Sensors

 A sensor is a component that measures some aspects of the environment. The computer in the robot
uses these measurements to control the actions of the robot.
 In robotics, sensors are used for both internal feedback control and external interaction with the
Introduction

outside environment.

 Animals and humans have similar distinct sensors. For example, when you wake up, even before

you open your eyes, you know where your extremities are; you do not have to look to know that

your arm is beside you, or that your leg is bent. This is because neurons in the muscles send signals

to the brain, and as they are stretched or relaxed with the contracting, stretching, or relaxing

muscles, the signal changes and the brain determines the state of each muscle.
  Similarly, in a robot, as the links and joints move, sensors such as potentiometers, encoders, and

resolvers send signals to the controller, allowing it to determine joint values.

 Additionally, as humans and animals possess senses of smell, touch, taste, hearing, vision, and
Introduction

speech to communicate with the outside world, robots may possess similar sensors that allow them

to communicate with the environment.

 In certain cases, the sensors may be similar in function to that of humans such as vision, touch, and

smell. In other cases, the sensors may be something humans lack such as a radioactive sensor.
 1. Internal sensors

Internal sensors, as the name suggests, are used to measure internal state of a robot, i.e., its
position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a particular instant. Based on these information, control
command is decided by the controller. Depending on the quantities it measures, a sensor is
termed as the position, velocity, acceleration, or force sensor.

These are responsible for the internal working of the robot and are mainly used for closing the
loop in feedback control e.g., position sensors. A robot cannot function properly without these
if it is using a closed loop feedback control system. The main internal sensors are position,
accelerations, force, and velocity sensors.
 2. External sensors

These are responsible for interaction with the environment or external sensors are primarily

used to learn more about a robot’s environment, especially the objects being manipulated. A

robot can use external sensors like touch sensor for interaction with the environment. In case

any of these sensors fail the robot can still function but its ability to interact with the

external world is reduced. External sensors are of many different types depending on the

kind of interaction (contact type and non- contact type) with the environment. The main

external sensors are force/torque sensors, vision, touch, pressure sensors, etc.
The major capabilities required by a robot are as follows:

Simple Touch: The presence or absence of an object.

Taction or Complex Touch: The presence of an object plus some information on its size and shape.

Simple Force: Measured force along a single axis.

Complex Force: Measured force along two or more axes.

Proximity: Noncontact detection of an object.

Simple Vision: Detection of edges, holes, corners, and so on.

Complex Vision: Recognition of shapes.

 Sensor Characteristics
To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need, we have to consider a number of different

characteristics. These characteristics determine the performance, economy, ease of application, and

applicability of the sensor. In certain situations, different types of sensors may be available for the

same purpose. Therefore, the following may be considered before a sensor is chosen:

Cost: The cost of a sensor is an important consideration, especially when many sensors are needed

for one machine. However, the cost must be balanced with other requirements of the design such as

reliability, importance of the data they provide, accuracy, life, and so on.
 Sensor Characteristics
Size: Depending on the application of the sensor, the size may be of primary importance. For

example, the joint displacement sensors have to be adapted into the design of the joints and move

with the robot’s body elements. The available space around the joint may be limited. Additionally, a

large sensor may limit the joint’s range. Therefore, it is important to ensure that enough room exists

for the joint sensors.

Weight: Since robots are dynamic machines, the weight of a sensor is very important. A heavy

sensor adds to the inertia of the arm and reduces its overall payload. Similarly, a heavy camera

mounted on a robotic insect airplane will severely limit its flying capabilities.
 Sensor Characteristics

Type of output (digital or analog): The output of a sensor may be digital or analog and,

depending on the application, this output may be used directly or have to be converted.

For example, the output of a potentiometer is analog, whereas that of an encoder is

digital. If an encoder is used in conjunction with a microprocessor, the output may be

directly routed to the input port of the processor, while the output of a potentiometer

has to be converted to digital signal with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The

appropriateness of the type of output must be balanced with other requirements.

 Sensor Characteristics
Interfacing: Sensors must be interfaced with other devices such as microprocessors and
controllers. The interfacing between the sensor and the device can become an important issue if they
do not match or if other add-on components and circuits become necessary (including resistors,
transistor switches, power source, and length of wires involved).

