Python

A. Rehman classes
 Introduction
• What is Python?
• Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and released in 1991.
• It is used for:
• web development (server-side),
• software development,
• mathematics,
• system scripting.
• What can Python do?
• Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
• Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
• Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
• Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
• Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready software development.
• Why Python?
• Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
• Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
• Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some other programming languages.
• Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
• Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a functional way.
• Good to know
• The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with anything other than
security updates, is still quite popular.
• In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or
Eclipse which are particularly useful when managing larger collections of Python files.
• Python Syntax compared to other programming languages
• Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the English language with influence from mathematics.
• Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
• Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages often use curly-
brackets for this purpose.
 Simple Program
• print("Hello, World!")
 Python Install

• Pycharm must be instrall on you computer.

 Python Syntax

• Python syntax can be executed by writing

directly in the Command Line:
• >>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!
 Python Indentation

• if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
• Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:
• if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
• he number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, but it
has to be at least one
• if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
 Python Comments

• Comments can be used to explain Python code.

• Comments can be used to make the code more
readable.
• Comments can be used to prevent execution
when testing code.
• #This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")
• print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment
 Multi Line Comments

• This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")”””
• ‘’’
print("Hello, World!")’’’
 Python Variables

• Creating Variables
• Python has no command for declaring a
variable.
• A variable is created the moment you first
assign a value to it.
• x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
 Casting

• x = str(3) # x will be '3'

y = int(“3”) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
 Get the Type

• x=5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
 Single or Double Quotes?

• x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
 Case-Sensitive

• Variable names are case-sensitive.

• a=4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
 Variable Names

• A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a

more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:A variable
name must start with a letter or the underscore
character
• A variable name cannot start with a number
• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric
characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
• Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE
are three different variables)
 Legal variable names:
• myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John“
• Illegal variable names:
• 2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
 Multiple Variabile name
• x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
• One Value to Multiple Variables
• x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
 Output Variables

• x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)

• x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z= x+y
print(z)
 Error
• x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
 Global Variables

• Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all

of the examples above) are known as global variables.
• Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of
functions and outside.
• x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()
• If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this
variable will be local, and can only be used inside the function.
The global variable with the same name will remain as it was,
global and with the original value.
• x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
 The global Keyword

• Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that

variable is local, and can only be used inside that function.
• To create a global variable inside a function, you can use
the global keyword.
• def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
 Python Data Types
• Built-in Data Types
• In programming, data type is an important concept.
• Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do
different things.
• Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

• Text Type: str

• Numeric Types:int,
• float, complex
• Sequence Types:list, tuple, range
• Mapping Type: dict
• Set Types:set, frozenset
• Boolean Type:bool
• Binary Types:bytes, bytearray, memoryview
Setting the Data Type
Setting the Specific Data Type
 Python Numbers

• There are three numeric types in Python:

• int
• float
• complex
• x = 1 int type
• y = 2.8 float type
• z = 1j complex

• print(type(x)) int type

• print(type(y)) float type
• print(type(z)) complex type
 Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited
length.

• x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
 Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or
more decimals.

• x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
• x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
 Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

• x = 3+5j
• y = 5j
• z = -5j

• print(type(x))
• print(type(y))
• print(type(z))
 Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

• x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))
• Random Number
• Python does not have a random() function to
make a random number, but Python has a
built-in module called random that can be
used to make random numbers:
• import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))
 Python Casting

• Specify a Variable Type

• There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable.
This can be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated
language, and as such it uses classes to define data types, including its
primitive types.
• Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:
• int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float
literal (by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the string
represents a whole number)
• float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal
or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
• str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals
• x = int(1)
• y = int(2.8)
• z = int("3")
• print(x)
• print(y)
• print(z)
• x = float(1) # x will be 1.0
y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
• x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
 Strings

• Strings in python are surrounded by either single

quotation marks, or double quotation marks.
• 'hello' is the same as "hello".
• You can display a string literal with the print() function:
• print("Hello")
print('Hello')
• a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)
• a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)
 Strings are Arrays

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

• Looping Through a String

• for x in "banana":
• print(x)
 String Length

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

• Check String
• txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("free" in txt)

• Use it in an if statement:
• txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")
 Check if NOT

• txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

• Use it in an if statement:

• txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("Yes, 'expensive' is NOT present.")
 Slicing Strings

• Slicing
• You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.
• Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the string.

• b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

• Slice From the Start

• b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

• Slice To the End

• b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])
 Negative Indexing

• b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])

• Modify Strings

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

• Lower Case

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

• Remove Whitespace

• a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!“
 Replace String

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

• Split String

• a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
 String Concatenation

• String Concatenation

• a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+b
print(c)

• a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+""+b
print(c)
 Format - Strings

• As we learned in the Python Variables chapter,

we cannot combine strings and numbers like
this:
• Error

• age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)
• age = 36
• txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
• print(txt.format(age))

• quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
 You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the
arguments are placed in the correct placeholders:

• quantity = 3
itemno =
price = 49.95675
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0}
pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
 Escape Characters

• Escape Character
• To insert characters that are illegal in a string,
use an escape character.
• An escape character is a backslash \ followed
by the character you want to insert.
• An example of an illegal character is a double
quote inside a string that is surrounded by
double
• Error
• txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the
north.“

• txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from

the north.“
Escape Characters
String Methods
• txt = "hello, and welcome to my world."

x = txt.capitalize()

print (x)

• txt = "Hello, And Welcome To My World!"

x = txt.casefold()

print(x)
• myTuple = ("John", "Peter", "Vicky")

• x = "#".join(myTuple)

• print(x)
 Booleans

• print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

• a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
 Evaluate Values and Variables
The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and
give you True or False in return,
• print(bool("Hello")) return true
print(bool(15)) return true

• x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))
• Most Values are True
• Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has
some sort of content.
• Any string is True, except empty strings.
• Any number is True, except 0.
• Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True,
except empty ones.
• print(bool("abc"))
• print(bool(123))
• print(bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"]))
• Some Values are False
• In fact, there are not many values that evaluate
to False, except empty values, such as (), [], {}, "", the
number 0, and the value None. And of course the
value False evaluates to False.

• bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})
 Functions can Return a Boolean

• def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())
*******************
def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")
 Check if an object is an integer or not:
• x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))
 Operators

• Python divides the operators in the following

groups:
• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Identity operators
• Membership operators
• Bitwise operators
Arithmetic Operators
 Lists
• List
• Lists are used to store multiple items in a single
variable.
• Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to
store collections of data, the other 3 are Tuple, Set,
and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
• Lists are created using square brackets:
• Example
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
• List Items
• List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
• List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

• Ordered
• When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

• If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the
list.

• Changeable
• The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in
a list after it has been created.

• Allow Duplicates
• Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
 Lists allow duplicate values:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

• List Length

• To determine how many items a list has, use

the len() function:
• Example
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))
 List Items - Data Types
List items can be of any data type:

• list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

• list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
• list3 = [True, False, False]

• print(list1)
• print(list2)
• print(list3)

• A list can contain different data types:

• list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

• print(list1)
 type()

• mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

• print(type(mylist))

• The list() Constructor

• It is also possible to use the list() constructor when
creating a new list.

• thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

• print(thislist)
• Python Collections (Arrays)
• There are four collection data types in the
Python programming language:
• List is a collection which is ordered and
changeable. Allows duplicate members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and
unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and
unindexed. No duplicate members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered*
and changeable. No duplicate members.
 Access List Items

• Access Items
• List items are indexed and you can access them by
referring to the index number:
• Example

• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

• print(thislist[1])

• Note: The first item has index 0.

 Negative Indexing

• Negative indexing means start from the end

• -1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the
second last item etc.

• Example
• Print the last item of the list:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])
 Range of Indexes

• You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and

where to end the range.
• When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the
specified items.
• Example
• Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

• thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
• Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).
• Remember that the first item has index 0.
• By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
• Example
• This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT
including, "kiwi":
• thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])

• By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the
list:
• Example
• This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:
• thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])
• Range of Negative Indexes
• Specify negative indexes if you want to start
the search from the end of the list:
• Example
• This example returns the items from "orange"
(-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1):
• thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])
• Check if Item Exists
• To determine if a specified item is present in a
list use the in keyword:
• Example
• Check if "apple" is present in the list:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
 Change List Items

• Change Item Value

• To change the value of a specific item, refer to
the index number:
• Example
• Change the second item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
 Change a Range of Item Values

• To change the value of items within a specific range,

define a list with the new values, and refer to the range
of index numbers where you want to insert the new
values:
• Example
• Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the
values "blackcurrant" and "watermelon":
• thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
• If you insert more items than you replace, the new
items will be inserted where you specified, and the
remaining items will move accordingly:
• Example
• Change the second value by replacing it
with two new values:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
• Note: The length of the list will change when the
number of items inserted does not match the
number of items replaced.
• If you insert less items than you replace, the
new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move
accordingly:
• Example
• Change the second and third value by
replacing it with one value:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
• Insert Items
• To insert a new list item, without replacing any
of the existing values, we can use
the insert() method.
• The insert() method inserts an item at the
specified index:
• Example
• Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
 Add List Items

• Append Items
• To add an item to the end of the list, use
the append() method:
• Example
• Using the append() method to append an item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
 Insert Items

• To insert a list item at a specified index, use

the insert() method.
• The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
• Example
• Insert an item as the second position:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

• Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now

contain 4 items.
 Extend List

• To append elements from another list to the

current list, use the extend() method.
• Example
• Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
 Add Any Iterable

• The extend() method does not have to

append lists, you can add any iterable object
(tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).
• Example
• Add elements of a tuple to a list:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
 Remove List Items

• Remove Specified Item

• The remove() method removes the specified
item.
• Example
• Remove "banana":
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
 Remove Specified Index

• The pop() method removes the specified index.

• Example
• Remove the second item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
• If you do not specify the index,
the pop() method removes the last item.
• Example
• Remove the last item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

• The del keyword also removes the specified index:

• Example
• Remove the first item:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
• The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
• Example
• Delete the entire list:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist

• Clear the List

• The clear() method empties the list.
• The list still remains, but it has no content.
• Example
• Clear the list content:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
 Loop Lists

• Loop Through a List

• You can loop through the list items by using
a for loop:
• Example
• Print all items in the list, one by one:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)
• Loop Through the Index Numbers
• You can also loop through the list items by referring to
their index number.
• Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable
iterable.
• Example
• Print all items by referring to their index number:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
• Using a While Loop
• You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
• Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at
0 and loop your way through the list items by refering to their
indexes.
• Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
• Example
• Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1
• Looping Using List Comprehension
• List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax
for looping through lists:
• Example
• A short hand for loop that will print all items in
a list:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[print(x) for x in thislist]
 List Comprehension

• List Comprehension
• List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you
want to create a new list based on the values of an
existing list.
• Example:
• Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing
only the fruits with the letter "a" in the name.
• Without list comprehension you will have to write
a for statement with a conditional test inside:
• Example
• fruits =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)
• With list comprehension you can do all that
with only one line of code:
• Example
• fruits =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)
 Sort Lists

