14 - 15 - H2 - Oscillations - Notes - Lecturing

JJ 2014 H2 PHYSICS (9646) Oscillations
11. Oscillations
 Simple harmonic motion
 Energy in simple harmonic motion
 Damped and forced oscillations: resonance
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe simple examples of free oscillations.

(b) investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and graphical methods.
(c) understand and use the terms amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency and
phase difference and express the period in terms of both frequency and angular
frequency.
(d) recognise and use the equation a = –ω2x as the defining equation of simple harmonic
motion.
(e) recall and use x = xosin ωt as a solution to the equation a = –ω2x.
recognise and use v = vocos ωt; v   xo  x

2 2
(f)

(g) describe, with graphical illustrations, the changes in displacement, velocity and
acceleration during simple harmonic motion.
(h) describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during simple
harmonic motion.
(i) describe practical examples of damped oscillations with particular reference to the
effects of the degree of damping and the importance of critical damping in cases
such as a car suspension system.
(j) describe practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance.
(k) describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation changes with frequency
near to the natural frequency of the system, and understand qualitatively the factors
which determine the frequency response and sharpness of the resonance.
(l) show an appreciation that there are some circumstances in which resonance is
useful and other circumstances in which resonance should be avoided.
© Physics Department Page 1 of 41

Introduction
There are three main types of motions that we have learnt so far:
(a) Linear Motion in which a body moves from one place to another in a straight
line. (e.g. a moving train on a straight track)
(b) Projectile Motion in which a body moves in two dimensions - vertical and
horizontal. (e.g. a stone thrown from a cliff)
(c) Circular Motion in which a body moves in a curvature path about a centre.
(e.g. car moving in a circular path)
We are going to learn another type of motion in this topic:

(d) Motion in which a body moves about a fixed point, back and forth over the same path
(e.g. the bob of a simple pendulum). This type of motion is called Oscillatory
Motion.
An oscillation is a periodic motion in which the

oscillator (object) moves to and fro about an
equilibrium position.
The motion is periodic, as it repeats itself at standard intervals in a specific manner.

The equilibrium position is the position where no net force acts on the oscillator.
There are three types of oscillations:
(1) free,
(2) damped, and
(3) forced.

(a) Describe simple examples of free oscillations.
Free Oscillation
When an oscillator (object) undergoes free oscillation,
it vibrates at its natural frequency. There are no

periodic external forces acting on the oscillator.
Examples include, assuming the absence of air resistance/friction,
(1) a simple vertical (vibrating) spring-mass systemi,

(2) a simple (swinging) pendulumii and
(3) a simple horizontal spring-mass system.
Oscillations in the real world are usually damped (i.e. not free
from external forces); that is, the motion dies out gradually (this concept will be
elaborated later in the topic), transferring mechanical energy to thermal energy due to friction.
However, we can maintain the oscillation by replenishing the lost mechanical energy from
some other source.
In order to study this concept of oscillations further, we need to find out patterns from their
cause and effect. From there, we are able to predict outcomes as we change the underlying
conditions. This is the basis of Science.
To do that, we will need to define a set of basic terminology as well as postulate the
mathematics behind. Let us conduct a simple experiment on oscillations to investigate.
In terms of the cause, we are looking at the dynamics of the object, i.e. the forces acting on it
and the corresponding energy changes. In terms of the effect, we would be looking at
measurable(s) such as the position of the object relative to the equilibrium position
(displacement), its speed (velocity) and the time taken.
With the data collected, we can then propose a general mathematical relationship and apply
it on further situations.
i
See Section (A) under Extra Reading for more information
ii
See Section (B) under Extra Reading for more information

(b) Investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and

graphical methods.
Experimental Investigation 1
The following setup can be used to investigate the motion of an oscillator:
Cone contains sand & is set swinging
Paper pulled at constant velocity in direction

shown
Sand tracks on paper

O C
A B
x/m C
The graphical trace on the paper
will have a sinusoidal pattern, i.e.
O t/s a sine or cosine function as
shown on the left
B A

