Metals

18 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predictive Modeling and Optimization of Hot Forging Parameters for AISI 1045 Ball Joints Using Taguchi Methodology and Finite Element Analysis

by Naiyanut Jantepa, Nattarawee Siripath and Surasak Suranuntchai

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101198 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 705

Abstract

This study focused on optimizing the hot forging process for AISI 1045 medium carbon steel ball joints, which is crucial for enhancing both their mechanical properties and production efficiency. Traditional hot forging processes often face challenges due to variations in flow stress and [...] Read more.

This study focused on optimizing the hot forging process for AISI 1045 medium carbon steel ball joints, which is crucial for enhancing both their mechanical properties and production efficiency. Traditional hot forging processes often face challenges due to variations in flow stress and microstructural outcomes, which can result in a suboptimal product performance. To address these challenges, this research employed the Taguchi method in conjunction with a finite element (FE) simulation to identify the optimal forging parameters. The Arrhenius constitutive model, based on the Zener–Hollomon parameter, was applied to predict the flow stress with a high level of accuracy, achieving a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.968 and an average absolute relative error (AARE) of 7.079%. An analysis of variance (ANOVA), a statistical innovation that partitions the total variation into components linked to key process factors, was utilized to determine the significance of these parameters. The ANOVA revealed that the billet temperature played a significant role in influencing the preforming force, finishing force, and mean stress, with a maximum impact of 62.30%, 59.50%, and 94.20% on the variation in the response variable, respectively. Additionally, the friction factor significantly affected the preforming and finishing forces, contributing 36.19% and 38.28%. The validation of the model through both simulations and practical experiments is a testament to the reliability of this research, demonstrating the accuracy of the model with minimal discrepancies in the forging forces and exhibiting errors of just 2.88% and 3.40%. Furthermore, microstructure modeling successfully predicted the key outcomes, such as the grain size and pearlite volume fraction, validating the effectiveness of the simulation in forecasting microstructural characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forging of Metals and Alloys)

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18 pages, 2792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A First-Principles Study of the Structural and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Tungsten-Based Plasma-Facing Materials

by Jie Peng, Yichen Qian and David Cereceda

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101197 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 798

Abstract

Tungsten (W) and tungsten alloys are being considered as leading candidates for structural and functional materials in future fusion energy devices. The most attractive properties of tungsten for the design of magnetic and inertial fusion energy reactors are its high melting point, high [...] Read more.

Tungsten (W) and tungsten alloys are being considered as leading candidates for structural and functional materials in future fusion energy devices. The most attractive properties of tungsten for the design of magnetic and inertial fusion energy reactors are its high melting point, high thermal conductivity, low sputtering yield, and low long-term disposal radioactive footprint. Despite these relevant features, there is a lack of understanding of how the structural and mechanical properties of W-based alloys are affected by the temperature in fusion power plants. In this work, we present a study on the thermo-mechanical properties of five W-based plasma-facing materials. First-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations are combined with the quasi-harmonic approximation (QHA) theory to investigate the electronic, structural, mechanical, and thermal properties of these W-based alloys as a function of temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion, temperature-dependent elastic constants, and several elastic parameters, including bulk and Young’s modulus, are calculated. Our work advances the understanding of the structural and thermo-mechanical behavior of W-based materials, thus providing insights into the design and selection of candidate plasma-facing materials in fusion energy devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Characterization and Testing of Nuclear Materials)

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16 pages, 37083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study on the Effect of External Magnetic Field on Aluminum Alloy 6061 and 7075 Resistance Spot-Welding Joints

by Shitian Wei, Rui Zhang, Xiuli Liu and Yu Zhang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101196 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 591

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of the external magnetic field on the microstructure and mechanical property aluminum alloy 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 resistance spot welding joints. The melting behavior of 6061 and 7075 was analyzed via the calculation of the phase diagram (CALPHAD) technique. [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of the external magnetic field on the microstructure and mechanical property aluminum alloy 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 resistance spot welding joints. The melting behavior of 6061 and 7075 was analyzed via the calculation of the phase diagram (CALPHAD) technique. The CALPHAD results indicate that, for the 6061 aluminum alloy, the liquid fraction shows a minimal increase at the beginning stage during the solid–liquid phase transition process but with a sharp rise at the ending stage (near the liquidus). In contrast, for the 7075 aluminum alloy, the liquid fraction gradually increases throughout the entire solid–liquid phase transition process. The differences in melting behavior between the 6061 and 7075 alloys lead to different liquation crack morphologies in their spot-welded joints. In the 6061 alloy, the cracks tend to be “eyebrow-shaped”, allowing the liquid metal in the nugget to feed the gaps, and this does not significantly compromise the mechanical properties of the joint. In contrast, the 7075 alloy develops slender cracks that extend through the partially melted zone (PMZ), making it difficult for the liquid metal to feed these gaps, thereby significantly deteriorating the joint’s mechanical strength. Compared to conventional resistance spot-welding joints, the heat exchange between the nugget and the workpiece is enhanced under the external magnetic field, leading to a wider PMZ. This exacerbates the detrimental effects of liquation cracks on the mechanical properties of the 7075 joints. Lap-shear tests indicate that the mechanical properties of the 6061 aluminum alloy joints are improved under electromagnetic stirring. For 7075 aluminum alloy joints, the mechanical properties improve when the welding current is below 34 kA. However, when the welding current exceeds 34 kA, because the widening of the PMZ increases the tendency for liquation cracks, the joint’s mechanical property is deteriorated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Welding and Joining Technologies—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 4157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Effects and Mechanisms of Thermal–Vibration-Coupled Stress Relief Treatment on Residual Stress in SiC/Al Composites

by Bianhong Li, Wu Ouyang and Yushuang Dong

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101195 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 648

Abstract

Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with particles (PRAMCs) frequently develop considerable residual stresses post-quenching, which can negatively affect fatigue life and dimensional accuracy. Traditional stress relief methods for aluminum alloys are only partially effective. This study examined thermal stress relief (TSR), vibratory stress relief [...] Read more.

Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with particles (PRAMCs) frequently develop considerable residual stresses post-quenching, which can negatively affect fatigue life and dimensional accuracy. Traditional stress relief methods for aluminum alloys are only partially effective. This study examined thermal stress relief (TSR), vibratory stress relief (VSR), and a combined thermal–vibratory stress relief (TVSR) approach for SiC/Al composites. All treatments proved successful in diminishing residual stresses, with the most significant reduction along the direction of peak dynamic stress. Additionally, this study analyzed micro-residual stresses via a macro–micro-residual stress finite element model to understand differences in stress relief outcomes. Optimizing the TVSR process could be key to more effectively reducing residual stresses in SiC/Al composites. Full article

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5 pages, 192 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Current Challenges in Corrosion Research

by Belén Díaz, Branimir Grgur and Jianqiang Wang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101194 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 720

Abstract

Corrosion is a degradation phenomenon with huge economic consequences and severe security implications [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper Collection of “Current Challenges in Corrosion Research”)

13 pages, 3078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine-Learning-Driven Design of High-Elastocaloric NiTi-Based Shape Memory Alloys

by Yingyu Gao, Yunfeng Hu, Xinpeng Zhao, Yang Liu, Haiyou Huang and Yanjing Su

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1193; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101193 - 20 Oct 2024

Viewed by 719

Abstract

In recent years, the detrimental impact of traditional gas–liquid refrigerants on the environment has prompted a shift towards sustainable solid-state refrigeration technology. The elastocaloric effect, particularly in NiTi-based shape memory alloys (SMAs), presents a promising alternative due to its high coefficient of performance. [...] Read more.

In recent years, the detrimental impact of traditional gas–liquid refrigerants on the environment has prompted a shift towards sustainable solid-state refrigeration technology. The elastocaloric effect, particularly in NiTi-based shape memory alloys (SMAs), presents a promising alternative due to its high coefficient of performance. However, conventional methods for alloy development are inefficient, often failing to meet the stringent requirements for practical applications. This study employed machine learning (ML) to accelerate the design of NiTi-based SMAs with an enhanced elastocaloric effect. Through active learning across four iterations, we identified nine novel NiTi-based SMAs exhibiting phase-transformation-induced entropy changes (ΔS) greater than 90 J/kg·K⁻¹, surpassing most existing alloys. Our ML model demonstrates robust interpretability, revealing key relationships between material features and performance. This work not only establishes a more efficient pathway for alloy discovery but also aims to contribute significantly to the advancement of sustainable refrigeration technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Models in Metals)

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12 pages, 3719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of β-Stabilizing Nb on Phase Stability and Phase Transformation in Ti-Zr Shape Memory Alloys: From the Viewpoint of the First-Principles Calculation

by Xinxin Feng, Xuepei Chen, Xiaoyang Yi, Weijian Li, Chenguang Liu, Xianglong Meng, Zhiyong Gao, Xinjian Cao and Haizhen Wang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1192; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101192 - 20 Oct 2024

Viewed by 581

Abstract

In the present study, the effect of the Nb element on the lattice parameters, phase stability and martensitic transformation behaviors of Ti-Zr-based shape memory alloys was extensively investigated using the first-principles calculation. The lattice parameters of both the β parent phase and α′ [...] Read more.

In the present study, the effect of the Nb element on the lattice parameters, phase stability and martensitic transformation behaviors of Ti-Zr-based shape memory alloys was extensively investigated using the first-principles calculation. The lattice parameters of both the β parent phase and α′ martensite phase gradually decreased with Nb content increasing. For the α″ martensite phase, the lattice constant (a) gradually increased with the increase in Nb content, whereas the lattice constants (b and c) continuously decreased due to the addition of Nb. Based on the formation energy and density of state, β→α′ martensitic transformation occurred, as the Nb content was not more than 12.5 at.%. However, the Ti-Zr-Nb shape memory alloys with a Nb content higher than 12.5 at.% possessed the β→α″ martensitic transformation. However, both the largest transformation strain and sensitivity of critical stress to temperature (dσ/dT) can be optimized by controlling 12.5 at.% Nb in the Ti-Zr-Nb shape memory alloy, which was favorable to obtaining the largest elastocaloric effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacture, Properties and Applications of Light Alloys)

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11 pages, 4623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Evolution of P92 Steel with Different Creep Life Consumptions After Long-Term Service

by Zhen Zhang, Zheyi Yang and Liying Tang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1191; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101191 - 20 Oct 2024

Viewed by 604

Abstract

P92 steel is widely used in ultra-supercritical units due to its excellent high-temperature performance. This paper studies the microstructure of P92 steel steam pipes in three conditions: as-supplied, after 80,000 h of service at 67.06 MPa stress, and after 100,000 h of service [...] Read more.

