Nri 2711
Nri 2711
Nri 2711
Division of Immunoregulation,
Medical Research Council
National Institute for Medical
Research, The Ridgeway,
Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA,
UK.
Correspondence to A.OG.
email:
[email protected]
doi:10.1038/nri2711
Published online
15 February 2010
ReFs 3,10,11,1416).
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Box 1 | IL10 expression and gut homeostasis
The intestine is continuously exposed to bacterial flora, dietary antigens and
potential pathogens. To prevent chronic intestinal inflammation, various regulatory
lymphocyte populations keep the immune response in check. These populations
use several regulatory mechanisms, the best characterized of which involves
interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor- (TGF)15,155. IL-10- or IL-10
receptor-deficient mice do not develop severe autoimmune disorders but develop
colitis in the presence of microorganisms4,156. Many studies unequivocally identify
CD4+ T cell-derived IL-10 as a key mediator of intestinal immune homeostasis157161.
Coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are the most common causes
of non-infectious intestinal inflammation in humans, with recent reports identifying
IL10 as a susceptibility locus for the development of IBD162. Polymorphisms in
nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) have also been associated
with IBD in humans163, which is interesting considering that NOD2 has been
associated with IL-10 production41. IL-10 seems to function not directly on T cells,
but instead on myeloid cell populations in a similar manner to that observed in the
immune response to pathogens3. In vivo IL-10 production by forkhead box P3
(FOXP3+) regulatory T (TReg) cells and FOXP3 regulatory T cells in the gut seems to
be mediated by TGF, independently of endogenous IL-10 (ReF. 97). This IL-10
independence is in contrast to that reported in vitro for human IL-10-producing
regulatory T cells14. Retinoic acid was identified as a cofactor for TGF in the
induction of FOXP3+ TReg cells164166, although retinoic acid itself downregulates the
expression of IL-10 by inducible FOXP3 regulatory T cells92. Although the exact
mechanisms of IL-10 induction in the intestine remain elusive, the protective role
of intestinal TReg cells mostly depends on their expression of IL-10, suggesting that
local IL-10 expression might be a therapy for IBD2.
Chromatin
Composed of nucleosomes,
this is the basic repeating unit
of eukaryotic genomes.
Nucleosomes consist of 146
base pairs of DNA wound
around an octamer of histone
proteins.
Plasmacytoid DC
A DC that lacks myeloid
markers such as CD11c and
CD33 but expresses high levels
of HLA-DR and CD123. These
cells produce high levels of
type I interferons in response
to viral infection.
REVIEWS
a
No IL-10 production
Plasmacytoid DC
Intermediate IL-10
production
Intermediate ERK
expression
Microbial
products
Myeloid DC
Macrophage
High
antigen
dose
or IL-12
High antigen
dose and IL-12
IL-4
STAT4
ERK
STAT6
ERK
DC
Naive
T cell
TGF
TGF
Signalling pathways?
STAT3
ERK
TH1 cell
IL-12
IL-10-producing
TH1 cell
TH2 cell
IL-10
IL-10
IFN
TH17 cell
IL-10
IL-10-producing
FOXP3+ TReg cell
IL-10-producing
FOXP3 regulatory T cell
IL-10
IL-10
DC
Figure 1 | Interleukin10 expression in the immune system. a | Interleukin10 (IL10) is expressed by macrophages
and myeloid dendritic cells (DCs), but not by plasmacytoid DCs, in response to microbial products. The extracellular
Nature
| Immunology
signalregulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 (which are collectively referred to here as ERK) pathway
is Reviews
one of the
signalling
cascades that is activated in these cells that results in IL10 expression. For other immune cells, such as B cells, mast cells
and eosinophils, the exact signalling pathways that lead to IL10 production remain elusive. b | In T helper (TH) cells, the
expression of IL10 is accompanied by the expression of the signature cytokines for each subset, with the exception of
regulatory T (TReg) cells, which normally lose the capacity to express other cytokines. Although the differentiation of TH
cells from naive CD4+ T cells requires T cell receptor triggering and the activation of distinct signal transducer and
activator of transcription (STAT) pathways, activation of the ERK pathway is a common requirement for IL10 expression by
these cells. High doses of antigen presented by DCs to naive T cells or IL12 favours the development of TH1 cells, which
produce interferon (IFN). IL10producing TH1 cells require high antigen dose and IL12 and STAT4 signalling for the
expression of maximum levels of IL10 following restimulation. In TH2 cells, IL4 and STAT6 signalling pathways are
required for IL10 expression. Induction of IL10producing TH17 cells is not well understood, but transforming growth
factor (TGF), IL6, IL21 and/or IL27 and STAT3 signalling are likely to be involved. c | TGF can induce the production
of IL10 by forkhead box P3 (FOXP3)+ TReg cells and this cytokine can also promote the development of IL10producing
FOXP3 regulatory T cells from naive T cells. Conversely, FOXP3+ IL10producing TReg cells can differentiate from naive
T cells in vitro in the presence of TGF and retinoic acid.