Experimental Investigation 2
A variation of the previous setup is to use a mass oscillating on a horizontal spring, setup as
follows when viewed from the top:
O Mass oscillating horizontally, The displacement of the oscillating

with pen attached to chart ”x” body varies with time sinusoidally.
Paper pulled at constant x/m

velocity in direction shown
Equilibrium
position
Pen tracks on paper t/s
Note:
 The mass does not actually move along the sinusoidal curve.
It always moves back and forth over the same path (periodic).
 Graph need not always be a Sine curve. (oscillator which is at equilibrium position at t
= 0) It can also be a Cosine curve (oscillator at maximum displacement at t = 0) or
any other sinusoidal curve, Depending On The Initial Conditions. At
Equilibrium Position, No Net Force Acts On The Oscillating
Mass.
 In the absence of air resistance and friction, a Sinusoidal Graph will be obtained
if the displacement of the mass is plotted against time.

(c) Understand and use the terms amplitude, period, frequency, angular
frequency and phase difference and express the period in terms of both
frequency and angular frequency.
Since an oscillatory motion can be graphically represented by a sinusoidal representation,

we can mathematically describe its displacement (x) with respect to time as:
x = x0 sin t x = x0 cos t
x/m x/m
xo xo
0 T 2T t/s 0 T t/s
- xo - xo
SI Unit
Physical Quantity Definition Type
(symbol)
The magnitude of the maximum displacement of
Amplitude, xo metre (m) scalar
the body from the equilibrium position.
The distance from its equilibrium position at a
Displacement, x metre (m) vector
specified time in a stated direction.
The time taken for one complete oscillation of the
Period, T second (s) scalar
body.
The number of completed oscillations per unit
time of the body.
Frequency, f 1 hertz (Hz) scalar
f 
T
The product of 2 radian and the frequency.

One completed (full) cycle represents 2π rad.
radian per
Angular
second
frequency,  2  scalar
    2 f (rad s-1)
T t
Stage (determined by its displacement and

velocity) of oscillation that has been completed at
a specific reference time in terms of angle, radian
Phase (angle), t scalar
e.g. ¼ oscillation completed - /2 rad (rad)
½ oscillation completed -  rad
¾ oscillation completed - 3/2 rad

For instance, in a simple pendulum, ONE complete

oscillation occurs when it moves from position A to O to
B, then back to O and A.
When pendulum reaches position O from A, we say it

has completed ¼ of a cycle. Hence, the angle
equivalent is ¼ x 2 = /2 rad.
The difference in the stages of motion between two

oscillations at a specific time.
If two oscillations are in step with one another, they

Phase
are said to be in phase with one another. Oscillations
difference,  are said to be in anti-phase OR out of phase with
radian
scalar
between two (rad)
phase difference of  rad when the displacement of
bodies
one oscillation reaches a positive maximum value at
the same instant as the other reaches a negative
maximum (i.e. the displacements are opposite to each
other).
Example 1: [J83/II/9]
A body in simple harmonic motion makes n complete oscillations in one second. What is its
angular frequency?
A n rad s-1 B ½ rad s-1 C 2n rad s-1 D 2/n rad s-1
Solution:
Frequency f = n
Angular frequency,  = 2 f = 2n rad s-1
Ans: [C]
Example 2: [J90/I/10]
A body performing simple harmonic motion has a displacement x given by the equation
x = 30 sin 50t, where t is the time in seconds. What is the frequency of the oscillation?
A 0.020 Hz B 0.13 Hz C 8.0 Hz D 30 Hz E 50 Hz
Solution:
50
Since ω = 50 = 2f € f   7.95  8.0 Hz
2
Ans: [C]





(d) Recognise and use the equation a = –ω2x as the defining equation of
simple harmonic motion.
A body undergoing SHM is defined as
A periodic motion where its acceleration is

proportional and opposite to its displacement
from the equilibrium position.
Two important characteristics of a body undergoing SHM
(1) Its acceleration, a is proportional to its displacement, x from equilibrium position.

(2) Its acceleration, a is opposite in direction to its displacement, x from the equilibrium
position. (due to the restoring force). i.e. The acceleration is always directed towards
the equilibrium position.
Mathematically, combining (1) and (2):
a-x
a= - ω x 2
where x represents the displacement from the equilibrium position and
2 is the constant of proportionality
Hence, the equation a= -ω2 x is referred to as the DEFINING EQUATION OF
SHM.
If the graph of acceleration a against displacement x is plotted,
it will be a Linear Graph Passing Through The Origin With
Negative Gradient (gradient = -ω2).