P92 steel is widely used in ultra-supercritical units due to its excellent high-temperature performance. This paper studies the microstructure of P92 steel steam pipes in three conditions: as-supplied, after 80,000 h of service at 67.06 MPa stress, and after 100,000 h of service at 80.28 MPa stress. After prolonged service, the P92 steel retains its martensitic structure, but the lath width increases and the dislocation density decreases. In addition to M₂₃C₆, MX, and Laves phases, Z phase was also observed among the precipitates. The results indicate that the sizes of M₂₃C₆ and Laves phases increase with the progression of creep life consumption, with the coarsening rate of Laves phase being significantly higher than that of M₂₃C₆. However, the coarsening of MX phase is not evident. Compared to the Laves phase, the formation of the Z phase requires a longer period of time. The precipitation of the Z phase consumes MX carbonitrides, and it has been observed that the Z phase precipitates from the MX phase, with the two phases exhibiting a coexisting state. Full article

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14 pages, 6935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Center-Punching Mechanical Clinching Process for Aluminum Alloy and Ultra-High-Strength Steel Sheets

by Ping Qiu, Xiaoxin Lu, Xuewei Dai, Boran Deng and Hong Xiao

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1190; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101190 - 20 Oct 2024

Viewed by 571

Abstract

In recent years, with the rapid advancement of automotive lightweight technology, the mechanical clinching process between aluminum alloy and ultra-high-strength steel sheets has received extensive attention. However, the low ductility of ultra-high-strength steel sheets often results in conventional mechanical clinching processes producing joints [...] Read more.

In recent years, with the rapid advancement of automotive lightweight technology, the mechanical clinching process between aluminum alloy and ultra-high-strength steel sheets has received extensive attention. However, the low ductility of ultra-high-strength steel sheets often results in conventional mechanical clinching processes producing joints that either fail to establish effective interlocks or cause the steel sheets to fracture. To address this issue, a novel mechanical clinching process is presented, called center-punching mechanical clinching (CPMC). This innovative process employs a method of punching, flanging, and bulging gradation to achieve the mechanical clinching of aluminum alloy and ultra-high-strength steel sheets in a single step. In order to determine the effects of different parameters on the quality and strength of the joint, an experimental study was carried out for various die depths and diameters based on the condition of constant punch size. Based on tensile and shear tests, the static strength and failure modes of CPMC joints were analyzed. The results indicated that the CPMC process significantly enhances the connectivity of joints for AA5052 aluminum alloy and DP980 ultra-high-strength steel. Optimal tensile and shear strengths of 1264 and 2249 N, respectively, were achieved at a die depth of 2.2 mm and a diameter of 10.4 mm. The CPMC process provides new ideas for the mechanical clinching of aluminum alloy and ultra-high-strength steels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure–Mechanical Property Relationships in High-Strength Steels (2nd Edition))

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15 pages, 17146 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Graded Surface Microstructure and Property of Ti6Al4V Threads Processed by Surface Rolling

by Wenchao Wang, Lufei Bai, Dapeng Shi, Hong Jin, Yao Yang, Kun Su and Qingsong Mei

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101189 - 19 Oct 2024

Viewed by 586

Abstract

The surface rolling process is important for the forming property of titanium alloy bolts. This study systematically investigated the evolution of the surface microstructure and property of Ti6Al4V threads induced by surface rolling processes with different feeding times. Gradient surface microstructure and property, [...] Read more.

The surface rolling process is important for the forming property of titanium alloy bolts. This study systematically investigated the evolution of the surface microstructure and property of Ti6Al4V threads induced by surface rolling processes with different feeding times. Gradient surface microstructure and property, as characterized by the depth-dependent variations of refined and deformed grains and hardness, were revealed. A comparative analysis of the microstructure and property of the topmost and subsurface layers in different characteristic areas (root, flank, and crest) of the thread was specifically carried out. The surface microstructure and properties are highly heterogeneous in different areas of the rolled thread. Meanwhile, a gradient microstructure and hardness along the depth from the surface was revealed in the surface layer. Our results showed that the highly heterogeneous surface microstructure and property can be attributed to the close correlation between the different stress/strain levels at different depths from the surface and the different deformation mechanisms in the characteristic surface areas of the thread. The present study has indicated that the distinctive microstructure and property in the different characteristic areas of the rolled thread should be featured by those of surface layers at different depths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Mechanical Properties, Deformation, and Microstructures of Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 6192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Microstructure and Performance of the Multi-Field Composite-Assisted Laser Cladding of Nickel-Based Tungsten Carbide Coatings

by Shihui Chen, Hong Wang, Xu Huang, Shuaishuai Qin and Xinxin Hu

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1188; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101188 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 575

Abstract

Improving the hardness and wear resistance of die cutting tools is an important issue in the study of the service life of die cutting equipment. Using laser cladding technology, nickel-based composite coatings with varying BiFeO₃ contents were prepared on a 45 steel [...] Read more.

Improving the hardness and wear resistance of die cutting tools is an important issue in the study of the service life of die cutting equipment. Using laser cladding technology, nickel-based composite coatings with varying BiFeO₃ contents were prepared on a 45 steel substrate, because BiFeO₃ can have an effect on the dilution rate and microstructure of the sample; morover BiFeO₃ is a new type of multiferroic material with certain magneto-electric coupling effects which can be prepared for the study of added magnetic fields. The microstructure and morphology were characterized to determine the optimal BiFeO₃ content. Based on the optimal addition of BiFeO₃, a comparative analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of different magnetic field strengths under a composite energy field on the microstructure, hardness, and wear resistance of Ni-based WC cladding layers. The results show that the optimal addition of BiFeO₃ was 5 wt%. At this concentration, there were no significant porosity defects in the coating, and the dilution rate was appropriate (4.77%). Additionally, the interface bonding strength was also increased. With optimal BiFeO₃ addition, stirring with different magnetic field strengths was applied to the cladding layer, and the results show that the aspect ratio of the cladding layer gradually increased with increasing the alternating magnetic field strength. When the magnetic field strength in the composite energy field was 40 mT, the microstructure was fine and uniform, the hardness of the cladding layer reached the highest level, about 925.2 HV_1.0, the wear resistance was also the best, the friction coefficient of the cladding layer was about 0.54, and the width of the wear mark was about 0.53 mm. Full article