• Sort List Alphanumerically

• List objects have a sort() method that will sort the
list alphanumerically, ascending, by default:
• Example
• Sort the list alphabetically:
• thislist =
["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
• Example
• Sort the list numerically:
• thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
• Sort Descending
• To sort descending, use the keyword
argument reverse = True:
• Example
• Sort the list descending:
• thislist =
["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
• Example
• Sort the list descending:
• thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
• Case Insensitive Sort
• By default the sort() method is case sensitive,
resulting in all capital letters being sorted before
lower case letters:
• Example
• Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
• thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
• Luckily we can use built-in functions as key
functions when sorting a list.
• So if you want a case-insensitive sort function,
use str.lower as a key function:
• Example
• Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:
• thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
• Reverse Order
• What if you want to reverse the order of a list,
regardless of the alphabet?
• The reverse() method reverses the current sorting
order of the elements.
• Example
• Reverse the order of the list items:
• thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
 Copy Lists

• Copy a List
• You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1,
because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and changes
made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
• There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in
List method copy().
• Example
• Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
• Another way to make a copy is to use the
built-in method list().
• Example
• Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
• thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
 Join Lists

• Join Two Lists

• There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more
lists in Python.
• One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
• Example
• Join two list:
• list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
• Another way to join two lists are by appending all the
items from list2 into list1, one by one:
• Example
• Append list2 into list1:
• list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)
• Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose
is to add elements from one list to another list:
• Example
• Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of
list1:
• list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
List Methods
 Tuples

• mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

• Tuple
• Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single
variable.
• Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to
store collections of data, the other 3 are List, Set, and
Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
• A tuple is a collection which is ordered
and unchangeable.
• Tuples are written with round brackets.
 Example
• Tuple Items
• Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate
values.
• Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the
second item has index [1] etc.

• Ordered

• When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the

items have a defined order, and that order will not change.
 Unchangeable

• Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we

cannot change, add or remove items after the
tuple has been created.
• Allow Duplicates
• Since tuple are indexed, tuples can have items
with the same value:
• thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)
 Tuple Length

• thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

• print(len(thistuple))

• Create Tuple With One Item

• To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma
after the item, otherwise Python will not recognize it as a tuple.
• thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))
 Tuple Items - Data Types

• tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

• tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
• tuple3 = (True, False, False)

• print(tuple1)
• print(tuple2)
• print(tuple3)
 A tuple can contain different data types:

• tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

• print(tuple1)

• type()

• mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))
 The tuple() Constructor

• It is also possible to use

the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
• thistuple =
tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))
• # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)
 Python Collections (Arrays)

• There are four collection data types in the Python

programming language:
• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable.
Allows duplicate members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and
unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and
unindexed. No duplicate members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered* and
changeable. No duplicate members.
 Access Tuple Items

• Access Tuple Items

• You can access tuple items by referring to the
index number, inside square brackets:
• Example
• Print the second item in the tuple:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])
• Note: The first item has index 0.
 Negative Indexing

• Negative indexing means start from the end.

• -1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the
second last item etc.
• Example
• Print the last item of the tuple:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[-1])
 Range of Indexes

• You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and

where to end the range.
• When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with
the specified items.
• Example
• Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
• thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
• Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5
(not included).
• Remember that the first item has index 0.
• By leaving out the start value, the range will
start at the first item:
• Example
• This example returns the items from the
beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":
• thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])
• By leaving out the end value, the range will go
on to the end of the list:
• Example
• This example returns the items from "cherry"
and to the end:
• thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])
 Range of Negative Indexes

• Specify negative indexes if you want to start the

search from the end of the tuple:
• Example
• This example returns the items from index -4
(included) to index -1 (excluded)
• thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])
 Check if Item Exists

• To determine if a specified item is present in a

tuple use the in keyword:
• Example
• Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
 Update Tuples

• Tuples are unchangeable, meaing that you cannot

change, add, or remove items once the tuple is created.
• But there are some workarounds.
• Change Tuple Values
• Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values.
Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is
called.
• But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple
into a list, change the list, and convert the list back into
a tuple.
• Example
• Convert the tuple into a list to be able to
change it:
• x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)
 Add Items

• Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items

to it.
• Example Error program
• You cannot add items to a tuple:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple.append("orange") # This will raise an
error
print(thistuple)
• Just like the workaround for changing a tuple,
you can convert it into a list, add your item(s),
and convert it back into a tuple.
• Example
• Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and
convert it back into a tuple:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)
 Unpack Tuples

• Unpacking a Tuple
• When we create a tuple, we normally assign
values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:
• Example
• Packing a tuple:
• fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
• But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into
variables. This is called "unpacking":
• Example
• Unpacking a tuple:
• fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

• Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in

the tuple, if not, you must use an asterix to collect the remaining
values as a list.
 Using Asterisk*

• If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you

can add an * to the variable name and the values will be
assigned to the variable as a list:
• Example
• Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
• fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
• If the asterix is added to another variable name than the
last, Python will assign values to the variable until the
number of values left matches the number of variables left.

• Example
• Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:
• fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
 Loop Tuples

• Loop Through a Tuple

• You can loop through the tuple items by using
a for loop.
• Example
• Iterate through the items and print the values:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in thistuple:
print(x)
 Loop Through the Index Numbers

• You can also loop through the tuple items by

referring to their index number.
• Use the range() and len() functions to create a
suitable iterable.
• Example
• Print all items by referring to their index number:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])
 Using a While Loop

• ou can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

• Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start
at 0 and loop your way through the tuple items by refering to their
indexes.
• Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
• Example
• Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index
numbers:
• thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
i=0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i=i+1
 Join Tuples

• Join Two Tuples

• To join two or more tuples you can use
the + operator:
• Example
• Join two tuples:
• tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")
tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
 Multiply Tuples

• If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a

given number of times, you can use
the * operator:
• Example
• Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:
• fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)
 Tuple Methods

• Tuple Methods
• Python has two built-in methods that you can use on
tuples.
• MethodDescription
count()
• Returns the number of times a specified value occurs
in a tuple
index()
• Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the
position of where it was found
 Sets

• myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

• Set
• Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
• Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of
data, the other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different
qualities and usage.
• A set is a collection which is both unordered and unindexed.
• Sets are written with curly brackets.