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a
Myeloid DCs
DC-SIGN
RAF1
TLR2
NF-B
TLR2
TLR4
SYK
MYD88
ERK
TPL2
p38
IL-10
NOD2
RIP2
NF-B
TLR9
ERK
Cytoplasm
TLR2
MYD88
MEK1
MEK2
MSK1
MSK2
Macrophages
TLR3
Endosome
TRIF
IL-10
TRAF3
IL-10
TLR-dependent signal
Macrophage
IFN
TPL2
p38
IFN
ERK
PI3K
AKT
MSK1
MSK2
DUSP1
Through IL-10R
and STAT3
GSK3
CREB
AP1
IL-10
Through IL-10R
and STAT3
Figure 2 | Signals that induce interleukin10 expression by cells of the innate immune
response. a | The expression of interleukin10 (IL10) can be induced by Tolllike receptor
(TLR) or nonTLR signalling in macrophages and myeloid dendritic cells (DCs). Activation of
Nature Reviews | Immunology
TLRs and their adaptor molecules myeloid differentiation primaryresponse
protein 88
(MYD88) and TIRdomaincontaining adaptor protein inducing IFN (TRIF) results in
the activation of the extracellular signalregulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 (which are
collectively referred to here as ERK), p38 and nuclear factorB (NFB) pathways.
Activation of these pathways results in the induction of IL10 expression, in addition to
proinflammatory cytokines. In myeloid DCs, nonTLR signals through DCspecific
ICAM3grabbing nonintegrin (DCSIGN) and RAF1 can augment TLR2induced IL10
production. Furthermore, activation of dectin 1 and the signalling molecules spleen
tyrosine kinase (SYK) and ERK results in IL10 production. In macrophages, a role for
nucleotidebinding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) signalling in IL10 induction, in
crosstalk with TLR2, has been described. b | Positive and negative feedback loops for IL10
regulation in macrophages. The p38 and ERK pathways leading to IL10 expression by
macrophages are tightly controlled by interferon (IFN) and IL10 itself. IL10 feeds back
to induce the expression of dualspecificity protein phosphatase 1 (DUSP1), which
negatively regulates p38 phosphorylation and thus limits IL10 production. IL10 can also
positively feed back to upregulate tumour progression locus 2 (TPL2) expression, thus
providing a positive amplification loop for its own production. In addition, IFN can also
interfere with the phosphoinositide 3kinase (PI3K)AKT pathway, releasing glycogen
synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). As GSK3 normally blocks IL10 expression by acting on the
transcription factors cAMP response elementbinding protein (CREB) and activator
protein 1 (AP1), IL10 production is inhibited by IFN through its effects on PI3K. IL10R,
IL10 receptor; MEK, MAPK/ERK1 kinase; MSK, mitogen and stressactivated protein
kinase; RIP2, receptorinteracting protein 2; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of
transcription 3; TRAF3, TNFRassociated factor 3.
REVIEWS
loop for its own production. IL-10 was also described
to induce its own transcription in human monocytes in
a STAT3-dependent manner 67, which may result from
its upregulation of TPL2 and thus eRK activation66.
However, the mechanisms dictating the balance between
IL-10-mediated negative and positive feedback loops are
currently not clear. Furthermore, the inhibition of IL-10
production by NK cell- or T cell-derived IFN in vivo
will also influence these loops.
Various pathogen-derived products induce IL10
expression by macrophages and DCs through the activation of signalling cascades that, although common
to various stimuli and different cells, have distinct
thresholds of activation depending on the cell type,
which reflect the distinct amounts of IL-10 produced
by these cells.
IL-10 production by TH cells. IL-10 production was first
described in TH2 cells12,68, where its expression accompanies that of the TH2-type cytokines IL-4, IL-5 and
IL-13. TH1 cells can also be induced to produce IL-10,
but, in contrast to TH2 cells, only under certain conditions10,11,15,6976 (FIG. 1). Furthermore, TH17 cells have
recently been shown to produce IL-10 (ReFs 72, 7779).
The fact that TH1, TH2 and TH17 cells are dependent on
DC- and macrophage-derived factors that are downregulated by IL-10, but these subsets can all be induced to
produce IL-10, is indicative of a negative feedback loop
that ensures that effector T cell responses do not result
in immunopathology. It is of interest to note that IL-9producing TH cells, which have recently been suggested to
be a unique TH cell subset (TH9 cells), also express IL-10
(ReF. 80).
Notch
A signalling system
comprising highly conserved
transmembrane receptors that
regulate cell fate choice in the
development of many cell
lineages. Therefore, they are
crucial in the regulation of
embryonic differentiation
and development.