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14 pages, 12342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Changes in Copper Slags During Slow Cooling

by Bulat Sukurov, Sergey Kvyatkovskiy, Sultanbek Kozhakhmetov, Anastassiya Semenova, Maral Dyussebekova and Marina Kvyatkovskaya

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1187; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101187 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 584

Abstract

The objects of the study were converter slags from the Balkhash copper plant in their initial state and after heat treatment. Using mineralogical and X-ray phase analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), it was found that the initial converter [...] Read more.

The objects of the study were converter slags from the Balkhash copper plant in their initial state and after heat treatment. Using mineralogical and X-ray phase analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), it was found that the initial converter slag and its thermally treated samples have identical matrices with almost complete coincidence in mineral and phase compositions. The distinguishing feature is the quantitative ratio of mineral components in the slag mass. Almost all of the iron is oxidized and present in the form of fayalite, magnetite, and magnetite, with other elements (silicon, copper, zinc, and aluminum) incorporated into its lattice. The structure of all slag samples indicates an association of sulfur exclusively with copper. Copper in the slags was identified in both metallic and sulfide forms. Slow cooling of the converter slag after its remelting contributes to the reduction in the sulfide–metal suspension in the volume of the melt and its coarsening. During slow cooling, structural changes occur not only in the main oxide part of the slag but also in the polymetallic globules. Full article

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14 pages, 13311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Thermal Variables of Solidification on the Microstructure and Hardness of the Manganese Bronze Alloy Cu-24Zn-6Al-4Mn-3Fe

by Flávia Gonçalves Lobo, Márcio Rodrigues da Silva, Vinícius Torres dos Santos, Paulo Henrique Tedardi do Nascimento, Rogerio Teram, Maurício Silva Nascimento, Marcela Bergamaschi Tercini, Daniel Ayarroio Seixas, Givanildo Alves dos Santos and Alejandro Zuniga Paez

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101186 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 508

Abstract

The Cu-24Zn-6Al-4Mn-3Fe alloy is mainly used for the manufacture of sliding bushings in the agricultural sector due to its high mechanical properties in the cast state. Understanding how the casting thermal parameters affect the microstructure and impact the properties of alloys is fundamental [...] Read more.

The Cu-24Zn-6Al-4Mn-3Fe alloy is mainly used for the manufacture of sliding bushings in the agricultural sector due to its high mechanical properties in the cast state. Understanding how the casting thermal parameters affect the microstructure and impact the properties of alloys is fundamental to optimizing manufacturing processes and improving performance during their application. In this study, the Cu-24Zn-6Al-4Mn-3Fe alloy was unidirectionally solidified under non-steady heat flow conditions using a water-cooled graphite base for heat exchange. Seven points were monitored along the longitudinal region of this ingot, and the data to obtain the solidification variables were extracted using an acquisition system. The cooling rates varied from 4.50 °C/s to 0.22 °C/s from the closest to the furthest position from the heat extraction point. The microstructure was analyzed via optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction in order to characterize the phases and intermetallic elements present in the material. The mechanical properties were evaluated through hardness and microhardness tests throughout longitudinal extension of the solidified part. The results showed an increase in hardness and microhardness with a decrease in the cooling rate, which may be related to the increase in size and the κ phase fraction with a decrease in the cooling rate, as analyzed via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Furthermore, in all positions, there was no significant change in the amount of the α phase retained, with the matrix being mainly composed of the β phase and a small content of approximately 2% of the α phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Solidification Behavior of Metals and Alloys (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 35407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Possibility of Application of New Types of Filler Materials in the Renovation of Functional Surfaces of Crane Wheels

by Ján Viňáš, Janette Brezinová, Peter Horňak, Jakub Brezina, Peter Pinke and Tünde Anna Kovács

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101185 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 748

Abstract

This paper presents the results of research from the renovation of functional parts of crane wheel surfaces. The aim of the research was to verify the possibilities of changing the chemical composition of the additive materials for submerged arc cladding, in order to [...] Read more.

This paper presents the results of research from the renovation of functional parts of crane wheel surfaces. The aim of the research was to verify the possibilities of changing the chemical composition of the additive materials for submerged arc cladding, in order to increase the resistance of the wheel surfaces to wear. The base material of the crane wheel was heat-treated carbon steel for castings, mat. no. 1.0553. The renovation process was carried out on three equal wheels. Conventionally used additive material, the same one used for the interlayer and two covering layers, was used on one wheel. On two other wheels, newly increased tubular wires with a higher proportion of carbide-forming additives (Cr, Mo) were used for the carbide coating of two covering layers, in addition to their conventional additive material. Low-alloy additive material was applied to the newly elevated wires. The quality of the clads was assessed using non-destructive tests. Subsequently, microstructural analysis was carried out on the test samples taken from the renovated wheels, by means of light microscopy. On the cross cuttings, the course of hardness was evaluated using Vickers analysis. The resistance of functional surfaces to adhesion wear was evaluated based on weight losses measured using the AMSler experimental equipment. The results of the experiments showed an increase in the tribological resistance of the surfaces, specifically by 45% due to the newly developed wire C1 and by 18% due to wire B1, and it is therefore possible to recommend renovation. Full article

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17 pages, 11153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization of the Laser Beam Welded SAF 2507 Super-Duplex Stainless Steel

by Beáta Šimeková, Mária Dománková, Ingrid Kovaříková, Pavel Kovačócy, Maroš Martinkovič, Michal Šimek and Luke Ciuła

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101184 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 800

Abstract

The influence of laser beam welding parameters (power, welding rate, focusing, head oscillation, shielding gas) on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the super-duplex stainless steel SAF 2507 was studied in this paper. The presented results clearly report the effects of [...] Read more.