Resolution: Resolution is the minimum step size within the range of measurement of the sensor. In a
wire-wound potentiometer, it will be equal to the resistance of one turn of the wire. In a digital
device with n bits, the resolution will be:

Resolution (degree) = Full Range / 2n

As an example, an absolute encoder with 4 bits can report positions up to 2 4 = 16 different levels.
Therefore, its resolution is 360/16 = 22.5 0
.
 Sensor Characteristics
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of a change in output in response to a change in input. Highly
sensitive sensors will show larger fluctuations in output as a result of fluctuations in input, including
noise.

Sensitivity = Change in output / Change in input

Linearity: Linearity represents the relationship between input variations and output variations. This
means that in a sensor with linear output, the same change in input at any level within the range will
produce a similar change in output. Almost all devices in nature are somewhat nonlinear, with
varying degrees of nonlinearity. Some devices may be assumed to be linear within a certain range of
their operation. Others may be linearized through assumptions.
 Sensor Characteristics
A known nonlinearity in a system may be overcome by proper modeling, equations, or additional

electronics.

Range: Range is the difference between the smallest and the largest outputs the sensor can produce,

or the difference between the smallest and largest inputs with which it can operate properly.
 Sensor Characteristics
Response time: Response time is the time that a sensor’s output requires to reach a certain
percentage of the total change. It is usually expressed in percentage of total change, such as 95%. It
is also defined as the time required to observe the change in output as a result of a change in input.

For example, the response time of a simple mercury thermometer is long, whereas a digital
thermometer’s response time, which measures temperature based on radiated heat, is short. A special
response time of 63.2% is called time constant τ.

Frequency response: Suppose you attach a very high-quality radio tuner to a small, cheap speaker.
Although the speaker will reproduce the sound, its quality will be very low, whereas a high-quality
speaker system with a woofer and tweeter can reproduce the same signal with much better quality.
This is because the frequency response of the two-speaker system is very different from the single,
cheap speaker. The natural frequency of a small speaker is high, and therefore, it can only reproduce
 Sensor Characteristics
On the other hand, the speaker system with at least two speakers will run the signal into both the tweeter
and woofer speakers, one with high natural frequency and one with low natural frequency. The summation
of the two frequency responses allows the speaker system to reproduce the sound signal with much better
quality (in reality, the signals are filtered for each speaker). All systems can resonate at around their natural
frequency with little effort. As the input frequency deviates from the natural value, the response falls off.

The frequency response is the range in which the system’s ability to resonate (respond) to the
input remains relatively high. The larger the range of the frequency response, the better the ability of the
system to respond to varying input. Otherwise, the phenomenon measured may vary quickly, before the
sensor has a chance to respond and send a signal. Therefore, it is important to consider the frequency
response of a sensor and determine whether or not the sensor’s response is fast enough under all operating
conditions.
 Sensor Characteristics
Reliability: Reliability is the ratio of how many times a system operates properly, divided by how
many times it is used. For continuous, satisfactory operation it is necessary to choose reliable sensors
that last a long time while considering the cost and other requirements.

Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as how close the output of the sensor is to the expected value. If for a
given input, the output is expected to be a certain value, accuracy is related to how close the sensor’s
output is to this value. For example, a thermometer should read 100 0 C when placed in pure boiling
water at sea level.
 Sensor Characteristics
Repeatability: If the sensor’s output is measured a number of times in response to the same input, the
output may be different each time. Repeatability is a measure of how varied the different outputs are
relative to each other. Generally, if a sufficient number of tries are made, a range can be defined that
includes all results around the nominal value (the radius of a circle that encompasses all results).
This range is defined as repeatability. In general, repeatability is more important than accuracy, since
in most cases, inaccuracies are systematic and can be corrected or compensated because they can be
predicted and measured. Repeatability is generally random and cannot be easily compensated.