Example 3: [N78/II/10]
Which one of the following sketch graphs best represents the relation between the acceleration a
of a body executing a simple harmonic motion and the displacement x of the body from the
centre of its path?
A a B a C a
x x
D a E a
Solution:
The defining equation for SHM obeys the straight line equation Y = mX + c
a= -ω2 x , where a = Y, X = x, m = –ω2 and c = 0
Ans: [C]
Example 4: [N06/I/13]
A simple harmonic oscillator has a time period of 10 seconds. Which equation relates its
acceleration a and displacement x?
A a = –10 x B a = –(2π)2x C a = (2π/10)2x D a = –(2π/10)2x
Solution:
Since a= -ω2 x,
2 2  2  2
 2   2   a   x
ω     
2
 10 
T 10
     
Ans: [D]

Example 5 [N08/I/15]
The graph shows how a varies with x for a particle moving in simple harmonic motion.
What is the amplitude and period of motion?
amplitude / cm period / s
A 5.0 0.44
B 5.0 14
C 10 0.44
D 10 14
Solution:
Since a  - x, at maximum acceleration, the particle is at its amplitude i.e.
Max acceleration, ao = - 10 m s-2, amplitude xo = 5.0 cm
To find the period, since a= - ω2 x ,
 2  2
10 =  (0.05)
 T 
 
T  0.44 s
Ans: [A]

(e)Recall and use x = xosin ωt as a solution to the equation a = – ω2x.
Derivation of the above equations is not required.

Recall in the earlier parts that graphically, the displacement against time of a body moving
with
SHM can be represented as

x = x0 sin t
or
x = x0 cos t,
depending on the starting condition.
For x = x0sin t, at t = 0 (starting time), the value of x = 0. i.e.

the object passes the equilibrium position at t = 0.
For x = x0cos t, at t = 0 (starting time), the value of x = x0. i.e.

the object is at the extreme position at t = 0.
See Section D under Extra Reading to use x = x0sin t OR x = x0 cos t as a solution to the
defining SHM equation a = -2x.

Example 6
The rise and fall of water in a harbour is simple harmonic. The depth varies between 1.0 m
at low tide and 3.0 m at high tide. The time between successive high tides is 12 hours.
A boat, which requires a minimum depth of water of 2.5 m, approaches the harbour when
the water depth is 2.0 m. How long will the boat have to wait before entering?
A 0.5 hours B 1.0 hours C 1.5 hours D 2.0 hours E 2.5 hours
Solution: displacement
Since the water movement is simple
harmonic, the equilibrium position is at high tide
1
the depth of 2 m.
Hence, the displacement of the water
can be represented by Equilibrium
 2  0 position
x  (1) sin t
 12  low tide
  -1
At x  0.5 m (depth of 2.5 m) time
 2 
0.5  (1) sin  t
 12 
 2   2   5
sin t  0.5  t ,  Impt: Express all phase angle in radian
   
 12   12  6 6
t  1 hr, 5 hr
Ans: [B]

(f) recognise and use v = vocos ωt; v   x o2  x 2



Derivation of the above equations is not required.
x = x0 sin t
v  dx € v = ( xo ) cos t
dt
v = ±ω x 2
0 - x 2 
= vo cos t
v is maximum when (cos t) = 1
v is maximum when x = 0
€ t = 0, or  or 2
vmax = vo vo = ±ω x 2
0  02  = x0
maximum velocity at equilibrium position vo = x0

v is minimum when (cos t) = 0
v is minimum when x = xo
€ t = /2 or 3/2
vmin = 0 vmin = ±ω x 2

0  x02  = 0
minimum velocity at amplitude
See Section E under Extra Reading to use v = v0 cos t to derive v = ±ω x 2

0 - x 2 .