The influence of laser beam welding parameters (power, welding rate, focusing, head oscillation, shielding gas) on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the super-duplex stainless steel SAF 2507 was studied in this paper. The presented results clearly report the effects of welding parameter changes on the character of the steel’s microstructure. The presence of secondary phase M₂N in weld metals has an important influence on their mechanical properties. Optimal mechanical properties, an acceptable ferrite/austenite ratio, and the minimum content of M₂N nitride required in the weld metal were acquired in the case the following application: 1100 W power, welding speed of 10 mm/s, focusing of 4 mm, and pure nitrogen shielding gas (20 L/min). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Processing and Characterization of Metals and Alloys)

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16 pages, 5868 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wetting Behaviors of Al-Si-Cu-Mg-Zn Brazing Materials on 5083 Aluminum Alloy

by Wei Guo, Yuechao Zhuo, Yonglin Zhao, Han Li and Bingyuan Han

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101183 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 557

Abstract

The wetting behaviors of Al-Si-Cu-Mg-Zn brazing materials on 5083 aluminum alloy substrate were investigated through changing the proportion of Mg from 0 to 2 wt.%. The experimental results showed that the welding process goes through the three following stages: slow spreading, fast spreading, [...] Read more.

The wetting behaviors of Al-Si-Cu-Mg-Zn brazing materials on 5083 aluminum alloy substrate were investigated through changing the proportion of Mg from 0 to 2 wt.%. The experimental results showed that the welding process goes through the three following stages: slow spreading, fast spreading, and stabilizing. The wettability of the brazing material was improved effectively, and the porosity of the interfacial layer was reduced, with the addition of Mg. With Mg content at 1 wt.%, the wetting diameter reached a maximum value of 20.46 mm. The reaction mechanism of the wetted interfacial layer between the brazing material and substrate alloy was illustrated with dynamic data, provided through experimentation and simulated thermodynamic calculation, and showed that the wetting behavior of the resultant Al-7.5Si-15Cu-1Mg-5Zn brazing material was dominated primarily by a diffusion reaction from elemental magnesium. Full article

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11 pages, 5356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Temperature and Ti Volume Fraction on Compressive Properties of Ti/Al Layered Composites

by Shuqin Chen, Haonan Wang, Pengxiang Yan, Shoufu Li, Huang Zhang and Haifei Zhan

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101182 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 574

Abstract

Based on molecular dynamics simulation, this work investigated the influences of temperature and Ti volume fractions on the compressive deformation of Ti/Al layered composites. According to the simulation, the initial dislocations during compression are concentrated on the Al side, dominated by 1/6<211> and [...] Read more.

Based on molecular dynamics simulation, this work investigated the influences of temperature and Ti volume fractions on the compressive deformation of Ti/Al layered composites. According to the simulation, the initial dislocations during compression are concentrated on the Al side, dominated by 1/6<211> and 1/6<112> dislocations, and the 1/2<101> and 1/6<211> dislocations cross the Ti/Al interface from the Al side to the Ti side. It is found that an increase in temperature helps dislocations to form at lower strains, which leads to a decrease in the compressive strength and an increase in the plasticity of the structure. As expected, the Ti volume fraction has a significant impact on the compressive properties of Ti/Al layered composites, and the compressive strength of the material increases with the increase in the Ti volume fraction. At temperatures above 400 K, the reduction rate of compressive strength becomes smaller, which is due to the formation of new ordered metal compounds between Ti and Al. When the volume fraction of Ti is lower than that of Al, plastic deformation mainly occurs on the Ti side, dominated by 1/6<112> dislocations. In contrast, the types of dislocations across the Ti/Al interface and on the Al side are dominated by 1/2<110> and 1/2<011>. When the Ti volume fraction becomes comparable with that of Al, the plastic deformation is transferred from the Ti side to the Al side, and the plasticity of the sample decreases. The optimal compressive properties of Ti/Al layered composites are observed at a Ti volume fraction of 40%, which provides guidance for the structural design of Ti/Al layered composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing and Characterization of Metallic Electrode Materials)

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15 pages, 4777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Surface Roughness on Corrosion Resistance of Mooring Chains for Offshore Floating Photovoltaics

by Feng Wang, Yong Wang, Wei Wang, Bin Lin and Minggui Qu

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1181; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101181 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 711

Abstract

Mooring chains are key components of offshore floating photovoltaic systems. Although their service safety is often affected by the harsh service environment, the influence of surface roughness on their corrosion resistance is not clear. This study investigated the corrosion behavior of mooring chain [...] Read more.