• Example
• Create a Set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)
• # Note: the set list is unordered, meaning: the
items will appear in a random order.

• # Refresh this page to see the change in the

result.

• Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be

sure in which order the items will appear.
• Set Items
• Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not
allow duplicate values.
• Unordered
• Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a
defined order.
• Set items can appear in a different order every time you
use them, and cannot be referred to by index or key.
• Unchangeable
• Sets are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change
the items after the set has been created.
• Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but
you can add new items.
 Duplicates Not Allowed

• Sets cannot have two items with the same

value.
• Example
• Duplicate values will be ignored:
• thisset =
{"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)
 Get the Length of a Set

• To determine how many items a set has, use

the len() method.
• Example
• Get the number of items in a set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))
 Set Items - Data Types

• Set items can be of any data type:

• Example
• String, int and boolean data types:
• set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
• set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
• set3 = {True, False, False}

• print(set1)
• print(set2)
• print(set3)
 A set can contain different data types
• Example
• A set with strings, integers and boolean values:
• set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

• type()
• From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the
data type 'set':
• <class 'set'>
• Example
• What is the data type of a set?
• myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(type(myset))
• The set() Constructor
• It is also possible to use the set() constructor
to make a set.
• Example
• Using the set() constructor to make a set:
• thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) #
note the double round-brackets
print(thisset)
 Access Set Items

• Access Items
• You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a
key.
• But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask
if a specified value is present in a set, by using the in keyword.
• Example
• Loop through the set, and print the values:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)
• Example
• Check if "banana" is present in the set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

• Change Items
• Once a set is created, you cannot change its
items, but you can add new items.
 Add Set Items

• Add Items
• Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you
can add new items.
• To add one item to a set use the add() method.
• Example
• Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)
 Add Sets

• To add items from another set into the current set,

use the update() method.
• Example
• Add elements from tropical and thisset into newset:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)
 Add Any Iterable

• The object in the update() method does not have be a

set, it can be any iterable object (tuples, lists, dictionaries
etc.).
• Example
• Add elements of a list to at set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)
 Remove Set Items

• Remove Item
• To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
• Example
• Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

• Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
 discard
• Example
• Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)
• Note: If the item to remove does not
exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
• You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this
method will remove the last item. Remember that sets are
unordered, so you will not know what item that gets removed.
• The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
• Example
• Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)
• Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do
not know which item that gets removed.
• Example
• The clear() method empties the set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

• Example
• The del keyword will delete the set completely:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)
 Loop Sets

• Loop Items
• You can loop through the set items by using
a for loop:
• Example
• Loop through the set, and print the values:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)
 Join Sets

• Join Two Sets

• There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
• You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items
from both sets, or the update() method that inserts all the items from one
set into another:
• Example
• The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
• Example
• The update() method inserts the items in set2
into set1:
• set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
• Note: Both union() and update() will exclude
any duplicate items.
 Keep ONLY the Duplicates

• The intersection_update() method will keep only the

items that are present in both sets.
• Example
• Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.intersection_update(y)

print(x)
• The intersection() method will return a new set, that
only contains the items that are present in both sets.
• Example
• Return a set that contains the items that exist in
both set x, and set y:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.intersection(y)

print(z)
 Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

• The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep

only the elements that are NOT present in both sets.
• Example
• Keep the items that are not present in both sets:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.symmetric_difference_update(y)

print(x)
• The symmetric_difference() method will return a
new set, that contains only the elements that are
NOT present in both sets.
• Example
• Return a set that contains all items from both sets,
except items that are present in both:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.symmetric_difference(y)

print(z)
Set Methods
 Dictionaries

• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
 Dictionary

• Dictionaries are used to store data values in

key:value pairs.
• A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*,
changeable and does not allow duplicates.
• As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries
are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.
• Dictionaries are written with curly brackets,
and have keys and values:
• Example
• Create and print a dictionary:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)
 Dictionary Items

• Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow

duplicates.
• Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be
referred to by using the key name.
• Example
• Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])
 Ordered or Unordered?

• As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6

and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
• When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the
items have a defined order, and that order will not change.
• Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order,
you cannot refer to an item by using an index.

• Changeable
• Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or
remove items after the dictionary has been created.
 Duplicates Not Allowed

• Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

• Example
• Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
 Dictionary Length

• To determine how many items a dictionary

has, use the len() function:
• Example
• Print the number of items in the dictionary:
• print(len(thisdict))
 Dictionary Items - Data Types

• The values in dictionary items can be of any data

type:
• Example
• String, int, boolean, and list data types:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}
 type()

• From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as

objects with the data type 'dict':
• <class 'dict'>
• Example
• Print the data type of a dictionary:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))
 Access Dictionary Items

• Accessing Items
• You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its
key name, inside square brackets:
• Example
• Get the value of the "model" key:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]
• There is also a method called get() that will
give you the same result:
• Example
• Get the value of the "model" key:
• x = thisdict.get("model")
 Get Keys

• The keys() method will return a list of all the

keys in the dictionary.
• Example
• Get a list of the keys:
• x = thisdict.keys()
• The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.
• Example
• Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:
• car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

 Get Values

• The values() method will return a list of all the

values in the dictionary.
• Example
• Get a list of the values:
• x = thisdict.values()
• The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.
• Example
• Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list
gets updated as well:
• car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

 Example

• Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:
• car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

 Get Items

• The items() method will return each item in a

dictionary, as tuples in a list.
• Example
• Get a list of the key:value pairs
• x = thisdict.items()
• The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
• Example
• Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:
• car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

• Example
• Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items
list gets updated as well:
• car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

 Check if Key Exists

• To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use

the in keyword:
• Example
• Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict
dictionary")
 Change Dictionary Items

• Change Values
• You can change the value of a specific item by referring to
its key name:
• Example
• Change the "year" to 2018:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018
 Update Dictionary

