programs it has
(Operating system, applications, utilities, ...)
Calvin College
FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF
COMPUTER
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Central processing Unit (ALU and Control
Units)
• Memory
• Bus Structure
The Big Picture
Processor
Input
Control
Memory
ALU
Output
Since 1946 all computers have had 5 components!!!

IMPORTANT
Function SLIDE !
• ALL computer functions are:

– Data PROCESSING Data = Information
– Data STORAGE
– Data MOVEMENT Coordinates How
– CONTROL Information is Used
• NOTHING ELSE!
INPUT UNIT:
• Converts the external world data to a binary format, which can

be understood by CPU
• Eg: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick etc
OUTPUT UNIT:
• Converts the binary format data to a format that a common man

can understand
• Eg: Monitor, Printer, LCD, LED etc

CPU
• The “brain” of the machine
• Responsible for carrying out computational task
• Contains ALU, CU, Registers
• ALU Performs Arithmetic and logical operations
• CU Provides control signals in accordance with some

timings which in turn controls the execution process
• Register Stores data and result and speeds up the operation

Example
Add R1, R2
T1 Enable R1
T2 Enable R2
T3 Enable ALU for addition operation
T4 Enable out put of ALU to store result of

the operation
• Control unit works
with a reference
T1 signal called
T2 processor clock
• Processor divides
the operations into
basic steps
R1 R2
• Each basic step is
executed in one
clock cycle
R2
MEMORY
• Stores data, results, programs
• Two class of storage

(i) Primary (ii) Secondary
• Two types are RAM or R/W memory and ROM read only
memory
• ROM is used to store data and program which is not going

to change.
• Secondary storage is used for bulk storage or mass storage

Basic Operational Concepts
Basic Function of Computer

• To Execute a given task as per the appropriate
program
• Program consists of list of instructions stored in

memory
Interconnection between Processor and
Memory
Registers
• Registers are fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data

temporarily. Multiple registers are needed to facilitate the
operation of the CPU. Some of these registers are special and
some special.
• Two registers-MAR (Memory Address Register) and MDR

(Memory Data Register) : To handle the data transfer between
main memory and processor. MAR-Holds addresses, MDR-
Holds data
• Instruction register (IR) : Hold the Instructions that is currently
being executed.
• Program counter: Points to the next instructions that is to be
fetched from memory
• (PC) (MAR)( the contents of PC
transferred to MAR)
• (MAR) (Address bus) Select a particular

memory location
• Issues RD control signals
• Reads instruction present in memory and loaded

into MDR
• Will be placed in IR (Contents transferred from

MDR to IR)
• Instruction present in IR will be decoded by
which processor understand what operation it has
to perform
• Increments the contents of PC by 1, so that it

points to the next instruction address
• If data required for operation is available in

register, it performs the operation
• If data is present in memory following sequence

is performed
• Address of the data MAR
• MAR Address bus select memory

location where is issued RD signal
• Reads data via data bus MDR
• From MDR data can be directly routed to ALU or it can be

placed in register and then operation can be performed
• Results of the operation can be directed towards output

device, memory or register
• Normal execution preempted (interrupt)

Interrupt
• An interrupt is a request from I/O device for service by
processor
• Processor provides requested service by executing
interrupt service routine (ISR)
• Contents of PC, general registers, and some control
information are stored in memory .
• When ISR completed, processor restored, so that
interrupted program may continue
Conclusion
• This chapter has given you an overview of the

subject of computer architecture.
• You should now be sufficiently familiar with
general system structure to guide your studies
throughout the remainder of this course.
• Subsequent chapters will explore many of
these topics in great detail.
81
End of Chapter 1
82

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Chapter 1

• Know the difference between computer

Why study computer organization and

* Assuming speed is not a concern.

Computers are classified based on the

• Processing &storage units, visual display &audio units,

• Compact form of personal computer (laptop)

ENTERPRISE SYSTEM (MAINFRAME)

• More computational power

• Faster than mainframes

• Hardware • Peripheral devices

• Assembly language program (ALP) – Programs are written

• Mnemonic – Instruction will be in the form of English like form

• Assembler – is a software which converts ALP to MLL

• HLL (High Level Language) – Programs are written using

• Compiler - Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading

• Interpreter – Converts HLL to MLL, does this job

• System software – Program routines which aid the user

• Operating system – Collection of routines responsible

• At the most basic level, a computer is a

Consider this advertisement: z? ?

Common Prefixes to Measure capacity and

• Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

Common Prefixes' used to Measure time and

• Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second

• We note that cycle time is the reciprocal of clock

133,000,000 cycles/second = 7.52ns/cycle

Now back to the advertisement ...

The microprocessor is the “brain” of

A system bus moves data within the

• Computers with large main memory capacity can

This system has 64MB of (fast)

… and two levels of cache memory, the level 1 (L1)

This one can store 30GB. 7200 RPM is the rotational

EIDE stands for enhanced integrated drive electronics,

A CD-ROM can store about 650MB of data, making

This system has

• Serial ports send data as a series of pulses along

This system has two PCI devices: a

This monitor has a dot pitch of

The graphics card contains memory and

Throughout the remainder of this course you

This statement raises two important questions:

• There are many organizations that set

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic

• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

• The International Organization for

• To fully appreciate the computers of today, it is

We note that many of the following dates are approximate.

• Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

The first mass-produced computer.

• The Second Generation: Transistorized

• The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit

• The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers

Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, and 8088

• Moore’s Law (1965)