Mooring chains are key components of offshore floating photovoltaic systems. Although their service safety is often affected by the harsh service environment, the influence of surface roughness on their corrosion resistance is not clear. This study investigated the corrosion behavior of mooring chain steel using cyclic salt-spray corrosion and electrochemical tests. Scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectrometry, optical profilometry, and other analytical techniques were used to study the composition and morphology of the corrosion products. The corrosion behavior was studied by electrochemical polarization curves, alternating current impedance spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results show that the salt-spray corrosion resistance of mooring chain steel significantly improved with the reduction in specimen surface roughness, and the number and depth of corrosion pits were reduced. Mass loss after 24 h of salt-spray corrosion was exponentially related to initial roughness (

Ra

). Improved surface roughness significantly increased the pitting potential of the specimens, widened the passivation range, and enhanced the repassivation capability, thus significantly improving the pitting resistance. The pitting potential is linearly related to the initial roughness of the specimen. The oxide contents of Fe, Mo, and Si in the passivation film tended to increase with a smoother surface, which contributes to its densification. This effectively blocks chloride ion attack, thus improving the corrosion resistance of the mooring chain steel. Full article

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10 pages, 2457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Prediction of Roll Wear in a Strip Mill

by Jianhua Wei and Aimin Zhao

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101180 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 530

Abstract

In the process of hot rolling silicon steel, roll wear directly affect its shape. Accurate prediction of roll wear is an important condition for rolling qualified silicon steel strips. The traditional roll wear prediction model is established by the slicing method. The wear [...] Read more.

In the process of hot rolling silicon steel, roll wear directly affect its shape. Accurate prediction of roll wear is an important condition for rolling qualified silicon steel strips. The traditional roll wear prediction model is established by the slicing method. The wear of F5–F7 work rolls used for finishing rolling silicon steel on a 2250 mm production line in a steel mill was predicted by this model. It was found that there was deviation between the predicted results and the actual wear, and the prediction accuracy of the model was insufficient. Therefore, the wear of the surfaces of the rolls used for rolling silicon steel on this production line was studied. Based on the analysis of the work roll wear’s form and the rolling parameters that affect the roll wear, the traditional roll wear prediction model was optimized by the genetic algorithm. Finally, the optimized model was verified, and the prediction accuracy of the wear prediction model improved. The accurate prediction results provide a basis for the formulation of a shape control strategy when rolling silicon steel on this production line. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Rolling Processes)

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5 pages, 186 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Low-Temperature Nitriding and Carburizing of Stainless Steels and Metallic Materials: Formation and Properties

by Francesca Borgioli, Shinichiro Adachi and Thomas Lindner

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101179 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 782

Abstract

Surface engineering techniques are currently used to overcome the limitations of metal alloys and improve their surface hardness, tribological properties, fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance in specific environments [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Low-Temperature Nitriding and Carburizing of Stainless Steels and Metallic Materials: Formation and Properties)

12 pages, 10502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indentation-Free Resistance Spot Welding of SUS301L Stainless Steel

by Yutong Liu, Yuming Xie, Xiuwen Sun, Licheng Sun, Naijie Wang, Xiaotian Ma, Xiangchen Meng and Yongxian Huang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101178 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 621

Abstract

Paint-free bodywork has become an attractive alternative for rail vehicles, in the direction of easy maintainability and low manufacturing costs. However, conventional resistance spot welding inevitably leaves indentation marks to detrimentally reduce the optical homogeneity of the paint-free bodywork. In light of this, [...] Read more.

Paint-free bodywork has become an attractive alternative for rail vehicles, in the direction of easy maintainability and low manufacturing costs. However, conventional resistance spot welding inevitably leaves indentation marks to detrimentally reduce the optical homogeneity of the paint-free bodywork. In light of this, indentation-free resistance spot welding is proposed for joining SUS301L stainless steel sheets in order to achieve superior surficial integrity. A tiny SUS301L steel ball with a diameter of 1.5 mm was chosen as the intermediate filler between two steel sheets to avoid the formation of surficial indentation. The influence of welding current and welding time on the mechanical properties of joints was studied. The optimal parameters of the mechanical properties were obtained when the welding current was 8.0 kA, the welding time was 150 ms, the electrode pressure was 0.35 MPa, and the electrodes were cylindrical planar electrodes, which was determined by comparing the tensile shear test results. The surficial indentation depth was less than 1% of the plate thickness, and no observable indentations were seen on the surface of the optimized welding spots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Insights and Advances in Steels and Cast Irons)

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14 pages, 5509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ti-Ta-Cu Biocompatible Alloy System Development via Selective Laser Melting for Prosthetic Applications

by Igor Polozov, Victoria Sokolova, Anna Gracheva, Anton Zolotarev, Victoria Nefyodova and Anatoly Popovich

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101177 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 620

Abstract

This study investigated the development of Ti-Ta-Cu alloys via selective laser melting (SLM) for potential prosthetic applications. Ti-Ta-Cu alloys with 10, 15, and 20 wt.% Ta were fabricated using in situ alloying of elemental powders. We examined the effects of Ta content and [...] Read more.