Figure: Accuracy versus repeatability

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_KoRp8SnoE
 After class activity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_KoRp8SnoE
 Position Sensor
Encoders:
An encoder is a simple device that can output a digital signal for each small portion of a
movement. To do this, the encoder disc or strip is divided into small sections, as in Figure.
Each section is either opaque or transparent (it can also be either reflective or non reflective). A
light source, such as an LED on one side, provides a beam of light to the other side of the
encoder disc or strip, where it is seen by a light-sensitive sensor, such as a phototransistor. If
the disc’s angular position (or in the case of a strip, the linear position) is such that the light is
revealed, the sensor on the opposite side will be turned on and will have a high signal. If the
angular position of the disc is such that the light is occluded, the sensor will be off and its
output will be low (therefore, a digital output). As the disc rotates, it can continuously send
signals. If the signals are counted, the approximate total displacement of the disc can be
measured at any time.
Figure (a) A simple rotary incremental encoder disc mounted on
a motor shaft. This encoder measures angular rotations. (b)
Schematic of a rotary encoder arrangement. (c) A reflective-type
linear absolute encoder that can measure linear movements and
a rotary incremental encoder disc with 1024 slots.
 Position Sensor
The encoder is a digital optical device that
converts motion into a sequence of digital
pulses. By counting a single bit or by
decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be
converted to relative or absolute
measurements. Thus, encoders are of
incremental or absolute type. Further, each
type may be again linear and rotary. A
typical encoder senses position, speed,
counts and direction.
 Incremental Rotary Encoder
It is similar to the linear incremental encoder with a difference that the gratings are now on a circular

disc, as in Fig. (c). The common value of the width of transparent spaces is 20 microns. There are

two sets of grating lines on two different circles which detect direction of rotation, and one can also

enhance the accuracy of the sensor. There is another circle, which contains only one grating mark. It

is used for measurement of full circles.

 Absolute Rotary Encoder
Similar to the absolute linear encoder, the circular disc is divided into a number of circular strips and

each strip has definite arc segments, as shown in Fig.(d). This sensor directly gives the digital output

(absolute). The encoder is directly mounted on the motor shaft or with some gearing to enhance the

accuracy of measurement. To avoid noise in this encoder, a gray scale is sometimes used. A Gray

code, unlike binary codes, allows only one of the binary bits in a code sequence to change between

radial lines. It prevents confusing changes in the binary output of the absolute encoder when the

encoder oscillates between points.

A sample Gray code is given in Table for some numbers. Note the difference between the
Gray and binary codes. The basic arrangement of the rotary encoder is shown in Fig. (e).

Table: Sample Gray codes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nnk0DV5kgMk
 Incremental Linear Encoder
As shown in Fig. (a), it has a transparent glass scale with opaque grating. The thickness of grating

lines and the gap between them is made same, which are in the range of microns. One side of the

scale is provided with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other side there are light-sensitive

cells. The resistance of the cells (photodiodes) decreases whenever a beam of light falls on them.

Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by the opaque line. This pulse is

fed to the controller, which updates a counter i.e. a record of the distance travelled.
An incremental encoder is a linear or rotary electromechanical device that has two output signals, A and B, which issue
pulses when the device is moved. Together, the A and B signals indicate both the occurrence and direction of movement.

Scheme of a incremental Linear Scale; The graduations are shown greatly enlarged. 1-Lamp (LED), 2-
Condenser, 3-Diffraction grating, 4-Linear Scale, 5-Photodetector
 Absolute Linear Encoder
It is similar in principle as the incremental linear encoder. The difference is that it gives absolute

value of the distance covered at any time. Thus, the chance of missing the pulses at high speeds is

less. The output is digital in this case. The scale is marked in a sequence of opaque and transparent

strips, as shown in Fig. (b). In the scale shown, if the opaque block represents 1 (one) and the

transparent block as 0 (zero) then the leftmost column will show a binary number as 00000, i.e., a

decimal value of 0, and the rightmost column will show a binary number 11111, i.e., a decimal value

of 61.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Qk--Sjgq78&t=5s
 Velocity Sensors
Velocity or speed sensors measure by taking consecutive position measurements at known time intervals
and computing the time rate of change of the position values or directly finding it based on different
principles.

1. All Position Sensors Basically, all position sensors when used with certain time bounds can give
velocity, e.g., the number of pulses given by an incremental position encoder divided by the time
consumed in doing so. But this scheme puts some computational load on the controller which may
be busy in some other computations.