• The update() method will update the dictionary with the items
from the given argument.
• The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with
key:value pairs.
• Example
• Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})
 Add Dictionary Items

• Adding Items
• Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new
index key and assigning a value to it:
• Example
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)
 Update Dictionary

• The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from
a given argument. If the item does not exist, the item will be added.
• The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with
key:value pairs.
• Example
• Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})
 Remove Dictionary Items

• Removing Items
• There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
• Example
• The pop() method removes the item with the specified key
name:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
 Example

• The popitem() method removes the last inserted

item (in versions before 3.7, a random item is
removed instead):
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
 Example

• The del keyword removes the item with the

specified key name:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
 Example

• The del keyword can also delete the dictionary

completely:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because
"thisdict" no longer exists.
 Example

• The clear() method empties the dictionary:

• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
 Loop Dictionaries

• Loop Through a Dictionary

• You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.
• When looping through a dictionary, the return value
are the keys of the dictionary, but there are methods
to return the values as well.
• Example
• Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
• for x in thisdict:
print(x)
 Example

• Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

• for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
 Example

• You can also use the values() method to return

values of a dictionary:
• for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
 Example

• You can use the keys() method to return the

keys of a dictionary:
• for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
 Example

• Loop through both keys and values, by using

the items() method:
• for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)
 Copy Dictionaries

• Copy a Dictionary
• You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will
only be a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also
be made in dict2.
• There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().
• Example
• Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

• Example
• Make a copy of a dictionary with
the dict() function:
• thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)
 Nested Dictionaries

• Nested Dictionaries
• A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.
• Example
• Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
• myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : ”Ajay”,
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : ”Vijay",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : “Rahul",
"year" : 2011
}
}
• Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:
• Example
• Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three
dictionaries:
• child1 = {
"name" : ”Ajay",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : “Vijay",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : “Rahul",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}
Dictionary Methods
 If ... Else

• Python Conditions and If statements

• Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
• Equals: a == b
• Not Equals: a != b
• Less than: a < b
• Less than or equal to: a <= b
• Greater than: a > b
• Greater than or equal to: a >= b
• These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.
• An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.
• Example
• If statement:
• a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
 Elif

• The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous

conditions were not true, then try this condition".
• Example
• a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
 Else

• The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by

the preceding conditions.
• Example
• a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")
 Short Hand If

• If you have only one statement to execute,

you can put it on the same line as the if
statement.
• Example
• One line if statement:
• if a > b: print("a is greater than b")
 Short Hand If ... Else

• If you have only one statement to execute, one for

if, and one for else, you can put it all on the same
line:
• Example
• One line if else statement:
• a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")
• This technique is known as Ternary Operators,
or Conditional Expressions.
• Example
• One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
• a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a ==
b else print("B")
 And

• The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to

combine conditional statements:
• Example
• Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:
• a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")
 Or

• The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used

to combine conditional statements:
• Example
• Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:
• a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
• if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")
 Nested If

• You can have if statements inside if statements, this is

called nested if statements.
• Example
• x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")
 The pass Statement

• if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some

reason have an if statement with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
• Example
• a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass
 While Loops

• The while Loop

• With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as
long as a condition is true.
• Example
• Print i as long as i is less than 6:
• i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
• Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will
continue forever.
 The break Statement

• With the break statement we can stop the loop

even if the while condition is true:
• Example
• Exit the loop when i is 3:
• i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
 The continue Statement

• With the continue statement we can stop the

current iteration, and continue with the next:
• Example
• Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:
• i=0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)
 The else Statement

• With the else statement we can run a block of code

once when the condition no longer is true:
• Example
• Print a message once the condition is false:
• i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")
 Loops

• Loops
• A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a
tuple, a dictionary, a set, or a string).
• This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and
works more like an iterator method as found in other object-
orientated programming languages.
• With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each
item in a list, tuple, set etc.
• Example
• Print each fruit in a fruit list:
• fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
 Looping Through a String

• Even strings are iterable objects, they contain

a sequence of characters:
• Example
• Loop through the letters in the word
"banana":
• for x in "banana":
print(x)
 The break Statement

• With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has
looped through all the items:
• Example
• Exit the loop when x is "banana":
• fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break
 Example

• Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time

the break comes before the print:
• fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
 The continue Statement

• With the continue statement we can stop the

current iteration of the loop, and continue with the
next:
• Example
• Do not print banana:
• fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
• The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting
value, however it is possible to specify the
starting value by adding a parameter: range(2,
6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not
including 6):
• Example
• Using the start parameter:
• for x in range(2, 6):
print(x)
• The range() function defaults to increment the
sequence by 1, however it is possible to
specify the increment value by adding a third
parameter: range(2, 30, 3):
• Example
• Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):
• for x in range(2, 30, 3):
print(x)
 Else in For Loop

• The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block

of code to be executed when the loop is finished:
• Example
• Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a
message when the loop has ended:
• for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
 The range() Function

• To loop through a set of code a specified number of times,

we can use the range() function,
• The range() function returns a sequence of numbers,
starting from 0 by default, and increments by 1 (by default),
and ends at a specified number.
• Example
• Using the range() function:
• for x in range(6):
print(x)
• Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is
stopped by a break statement.
• Example
• Break the loop when x is 3, and see what
happens with the else block:
• for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
 Nested Loops

• A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

• The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each
iteration of the "outer loop":
• Example
• Print each adjective for every fruit:
• adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)
 The pass Statement

• for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some

reason have a for loop with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
• Example
• for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass
 Functions

• A function is a block of code which only runs when it

is called.
• You can pass data, known as parameters, into a
function.
• A function can return data as a result.
• Creating a Function
• In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:
• Example
• def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
 Calling a Function

• To call a function, use the function name

followed by parenthesis:
• Example
• def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()
 Arguments

• Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

• Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses.
You can add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a
comma.
• The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When
the function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the
function to print the full name:
• Example
• def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")
 Parameters or Arguments?