This study investigated the development of Ti-Ta-Cu alloys via selective laser melting (SLM) for potential prosthetic applications. Ti-Ta-Cu alloys with 10, 15, and 20 wt.% Ta were fabricated using in situ alloying of elemental powders. We examined the effects of Ta content and SLM processing parameters on microstructure, phase composition, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed an increase in β-phase content with increasing Ta concentration. Microstructural analysis showed a dendritic structure in Ta-rich areas, with remelting strategies improving chemical homogeneity and Ta dissolution. The Ti-20Ta-5Cu alloy exhibited the best balance of strength and ductility, with an ultimate tensile strength of 1011 MPa and elongation of 5.7%. All compositions demonstrated lower elastic moduli (103–109 GPa) compared to traditional titanium alloys. Microhardness values were highest for Ti-15Ta-5Cu, ranging from 359 to 410 HV_0.5 depending on SLM parameters. Corrosion testing in Hank’s solution showed improved pitting resistance for Ti-15Ta-5Cu and Ti-20Ta-5Cu compared to Ti-10Ta-5Cu. The study demonstrates the feasibility of producing Ti-Ta-Cu alloys with tailored properties via SLM, offering potential for customized prosthetic applications with improved biomechanical compatibility and functionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Additive Manufacturing)

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15 pages, 5636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of FE Simulation and Experiment on Tensile Test of TWB-HPF 22MnB5 Steel

by Ji-Ho Eom, Chul Kyu Jin, Dae-Young Ahn, JSS Babu, Jun-Young Jang and Min Sik Lee

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101176 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 633

Abstract

Finite element (FE) analysis of the tensile test of TWB-HPF 22MnB5 steel was performed and compared with the experimental results. To improve the accuracy of the simulation, the damage theory of FLD and ductile damage theory were used in 2D and 3D simulations. [...] Read more.

Finite element (FE) analysis of the tensile test of TWB-HPF 22MnB5 steel was performed and compared with the experimental results. To improve the accuracy of the simulation, the damage theory of FLD and ductile damage theory were used in 2D and 3D simulations. The tensile strength of 22MnB5 steel was determined under various welding heat inputs for FE simulation. Crack propagation of the welded region indicated that the fracture was observed in the base metal under normal welding conditions. Also, the crack propagated along the HAZ region due to higher heat input of the welding, and lead fractures have been highlighted as a potential complication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Welding and Joining of Advanced High-Strength Steels (2nd Edition))

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14 pages, 9791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Competition between Pores and Hidden Entrainment Damage during In Situ Tensile Testing of Cast Aluminum Alloy Components

by Jakob Olofsson, Toni Bogdanoff and Murat Tiryakioğlu

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101175 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 831

Abstract

The competition between pores and hidden entrainment defects during tensile testing of specimens from Al-Si-Cu alloy high-pressure die castings has been characterized. In all tests, multiple strain concentrations have been identified by using the digital image correlation technique and the final fracture has [...] Read more.

The competition between pores and hidden entrainment defects during tensile testing of specimens from Al-Si-Cu alloy high-pressure die castings has been characterized. In all tests, multiple strain concentrations have been identified by using the digital image correlation technique and the final fracture has been preceded by a competition between pores and hidden damage, later identified as oxide bifilms. The results have confirmed previous findings that overall damage to the metal during its liquid state is much more extensive than what can be assessed via X-ray inspection, which looks only for pores. It is concluded that current quality assurance techniques need to be updated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lightweight Alloys)

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16 pages, 48525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Prediction in the Wire Drawing Process

by Álvaro González, Marcela Cruchaga, Diego Celentano and Jean-Philippe Ponthot

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101174 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 518

Abstract

In this study, the prediction of damage in the wire drawing process of 2011 aluminum alloy was investigated through both experimental and numerical methods. A comprehensive experimental setup was designed involving 20 cases of wire drawing with varying die angles (

10^{°}

[...] Read more.

In this study, the prediction of damage in the wire drawing process of 2011 aluminum alloy was investigated through both experimental and numerical methods. A comprehensive experimental setup was designed involving 20 cases of wire drawing with varying die angles (

10^{°}

,

15^{°}

,

21^{°}

,

27^{°}

, and

34^{°}

) and reductions (21%, 29%, 31%, and 38%). Each case was tested three times, and the drawing forces, as well as occurrences of wire breakage, were recorded. The mechanical behavior of the material was firstly characterized using uniaxial tensile tests, whose results were used to determine the material parameters of both the hardening Voce law and those of uncoupled and coupled damage models. Then, the numerical simulations of the wire drawing process were performed using a finite element model, accounting for axisymmetric conditions and mesh convergence analysis to ensure accuracy. The previously characterized damage models were applied to evaluate their fracture prediction capabilities. A novel presentation method using three-dimensional graphs was employed to indicate the level of damage for each angle and reduction, providing greater sensitivity and insight into the damage values. Good agreement between the experimental and numerical data was demonstrated for the bilinear coupled damage model, validating its effectiveness. This study contributes to a better understanding of damage prediction in the wire drawing process, with implications for improving industrial practices and material performance evaluations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue, Creep Behavior and Fracture Mechanics of Metals)

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18 pages, 7292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Part-Scale Thermomechanical and Grain Structure Modeling for Additive Manufacturing: Status and Perspectives

by Yancheng Zhang, Gildas Guillemot, Théophile Camus, Oriane Senninger, Michel Bellet and Charles-André Gandin

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101173 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 529

Abstract

Thermomechanical modeling of additively manufactured parts made by laser powder bed fusion aims to control stresses and distortions built during processing. This is, by nature, a multiscale metallurgical and mechanical problem, notably due to the strong texture of the grain structure that results [...] Read more.