2. Tachometer (Tachos (Speed) + Metron (measure) – 2 Greek word) Such sensors can directly find the
velocity at any instant of time, and without much of computational load. This measures the speed of
rotation of an element. There are various types of tachometers in use but a simpler design is based on
the Fleming’s rule, which states ‘the voltage produced is proportional to the rate of flux linkage or
shaft speed.’
Here, a conductor (basically a coil) is attached to the rotating element which rotates in a magnetic
field (stator). As the speed of the shaft increases, the voltage produced at the coil terminals also
increases. In other ways, as shown in Figure, one can put a magnet on the rotating shaft and a coil on
the stator. The voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the shaft. This information
is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter and passed on to the computer.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a tachometer

One of the most commonly used devices for the feedback of velocity information is the dc
tachometer. A tachometer is essentially a dc generator providing an output voltage proportional to
the angular velocity of the armature. Velocity information can also be obtained from an incremental
encoder in which the rate at which the dark and transparent slots cross the emitter receiver pair
indicate the velocity of the rotating shaft.
 Velocity Sensors
3. Hall-effect Sensor Another velocity-measuring device
is the Hall-effect sensor. If a flat piece of conductor
material, called Hall chip, is attached to a potential
difference on its two opposite faces, as indicated in Fig.
then the voltage across the perpendicular faces is zero. But
if a magnetic field is imposed at right angles to the
conductor, the voltage is generated on the two other
perpendicular faces. Higher the field value, higher the
voltage level. If one provides a ring magnet, the voltage
produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the
Figure: Principle of Hall-effect sensor
magnet.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Scpi91e1JKc&pbjreload=101
 Force or Pressure Sensors
A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, namely, the weight, is applied to
the scale pan that causes displacement, i.e., the spring stretches. The displacement is then a measure
of the force. There exist other types of force sensors, e.g., strain-gauge based, Hall-effect sensor, etc.
 Strain Gauge
A strain gauge can also be used to measure force. The output of the strain gauge is a variable
resistance, proportional to the strain, which itself is a function of applied forces. Therefore,
measuring the resistance, we can determine the applied force. Strain gauges are used to determine
the forces at the end effector and the wrist of a robot. Strain gauges can also be used for measuring
the loads on the joints and links of the robot, but this is not very common. Figure (a) is a simple
schematic drawing of a strain gauge. Strain gauges are used within a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in
Figure (b). A balanced Wheatstone bridge would have similar potentials at points A and B. If the
resistance in any of the four resistors changes, there will be a current flow between these two
junctions. Consequently, it is necessary to first calibrate the bridge for zero flow in the galvanometer.
Assuming that R1 is the strain gauge, when under stress, its value will change, causing an imbalance
in the Wheatstone bridge and a current flow between A and B.
 Strain Gauge
By carefully adjusting the resistance of one of the other resistors until the current flow becomes zero,
the change in the resistance of the strain gauge can be determined from:

R1 / R4 = R2 / R3

Figure (a) A strain gauge and (b) a Wheatstone bridge

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_z82yWBLbhE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iru8tRwS7Yc&t=19s
 Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence or absence of an object
with an electronic noncontact-type sensor. Proximity sensors are of two types,

• Inductive and

• Capacitive.

Inductive proximity sensors are used in place of limit switches for noncontact
sensing of metallic objects, whereas

Capacitive proximity sensors are used on the same basis as inductive proximity
sensors However, these can also detect nonmetallic objects.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
All inductive proximity sensors consist of four basic elements, namely, the following:

• Sensor coil and ferrite core

• Oscillator circuit

• Detector circuit

• Solid-state output circuit

Figure: Inductive proximity sensor

 Working
As the target leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds with an increase in amplitude. As the amplitude
increases above a specific value, it is detected by the detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing the
output signal to return to the normal or ‘off’ state.

The sensing range of an inductive proximity sensor refers to the distance between the sensor face and the
target.