• The terms parameter and argument can be

used for the same thing: information that are
passed into a function.
• From a function's perspective:
• A parameter is the variable listed inside the
parentheses in the function definition.
• An argument is the value that is sent to the
function when it is called.
 Number of Arguments

• By default, a function must be called with the correct

number of arguments. Meaning that if your function
expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function with
2 arguments, not more, and not less.
• Example
• This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2
arguments:
• def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")
• If you try to call the function with 1 or 3
arguments, you will get an error:Example
• This function expects 2 arguments, but gets
only 1:
• Error program
• def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")
 Arbitrary Arguments, *args

• If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed

into your function, add a * before the parameter name in the
function definition.
• This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can
access the items accordingly:
• Example
• If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the
parameter name:
• def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

 Keyword Arguments

• You can also send arguments with

the key = value syntax.
• This way the order of the arguments does not
matter.
• Example
• def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias",

child3 = "Linus")
 Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

• If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be

passed into your function, add two asterisk: ** before the
parameter name in the function definition.
• This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments,
and can access the items accordingly:
• Example
• If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a
double ** before the parameter name:
• def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

 Default Parameter Value

• The following example shows how to use a default parameter

value.
• If we call the function without argument, it uses the default
value:
• Example
• def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")
 Passing a List as an Argument

• You can send any data types of argument to a function (string,

number, list, dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same
data type inside the function.
• E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it
reaches the function:
• Example
• def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)
 Return Values

• To let a function return a value, use

the return statement:
• Example
• def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))
 The pass Statement

• function definitions cannot be empty, but if

you for some reason have a function definition
with no content, put in the pass statement to
avoid getting an error.
• Example
• def myfunction():
pass
 Lambda

• A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

• A lambda function can take any number of arguments,
but can only have one expression.
• Syntax
• lambda arguments : expression
• The expression is executed and the result is returned:
• Example
• Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:
• x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))
• Lambda functions can take any number of
arguments:
• Example
• Multiply argument a with argument b and
return the result:
• x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))
• Example
• Summarize argument a, b, and c and return
the result:
• x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))
 Why Use Lambda Functions?

• The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function
inside another function.
• Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will
be multiplied with an unknown number:
• def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

• Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you
send in:
• Example
• def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))
• Or, use the same function definition to make a
function that always triples the number you
send in:
• Example
• def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))
• Or, use the same function definition to make
both functions, in the same program:
• Example
• def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))
 Arrays
• Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but
Python Lists can be used instead.
• Arrays
• Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS,
however, to work with arrays in Python you will have to
import a library, like the NumPy library.
• Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single
variable:
• Example
• Create an array containing car names:
• cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]
• What is an Array?
• An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.
• If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:
• car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"
• However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one?
And what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?
• The solution is an array!
• An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.
• Access the Elements of an Array
• You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.
• Example
• Get the value of the first array item:
• x = cars[0]
• The Length of an Array
• Use the len() method to return the length of
an array (the number of elements in an array).
• Example
• Return the number of elements in
the cars array:
• x = len(cars)
• Looping Array Elements
• You can use the for in loop to loop through all
the elements of an array.
• Example
• Print each item in the cars array:
• for x in cars:
print(x)
• Adding Array Elements
• You can use the append() method to add an
element to an array.
• Example
• Add one more element to the cars array:
• cars.append("Honda")
• Removing Array Elements
• You can use the pop() method to remove an
element from the array.
• Example
• Delete the second element of the cars array:
• cars.pop(1)
• You can also use the remove() method to
remove an element from the array.
• Example
• Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":
• cars.remove("Volvo")
Array Methods
 Classes and Objects
• Python Classes/Objects
• Python is an object oriented programming language.
• Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and
methods.
• A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating
objects.
• Create a Class
• To create a class, use the keyword class:
• Example
• Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:
• class MyClass:
x=5
 Create Object

• Now we can use the class named MyClass to

create objects:
• Example
• Create an object named p1, and print the
value of x:
• p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)
 The __init__() Function
• The examples above are classes and objects in their
simplest form, and are not really useful in real life
applications.
• To understand the meaning of classes we have to
understand the built-in __init__() function.
• All classes have a function called __init__(), which is
always executed when the class is being initiated.
• Use the __init__() function to assign values to object
properties, or other operations that are necessary to
do when the object is being created:
 Example

• Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign

values for name and age:
• class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)
• Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time
the class is being used to create a new object
 Object Methods

• Objects can also contain methods. Methods in

objects are functions that belong to the
object.
• Let us create a method in the Person class:
• Example
• Insert a function that prints a greeting, and
execute it on the p1 object:
 Example
• class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
• Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of
the class, and is used to access variables that belong to the class.
 The self Parameter

• The self parameter is a reference to the

current instance of the class, and is used to
access variables that belongs to the class.
• It does not have to be named self , you can
call it whatever you like, but it has to be the
first parameter of any function in the class:
 Example

• Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

• class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
• Modify Object Properties
• You can modify properties on objects like this:
• Example
• Set the age of p1 to 40:
• p1.age = 40
 Example
• class Person:
• def __init__(self, name, age):
• self.name = name
• self.age = age

• def myfunc(self):
• print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

• p1 = Person("John", 36)

• p1.age = 40

• print(p1.age)
 Delete Object Properties

• You can delete properties on objects by using

the del keyword:
• Example
• Delete the age property from the p1 object:
del p1.age
 Example
• class Person:
• def __init__(self, name, age):
• self.name = name
• self.age = age

• def myfunc(self):
• print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

• p1 = Person("John", 36)