Thermomechanical modeling of additively manufactured parts made by laser powder bed fusion aims to control stresses and distortions built during processing. This is, by nature, a multiscale metallurgical and mechanical problem, notably due to the strong texture of the grain structure that results from the process and may locally dictate the thermomechanical behavior law. Similarly, stresses and distortions are directly influenced by the heat transfer process at the system scale, including the consequences of the link between the part and the substrate and the weaker interactions with the powder bed and the gas environment. To achieve relevant modeling, we first demonstrate capabilities to assess at part scale, both i- the prediction of the grain structure and ii- the thermomechanical analyses. A discussion follows that summarizes the foreseen directions to achieve coupling and/or chaining between grain structure simulations and mechanical analyses at part scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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5 pages, 209 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Holistic Research for Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling as Basis for a Sustainable Industrial Business

by Bernd Friedrich and Dominic Dittmer

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101172 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 557

Abstract

An understanding of the global climate and technological progress are driving e-mobility forward worldwide [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Science Based Concepts for Increased Efficiency in Battery Recycling 2023)

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10 pages, 6933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Coalesced Bainite in Hydrogen Embrittlement of Tempered Martensitic Steels

by Hee-Chang Shin, Sang-Gyu Kim and Byoungchul Hwang

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101171 - 15 Oct 2024

Viewed by 582

Abstract

This study investigates the role of coalesced bainite in enhancing the hydrogen embrittlement resistance of tempered martensitic steels. By analyzing the microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties under varying cooling rates, it was found that the presence of coalesced bainite significantly impedes hydrogen accumulation [...] Read more.

This study investigates the role of coalesced bainite in enhancing the hydrogen embrittlement resistance of tempered martensitic steels. By analyzing the microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties under varying cooling rates, it was found that the presence of coalesced bainite significantly impedes hydrogen accumulation at prior austenite grain boundaries. This leads to a transition in the fracture mode from intergranular to transgranular, thereby improving the overall resistance to hydrogen embrittlement in steels. Slow strain rate tests (SSRTs) on both smooth and notched specimens further confirmed that steels cooled at lower rates, which form a higher fraction of coalesced bainite, exhibiting superior hydrogen embrittlement resistance. These findings suggest that optimizing the cooling process to promote coalesced bainite formation could be a valuable strategy for enhancing the performance of tempered martensitic steels in hydrogen-rich environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Insights into Mechanical Properties of Metallic Alloys)

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17 pages, 17683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electron Backscatter Diffraction Analysis of Low-Misorientation-Angle Boundary and High-Energy Boundary in the Hot-Rolled Plate of Grain-Orientated Silicon Steel

by Xiang Zou, Qingyou Liu and Shengtao Qiu

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101170 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 573

Abstract

In order to study the texture evolution and the formation of an inhomogeneous microstructure in hot-rolled plate of grain-orientated silicon steel, Fe₃C (hexagonal) and ferrite phases in the subsurface layer were studied using electron backscatter diffraction. The results indicate that fiber [...] Read more.

In order to study the texture evolution and the formation of an inhomogeneous microstructure in hot-rolled plate of grain-orientated silicon steel, Fe₃C (hexagonal) and ferrite phases in the subsurface layer were studied using electron backscatter diffraction. The results indicate that fiber texture (ferrite) mainly composed of {441}<104> and (110)[001] Goss oriented grains was formed at a depth of 25% of the thickness of hot-rolled plate. Matrix grains in the subsurface layer were arbitrary separated into irregular large grains (≥40 μm) and fine grains (<40 μm), and the grain boundary characteristics and texture evolution of matrix grains were studied. The results indicated that the formation of the colonies of fine grains was the result of dynamic recrystallization, and high-frequency low-misorientation-angle boundaries (0~20°) were formed between large grains (≥40 μm) and fine grains (<40 μm), which can be considered as the irregularity of large grains caused by solid-state wetting. Due to the texture evolution of large grains (≥40 μm), a large number of high-energy boundaries (20~45°) were formed between irregular large grains (≥40 μm), resulting in rapid consumption between adjacent large grains and the elongation of large grains along the rolling direction. Therefore, it can be assumed that the migration of low-misorientation-angle boundaries (0~20°) under solid-state wetting and high-energy boundaries (20~45°) are important mechanisms for non-uniform grain growth in hot-rolled plate of grain-orientated silicon steel. Full article

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14 pages, 5221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of La on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Friction Behavior of In Situ Synthesized TiB₂/6061 Composites

by Jing Jia, Weibin Zhuang, Jinghui Li, Qing Cao and Jingfu Liu

Metals 2024, 14(10), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101169 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 632

Abstract

In situ synthesized 3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites with different La contents were fabricated by an Al-K₂TiF₆-KBF₄ system at 850 °C with ball milling and stirring casting. The effects of La content (0 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.3 wt.%, [...] Read more.

In situ synthesized 3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites with different La contents were fabricated by an Al-K₂TiF₆-KBF₄ system at 850 °C with ball milling and stirring casting. The effects of La content (0 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.3 wt.%, 0.5 wt.%) on the microstructures and mechanical properties of the composites at room temperature were investigated. The results showed that the addition of La could refine α-Al grains and modify the morphology of TiB₂ particles significantly. In 0.3 wt.%La-3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites, there are chamfering planes on the surface of TiB₂ particles, which are caused by the adsorption of La on the {11

\bar{2}

0}, {1

\bar{2}

12} and {1

0 \bar{1}

1} crystal planes. The values of YS, UTS and EL of the composites with 0.3 wt.% La were 216.8 MPa, 273.0 MPa and 11.2%, which were 69.2%, 34.8% and 5.7% higher than those of the 3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites. The improvement of mechanical properties was mainly attributed to the grain refinement, distributed particles and transformation of particle morphology. In friction behavior, 0.3 wt.%La-3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites have the best wear resistance properties with the smallest and shallowest grooves on the surface after wearing. The main mechanisms of the composites are adhesive wear and abrasive wear. In summary, the best content of La addition in 3 wt.%TiB₂/6061 composites is 0.3 wt.%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Microstructure, and Properties of Lightweight Metal Matrix Composite Materials)

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