It also indicates the shape of the sensing field generated through the coil and the core. There are
several mechanical and environmental factors that affect the sensing range. The usual range is up to 10–15
mm but some sensors have ranges as high as 100 mm.
 Working
As shown in Fig., the oscillator circuit generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic
field. The field is centered around the axis of the ferrite core, which shapes the field and
directs it at the sensor face. When a metal target approaches the face and enters the
field, eddy currents are induced into the surface of the target. This results in a loading or
damping effect that causes a reduction in amplitude of the oscillator signal. The detector
circuit detects the change in the oscillator amplitude. The detector circuit will ‘switch
on’ at specific operating amplitude. This signal ‘turns on’ the solid-state output circuit.
This is often referred to as damped condition.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
A capacitive proximity sensor operates much like an inductive
proximity sensor. However, the means of sensing is
considerably different. Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric
capacitance. Capacitance is the property of insulators to store
the charge. A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an
insulator, usually called a dielectric. When the switch is closed,
a charge is stored on the two plates. The distance between the
plates determines the ability of the capacitor to store the charge
and can be calibrated as a function of stored charge to
determine discrete ON and OFF switching status.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Figure illustrates the principle of a capacitive sensor. One
capacitive plate is part of the switch, the sensor face is the
insulator, and the target is the other plate. Ground is the common
path. The capacitive switch has the same four elements as the
inductive sensor, i.e., sensor (the dielectric media), oscillator
Figure: Principle of capacitive sensors
circuit, detector circuit, and solid-state output circuit. The
oscillator circuit in a capacitive switch operates like one in an
inductive switch. The oscillator circuit includes capacitance from
the external target plate and the internal plate. In a capacitive
sensor, the oscillator starts oscillating when sufficient feedback
capacitance is detected.
Capacitive proximity sensors have a greater sensing range than inductive proximity sensors. Sensing
distance for capacitive switches is a matter of plate area, as coil size is for inductive proximity
sensors. Capacitive sensors basically measure a dielectric gap. Accordingly, it is desirable to be able
to compensate for the target and application conditions with a sensitivity adjustment for the sensing
range.

Capacitive proximity sensors have two major limitations.

• The sensors are affected by moisture and humidity, and

• They must have extended range for effective sensing.

Robot
Vision
 Vision
Vision can be defined as the task of extracting information
about the external world from light rays imaged by a
camera or an eye. Vision, also referred in the literature as
computer vision or machine vision or robot vision. the
vision systems or vision sensors are classified as external
noncontact type. They are used by robots to let them look
around and find the parts, for example, picking and placing
them at appropriate locations. Earlier, fixtures were used
with robots for accurate positioning of the parts. Such Fig. Hardware components of a vision system
fixtures are very expensive. A vision system can provide
alternative economic solution.
Other tasks of vision systems used with robots include the following:

1. Inspection. Checking for gross surface defects, discovery of flaws in labeling, verification of the presence
of components in assembly, measuring for dimensional accuracy, checking the presence of holes and other
features in a part.

2. Identification. Here, the purpose is to recognize and classify an object rather than to inspect it. Inspection
implies that the part must be either accepted or rejected.

3. Visual Surveying and Navigation Control. The purpose here is to direct the actions of the robot based on its
visual inputs, for example, to control the trajectory of the robot’s end-effector toward an object in the
workspace. Industrial applications of visual surveying are part positioning, retrieving parts moving along a
conveyor, seam tracking in continuous arc welding, etc.

All of the above applications someway require the determination of the configuration of the objects, motion
of the objects, reconstruction of the 3D geometry of the objects from their 2D images for measurements, and
building the maps of the environments for a robot’s navigation. Coverage of vision system is from a few
millimeters to tens of meters with either narrow or wide angles, depending upon the system needs and design.
Elements in a Vision Sensor
1. Camera Systems
2. Lighting Techniques
Steps in a Vision System
3. Image Acquisition
4. Image Processing
5. Image Analysis
Hierarchy of a Vision System
6. Low-level Vision
7. Intermediate-level Vision
8. High-level Vision
Difficulties in Vision and Fig. Hierarchy of a vision system
Remedies
 Assignment - 1
Write short notes on the following:

1. Magnetic, Optical, Ultrasonic, and Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

2. Potentiometer
3. Resolver
4. Pressure Transducers
5. Laser sensors
6. Microwave sensors
7. Hall effect sensors

8. Elements (camera & lighting), Steps (Image Acquisition, Processing, & Analysis), Hierarchy
(Low, Intermediate and high level) of a Vision System, and difficulties in Vision and Remedies