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DNaseI hypersensitive sites
sites of nuclease sensitivity in
the nuclei on exposure of cells
to limiting concentrations of
DNaseI. The digested regions
of DNA correspond to sites of
open DNA, which might be
factor-binding sites or areas of
altered nucleosome
conformation.
Chromatin remodelling
Alterations that are induced
in chromatin by enzymes
that modify the extent of
acetylation, methylation or
other covalent modifications
of histones.
Acetylation
A post-translational
modification of chromatin
components, particularly
histones. It correlates with
actively transcribed chromatin.
It will be of interest to determine whether IL-10producing FoXP3 regulatory T cells differentiate directly
from naive T cells or are derived from TH1, TH2, TH9
or TH17 cells that have lost expression of their effector T cell cytokines but have maintained IL-10 expression. It is possible that FoXP3 regulatory T cells that
only make IL-10 have originally differentiated along a
TH1 cell pathway through repeated high-level antigenic
stimulation, which results in IL-10 production and ultimately in the downregulation of TH1 cell production
of IFN by feedback inhibition of IL-12 production by
DCs and macrophages71.
Additional cell types that produce IL-10. In addition
to macrophages, DCs and CD4+ T cells, other cells of
the immune system are also known to express IL-10.
CD8+ T cells express IL-10 following TCR activation
or interaction with CD40 ligand expressed by activated
pDCs109111, and this IL-10 production can be enhanced
by IL-21 (ReF. 86). Stimulation of B cells with autoantigens, TLR4 and TLR9 ligands or vitamin D3 also
leads to IL-10 production112117. Finally, mast cells can
express IL-10 following TLR4 activation or during skin
allergic or damage responses1,118,119. Recently, neutrophils were reported to produce IL-10 in response to TLR
and C-type lectin co-activation through MYD88 and
SYK, respectively 36. These IL-10-producing neutrophils
were shown to be recruited to the lung during mycobacterial infections and to regulate local immune inflammatory responses36. It is currently not clear whether
the molecular mechanisms required for the induction
of IL-10 by these cells are regulated by the common
factors that regulate IL-10 production by T H cells,
macrophages and DCs.
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IL10 locus
Stronger
in TH2 cells
Weaker in
TH1 cells
Only in macrophages
and DCs
Only in
HSS4.5
undifferentiated
CD4+ T cells
HSS8.8
Enh
HSS9.1
TH2 cells
HSS0.12
HSS+0.92
HSS+2.98
HSS+6.45
HSS+1.65
1 kb
Enh
JUN
NF-B
IL10 promoter
Enh
Enh
SMAD4
TH1 cells
NF-B
Enh
GATA3 STAT MAF
TH2 locus
remodelling
Macrophages
and TH17 cells
Enh
Enh
Enh
Enh
C/EBP
CREB
ATF1
SP1
SP3
Macrophages
Macrophages
Enh
Start
site +1
Macrophages
Macrophages
and T cell lines
Macrophages
Figure 3 | molecular regulation of interleukin10 expression: the interleukin10 locus and promoter. The mouse
interleukin10 (Il10) locus (top panel) and Il10 promoter (bottom panel) are represented here. Several
DNaseI
hypersensitive
Nature
Reviews
| Immunology
sites (HSSs), and their relative position to the Il10 starting site (+1), are indicated. Most of these HSSs are common to all cells,
although some cellular specificity is also observed. Two of these sites (HSS4.5 and HSS+6.45) have been studied in more detail,
and their role in Il10 regulation has been described. HSS4.5 contains hyperacetylated histones and binds nuclear factorB
(NFB) in macrophages, whereas HSS+6.45 binds JUN proteins in T helper 2 (TH2) cells. Both HSS4.5 and HSS+6.45 were
shown to enhance the Il10 promoter activity in reporter assays. The biological role for the other HSSs needs to be further
clarified. The proximal elements that regulate the expression of IL10, including the Il10 promoter, have been well studied.
Several transcription factors have been shown to bind to the Il10 promoter and to enhance Il10 transcription in various cell
types. In TH2 cells, GATA binding protein 3 (GATA3) functions as a master regulator for Il10 expression by binding to sites in the
Il10 locus (including to the promoter) and inducing locus remodelling. Also represented are putative signal transducer and
activator of transcription (STAT) binding sites in the mouse Il10 promoter. ATF1, activating transcription factor 1; C/EBP,
CCAAT/enhancer binding protein; CREB, cAMPresponsiveelementbinding protein; DC, dendritic cell; Enh, enhancer;
GATA3, GATA binding protein 3; SMAD4, mothers against decapentaplegic homologue 4; SP, specific protein.