• del p1.age

• print(p1.age)
 Delete Objects

• You can delete objects by using

the del keyword:
• Example
• Delete the p1 object:
• del p1
 Example
• class Person:
• def __init__(self, name, age):
• self.name = name
• self.age = age

• def myfunc(self):
• print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

• p1 = Person("John", 36)

• del p1

• print(p1)
 The pass Statement

• class definitions cannot be empty, but if you

for some reason have a class definition with
no content, put in the pass statement to avoid
getting an error.
• Example
• class Person:
pass
 Inheritance

• Python Inheritance
• Inheritance allows us to define a class that
inherits all the methods and properties from
another class.
• Parent class is the class being inherited from,
also called base class.
• Child class is the class that inherits from
another class, also called derived class.
 Create a Parent Class

• Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other class:
• Example
• Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and
a printname method:
• class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()
 Create a Child Class

• To create a class that inherits the functionality from another

class, send the parent class as a parameter when creating the
child class:
• Example
• Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties
and methods from the Person class:
• class Student(Person):
pass
• Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any
other properties or methods to the class.
• Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as
the Person class.
 Example

• Use the Student class to create an object, and

then execute the printname method:
• x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()
 Complete Example
• class Person:
• def __init__(self, fname, lname):
• self.firstname = fname
• self.lastname = lname

• def printname(self):
• print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

• class Student(Person):
• pass

• x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
• x.printname()
 Add the __init__() Function

• So far we have created a child class that

inherits the properties and methods from its
parent.
• We want to add the __init__() function to the
child class (instead of the pass keyword).
• Note: The __init__() function is called
automatically every time the class is being
used to create a new object.
 Example
• Add the __init__() function to
the Student class:
• class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.
• When you add the __init__() function, the
child class will no longer inherit the
parent's __init__() function.
• Note: The
child's __init__() function overrides the
inheritance of the parent's __init__() function.
• To keep the inheritance of the
parent's __init__() function, add a call to the
parent's __init__() function:
 Example
• class Person:
• def __init__(self, fname, lname):
• self.firstname = fname
• self.lastname = lname

• def printname(self):
• print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

• class Student(Person):
• def __init__(self, fname, lname):
• Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

• x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
• x.printname()
• Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the inheritance of
the parent class, and we are ready to add functionality in the __init__() function.
 Use the super() Function
• Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the
methods and properties from its parent:
• Example
class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()
• By using the super() function, you do not have
to use the name of the parent element, it will
automatically inherit the methods and
properties from its parent.
 Example
class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = 2019

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
print(x.graduationyear)
In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into the Student class
when creating student objects. To do so, add another parameter in the __init__() function:
 Example
Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

print(x.graduationyear)
 Add Methods
Example
Add a method called welcome to the Student class:
class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", self.firstname, self.lastname, "to the class of", self.graduationyear)

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

x.welcome()
• If you add a method in the child class with the same name as a function in the parent class, the
inheritance of the parent method will be overridden.
 Python Iterators

• Python Iterators
• An iterator is an object that contains a countable
number of values.
• An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon,
meaning that you can traverse through all the
values.
• Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object
which implements the iterator protocol, which
consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().
 Iterator vs Iterable

• Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all

iterable objects. They are
iterable containers which you can get an
iterator from.
• All these objects have a iter() method which is
used to get an iterator:
 Example

• Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each

value:
• mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
 Example

• Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence

of characters:
• mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
 Create an Iterator

• To create an object/class as an iterator you have to

implement the methods __iter__() and __next__() to your
object.
• As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter,
all classes have a function called __init__(), which allows you
to do some initializing when the object is being created.
• The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations
(initializing etc.), but must always return the iterator object
itself.
• The __next__() method also allows you to do operations,
and must return the next item in the sequence.
 Example

• Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will increase by one
(returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):
• class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
 StopIteration
• The example above would continue forever if
you had enough next() statements, or if it was
used in a for loop.
• To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we
can use the StopIteration statement.
• In the __next__() method, we can add a
terminating condition to raise an error if the
iteration is done a specified number of times:
 Example
Stop after 20 iterations:

• class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)
 Python Modules
• What is a Module?
• Consider a module to be the same as a code
library.
• A file containing a set of functions you want to
include in your application.
• Create a Module
• To create a module just save the code you
want in a file with the file extension .py:
 Example

• Save this code in a file named mymodule.py

• def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
 Use a Module
• Now we can use the module we just created, by
using the import statement:
• Example
• Import the module named mymodule, and call the
greeting function:
• import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")
• Note: When using a function from a module, use
the syntax: module_name.function_name.
 Variables in Module

• The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types
(arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):
• Example
• Save this code in the file mymodule.py
• person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}
• Use
• Example
• Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
• import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)
 Naming a Module
• You can name the module file whatever you like, but it
must have the file extension .py
• Re-naming a Module
• You can create an alias when you import a module, by
using the as keyword:
• Example
• Create an alias for mymodule called mx:
• import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)
 Built-in Modules
• There are several built-in modules in Python,
which you can import whenever you like.
• Example
• Import and use the platform module:
• import platform

x = platform.system()
print(x)
 Using the dir() Function
• There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or
variable names) in a module. The dir() function:
• Example
• List all the defined names belonging to the platform
module:
• import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)
• Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also
the ones you create yourself.
 Import From Module
• You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using
the from keyword.
• Example
• The module named mymodule has one function and one
dictionary:
• def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}
 Example
• Import only the person1 dictionary from the
module:
from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])
• Note: When importing using the from keyword, do
not use the module name when referring to
elements in the module.
Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["
age"]
 Python Datetime

• A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but

we can import a module named datetime to work
with dates as date objects.
• Example
• Import the datetime module and display the current
date:
• import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)
 Date Output
• When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:
• 2021-05-04 16:19:18.317711The date contains year, month, day, hour,
minute, second, and microsecond.
• The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date
object.
• Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this chapter:
• Example
• Return the year and name of weekday:
• import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))
 Creating Date Objects
• To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of
the datetime module.
• The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year,
month, day.
• Example
• Create a date object:
• import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)

print(x)
• The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour,
minute, second, microsecond, tzone), but they are optional, and has a
default value of 0, (None for timezone).
 The strftime() Method
• The datetime object has a method for formatting date objects
into readable strings.
• The method is called strftime(), and takes one
parameter, format, to specify the format of the returned string:
• Example
• Display the name of the month:
• import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)

print(x.strftime("%B"))
 Python Math
• Python has a set of built-in math functions, including an
extensive math module, that allows you to perform
mathematical tasks on numbers.
• Built-in Math Functions
• The min() and max() functions can be used to find the lowest
or highest value in an iterable:
• Example
• x = min(5, 10, 25)
y = max(5, 10, 25)

print(x)
print(y)
• The abs() function returns the absolute (positive) value of
the specified number:
• Example
• x = abs(-7.25)

print(x)
• The pow(x, y) function returns the value of x to the power of
y (xy).
• Example
• Return the value of 4 to the power of 3 (same as 4 * 4 * 4):
• x = pow(4, 3)

print(x)
 The Math Module
• Python has also a built-in module called math, which extends the list of
mathematical functions.
• To use it, you must import the math module:
• import math
• When you have imported the math module, you can start using methods
and constants of the module.
• The math.sqrt() method for example, returns the square root of a number:
• Example
import math

x = math.sqrt(64)

print(x)
 The math.ceil() method
• rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and
the math.floor() method rounds a number downwards to
its nearest integer, and returns the result:
• Example
• import math

x = math.ceil(1.4)
y = math.floor(1.4)

print(x) # returns 2
print(y) # returns 1
• The math.pi constant, returns the value of PI
(3.14...):
• Example
• import math

x = math.pi

print(x)
 Python Try Except
• The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.
• The except block lets you handle the error.
• The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try-
and except blocks.
• Exception Handling
• When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop
and generate an error message.
• These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:
• Example
• The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:
• try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")
 Many Exceptions
• You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if
you want to execute a special block of code for a special kind
of error:
• Example
• Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and
another for other errors:
• try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")
 Else

• You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to

be executed if no errors were raised:
• Example
• In this example, the try block does not generate any
error:
• try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")
 Finally

• The finally block, if specified, will be executed

regardless if the try block raises an error or not.
• Example
• try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")
• This can be useful to close objects and clean up
resources:
• Example
• Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:
• try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
f.write("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the
file")
finally:
f.close()
 Raise an exception
• As a Python developer you can choose to throw an
exception if a condition occurs.
• To throw (or raise) an exception, use the raise keyword.
• Example
• Raise an error and stop the program if x is lower than
0:
• x = -1

if x < 0:
raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")
• The raise keyword is used to raise an exception.
• You can define what kind of error to raise, and
the text to print to the user.
• Example
Raise a TypeError if x is not an integer:
x = "hello"

if not type(x) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integers are allowed")
 Python File Open

• File handling is an important part of any web application.

• Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.
• File Handling
• The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.
• The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.
• There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:
• "r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist
• "a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist
• "w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist
• "x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists
• In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode
• "t" - Text - Default value. Text mode
• "b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)
 Syntax

• To open a file for reading it is enough to specify

the name of the file:
f = open("demofile.txt")
• The code above is the same as:
• f = open("demofile.txt", "rt")
• Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the
default values, you do not need to specify them.
• Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get
an error.
 Open a File on the Server

• Assume we have the following file, located in the

same folder as Python:
• demofile.txt
• Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt
This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!
• To open the file, use the built-in open() function.
• The open() function returns a file object, which has
a read() method for reading the content of the file:
 Example
f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

• If the file is located in a different location, you will

have to specify the file path, like this:
• Example
• Open a file on a different location:
f = open("D:\\myfiles\welcome.txt", "r")
print(f.read())
 Read Only Parts of the File

• By default the read() method returns the

whole text, but you can also specify how many
characters you want to return:
• Example
• Return the 5 first characters of the file:
• f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))
 File Write

• Write to an Existing File

• To write to an existing file, you must add a
parameter to the open() function:
• "a" - Append - will append to the end of the
file
• "w" - Write - will overwrite any existing
content
 Example

• Open the file "demofile2.txt" and append

content to the file:
• f = open("demofile2.txt", "a")
f.write("Now the file has more content!")
f.close()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("demofile2.txt", "r")
print(f.read())
 Example

• Open the file "demofile3.txt" and overwrite the

content:
• f = open("demofile3.txt", "w")
f.write("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
f.close()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("demofile3.txt", "r")
print(f.read())
• Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.
 Create a New File

• To create a new file in Python, use

the open() method, with one of the following
parameters:
• "x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error
if the file exist
• "a" - Append - will create a file if the specified
file does not exist
• "w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file
does not exist
 Example

• Create a file called "myfile.txt":

• f = open("myfile.txt", "x")
• Result: a new empty file is created!
• Example
• Create a new file if it does not exist:
• f = open("myfile.txt", "w")
 Delete File

• Delete a File
• To delete a file, you must import the OS
module, and run its os.remove() function:
• Example
• Remove the file "demofile.txt":
• import os
os.remove("demofile.txt")
 Check if File exist:

• To avoid getting an error, you might want to

check if the file exists before you try to delete it:
• Example
• Check if file exists, then delete it:
• import os
if os.path.exists("demofile.txt"):
os.remove("demofile.txt")
else:
print("The file does not exist")
 Delete Folder

• To delete an entire folder, use

the os.rmdir() method:
• Example
• Remove the folder "myfolder":
• import os
os.rmdir("myfolder")
• Note: You can only remove empty folders.