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Macrophages
p38
TPL2
NF-B
SP1
C/EBP
ATF1
ERK
MAF
CREB
STAT4
MAF*
SMAD4
PREP1
PBX1
IL-10
GATA3
ERK
TH2 cells
JUN
MAF* STAT6
MAF
TPL2
DCs
ERK
NF-B
NF-B
p38
TH1 cells
ERK
STAT3
SYK
RAF1
NF-B
ERK
TH17 cells
transcription factors that are required for IL-10 induction in DCs and macrophages may also have a role in
inducing IL-10 in T cells. one of the transcription factors implicated in TLR-induced IL-10 expression in
mouse macrophages and DCs, by the activation of eRK,
is FoS, the expression of which is strongly induced by
high levels of eRK activation29,30,47.
Studies have suggested there is a role for JuN proteins
in regulating Il10 in mouse TH2 cells, but not TH1 cells,
through binding to a regulatory element located ~6.45 kb
downstream of the Il10 start site133,134 (FIG. 3). This finding supports our suggestion that alternative mechanisms
probably operate to regulate Il10 induction in TH1 and
TH2 cells and possibly in other TH cell subsets, although
common factors, such as eRK and MAF, are required for
Il10 induction in various cell types.
Although there are no data so far to show direct
binding of the various STATs to the IL10 locus, an
increasing amount of evidence suggests a role for the
STAT proteins in regulating the induction of IL-10
expression in both primary macrophages and T cells.
In mouse T cells, the induction of IL-10 by IL-27
seems to depend on both STAT1 (ReFs 79,87) and
STAT3 (ReFs 79,85), and STAT3 is also involved in IL-6induced IL-10 expression79. By contrast, a recent study
on human monocytes describes an inhibitory role for
IL-27 on IL-10 production through STAT1 (ReF. 89). In
addition, as STAT3 is required for TH17 cell differentiation, this transcription factor may have an indirect
role in IL-27-mediated induction of IL-10 by T H17
cells by modulating TH17 cell differentiation. Another
study suggests that IL-10 induces its own expression
by human monocyte-derived macrophages in an
autocrine manner through the activation of STAT3
(ReF. 67). In this study, activation of the IL10 promoter
depended on the integrity of the STAT3-binding site.
Considering the data from human cell lines that show
binding of STAT3 to the IL10 promoter 124, it is possible that the STAT3-dependent effects on IL10 activation in primary cells might be related to promoter
transactivation. Finally, STAT4, which is important
for the differentiation of IFN- and IL-10-producing
mouse TH1 cells72, was also reported to have a role in
inducing IL-10 expression by mouse NK cells136. The
molecular mechanisms underlying the participation of
other STAT molecules in the control of IL-10 expression require further clarification, particularly as several
STAT molecules are required for the differentiation of
TH cell subsets and thus can modulate the induction
of IL-10 in an indirect manner.
The list of transcription factors involved in the regulation of IL10 expression is expanding (FIG. 4), which
reflects the degree of precision and complexity that the
expression of this cytokine demands. The exact contribution of many of the transcription factors discussed
above remains elusive and may in some cases be cell specific, but may also depend on the type of stimulus that
triggers IL10 expression or may affect IL10 expression
indirectly. with the identification and characterization
of distal regulatory regions in the IL10 locus, a role for
other transcription factors might also be revealed.
REVIEWS
MicroRNAs
single-stranded RNA
molecules of approximately
2123 nucleotides in length
that regulate the expression
of other genes.
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type, although common mechanisms also exist. And
fourth, IL-10 is induced in many situations together with
pro-inflammatory cytokines, although the pathways that
induce IL-10 expression may actually negatively regulate
the expression of these pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Several outstanding questions and future challenges
remain. which cells are induced to produce IL-10 during
an immune response to specific pathogens and gut flora,
and which IL-10-producing cells are required to prevent
host damage or to conversely inhibit immune responses,
thereby contributing to chronic infection? what signalling pathways and transcription factors can specifically
induce IL-10 in different immune cells independently
of the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines? what
signalling pathways are required in different cells, and
what is the hierarchy of transcription factor binding to
IL10 regulatory elements? Is IL-10 production in vivo
dictated by the environment and inflammatory stimuli, and what maintains the remodelling of the IL10
locus? For example, can TH1 cells detect signals and
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Acknowledgements
DATABASES
UniProtKB: http://www.uniprot.org
CIITA | dectin 1 | DUSP1 | ETS1 | IL10 | MAF | MYD88 | NOD2 |
STAT1 | STAT3 | STAT4 | SYK | Tbet | TRAF3 | TRIF |
FURTHER INFORMATION
Margarida Saraivas homepage: http://www.icvs.uminho.
pt/icvs/domains/inf/cv/saraivam_cv_files/saraiva.m_cv.htm
Anne OGarras homepage: http://www.nimr.mrc.ac.uk/
immunoreg/ogarra/
All lInkS Are ACTIve In The onlIne pDf