Example 7: [J79/II/9]
A particle performs simple harmonic motion of amplitude 2.0 x 10-3 m and period 0.10 s. Its
maximum speed is approximately
A 3.2 x 10-5 m s-1 B 2.0 x 10-4 m s-1 C 2.0 x 10-2 m s-1

D 1.3 x 10-1 m s-1 E 5.0 x 104 m s-1
Solution:
Given : amplitude, x0 = 2.0 x 10-3 m & period, T = 0.10 s
Maximum speed, vo = ??
From above equation, vo = x0
2 2
€ vo =( )(x0) = ( ) (2.0 x 10-3)
T 0.10
= 1.26 x 10-1 m s-1
Ans: [D]
Example 8
The graphs below show how the displacement x and the acceleration a of a body vary with
time when it is oscillating with simple harmonic motion.
x/m
2
0 t/s
-2
-2
a/m s
18
0 t/s
-18
What is the value of T?
A π/9 s B 2π/9 s C π/3 s D 2π/3 s E 2π s
Solution:
From the graph, the body has maximum acceleration when it is at its amplitude position.
 max acceleration, a0 = -18 m s-2, amplitude x0 = 2 m.
Since a= - ω2 x
 2  2
-18 =  (2)
 T 
 
2
T
3
Ans: [D]

d2 x
A point moves with s.h.m. along an x-axis according to the equation + Ax = 0 . The
dt 2
period of the motion is
A A  2 
A B C D E
2  A A 2 A
Solution
d2 x
is just acceleration, a.
dt 2
Hence equation is a + Ax = 0 € a = -Ax
2
Compare to SHM defining equation, a   2 x € 2 = A € ( )2 = A
T
2
T=
A
Ans: [D]

(g) Describe, with graphical illustrations, the changes in displacement,

velocity and acceleration during simple harmonic motion.
Changes of displacement, velocity & acceleration with TIME (t):

x/m
x  xo sint
T 2T t/s
-1
v/ms
dx  xo cost
v
T 2T t/s dt
-2
a/ms
dv   2  x sint   2 x
a o
T 2T t/s dt
velocity vs displacement graph acceleration vs displacement graph
-1
a / m s-2
v/ms
+  x0 + 2 x0
- x0 + x0 x/m + x0
- x0 x/m
- 2 x0
-  x0
v   x2o  x 2 a= -ω2 x

To make sense of the graphs and what it really means in the physical sense, let us use the
spring-mass system as an example.
When mass is displaced and released in

Fig. (a),
 velocity is initially zero
 As mass accelerates towards O
(equilibrium position), velocity increases
At equilibrium position (x = 0) in Fig. (b),

 resultant force on mass is zero.
 acceleration is zero
 velocity is maximum
When it is past O in Fig. (c)

 force changes direction
 force on mass and direction of motion
are opposite  mass decelerates
 velocity decreases until zero when
mass comes to a rest (at extreme end)

Which graph best shows how the velocity v of an object performing simple harmonic motion
of amplitude x0 varies with displacement x for one complete oscillation?
A B
v v
-xo xo x -xo xo x
C v D v
x x
-xo xo -xo xo
Solution: Ans: [C]

The diagram shows a displacement-time graph

of a body performing simple harmonic motion.
At which one of the points, A, B, C, D or E, is

the body travelling and accelerating in the
same direction?
Solution:
Direction of “Travelling” means the direction of “velocity”.
Paraphrase : “At which point is the velocity & acceleration in the same direction?”
At A : equilibrium position, a = 0 but max velocity

At B : extreme end, v = 0, but a is max
At C : same as A, but direction of velocity is opposite
At D : travelling towards +ve extreme end, but acceleration is pointing opposite
At E : travelling towards equilibrium, while acceleration is also towards equilibrium.
Ans: [E]

Summary of concepts explained so far
Displacement Velocity Acceleration

2 2
v = ±ω x - x
0 a = -2x
Displacement
- Max. value = ± x0 - Min. value = 0

when x = 0 when x = 0
- Min. value = 0 - Max. value = ∓ 2x0
when x = ± x0 when x = ± x0
x = x0 sin t v = x0  cost a = -2[x0 sin t]

Time
x = x0 cos t v = - x0  sint a = -2[x0 cos t]
Comparison of Forces in Linear, Circular and Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Type of Motion Magnitude of Force Direction Of Force
Linear constant constant

varying; always towards
Circular constant
centre of circle
varying; proportional to
varying; always towards
Simple Harmonic Motion displacement from
equilibrium position
equilibrium position

(g) Describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during
simple harmonic motion.
Energy Changes in SHM

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total energy in a closed
system is constant. For an oscillator in SHM, its total energy is the sum of its kinetic and
potential energy, provided that there is no energy loss due to dissipative forces such as air
resistance.
Consider the energy changes for a simple pendulum:

 At A and B (extreme ends), the total
energy of the system exists as potential
energy only.
 At O, all the energy is converted into
kinetic energy, hence the total energy
of the system is the total kinetic energy.
 However, somewhere in between A
and O, or B and O, there is a
combination of kinetic and potential
energy.
In equation form:
Total energy of system = KE + PE = KEmax = PEmax
For simplicity, we shall consider the KEmax (at the equilibrium position, O)
Total energy of system = KEmax
1
= ( mv 2 ) max
2
1 1
= mv 2 = m(v 2 ) v = ±ω x02 - x2
max max
2
1 2 For v to be maximum, x = 0
= m(±ω x 2 - x 2 )2
€ vmax = ±ωxo
0
2
1
= m 2 x 2
0
2
Note: total energy of the oscillating is independent of time.
General equation of KE & PE:
K.E. = 1 mv 2 P.E. = Total energy – KE

1 1
2 = m2 x 2  m2 (x 2  x 2 )
1
= mω2 (x 2 - x 2 ) 2 0
2 0
1
2 0
= mω x2 2
since v = ±ω x02 - x2
2

Graphs of energy vs time:

Given that x = xo sin ωt, the following energy against time graph is obtained.
Energy / J
1 2 2 2
P.E.= mx0 ω sin ωt

1 2 2 2 K.E.= 2 mx0 ω cos ωt
2
1 2 2
1 Total Energy = 2 mω x0
m ω 2x 2
0
2
t/s
T 2T
Graphs of energy vs displacement:

E/J
m2 x02
1 2 2
1
T.E.= 2 mω x0
2 1 2 2
P.E.= 2 mω x
1
K.E.= m ω 2 (x 2 - x 2 )
0
2
- x0 + x0 x/m


A particle of mass 4 kg movies with simple harmonic motion and its potential energy U varies
with position x as shown below.
What is the period of oscillation of the mass?

A 2 B  2 C 8 D 4 E 2 2
25 s s 5 s
5 s 25 5 s
Solution
1
PE  mω2 x2
2
At x  0.2 m, U  1.0 J
1  2  2
1  (4)  (0.2)2  T  2 2
2 T  5
 
Ans: [E]

Which graph correctly shows the variation with time t of kinetic energy Ek of an object
undergoing simple harmonic motion of period T?
A B
C D
Solution:
1
KE against displacement graph is always positive since KE  mω2 (x2 - x2 ) (Option B or D)
0
2
In one oscillation (t = T), the object starts traveling from one extreme end (since Ek = 0 at t = 0),
passes the equilibrium position (max Ek), reaches the other extreme end (Ek = 0), passes the
equilibrium position again (max Ek) before going back to the starting point (Ek = 0 at t = T).
Ans: [D]


The bob of a simple pendulum of period 2 s is given a small displacement and then released at
time t = 0.
Which diagram shows the variation with time of the bob’s kinetic energy Ek and its potential
energy Ep?
A B
C D
Solution:
At t = 0, the pendulum starts to travel from the extreme end (Ek = 0) (either Option A or C)
In one oscillation (t = 2 s), the pendulum will travel pass the equilibrium position twice at max Ek
(refer to explanation in Example 13)
Ans: [A]

(h) Describe practical examples of damped oscillations with particular

reference to the effects of the degree of damping and the importance of
critical damping in cases such as a car suspension system.
Damped Oscillations
In the previous sections, we discussed mainly systems oscillating in the absence of
Damping. In practical situations, the Total Energy For Oscillating
Systems Is Not Conserved.
Damped oscillation occurs when there is Energy Lost from the oscillating system due
to Dissipative Forces caused by air resistance or viscous forces (which may not be
constant in magnitude). They also cause the oscillation to “Decay” away. As the
object oscillates, the Amplitude Decreases. Eventually, the oscillation stops. Such
motion is called damped oscillation.
Damped oscillation of a system is one that has its amplitude

decreasing with time due to dissipative forces acting on the
system.
There are 3 degrees of damping
 Light,
 Heavy, and
 Critical
Light:10/ Critical:100

Light damping
The system oscillates about the equilibrium
Decreasing Amplitude
position with
Until The Amplitude Eventually
Becomes Zero.
An example is a vertical simple spring-mass Displacement-time graph of light damping system.
system in air or in a liquid of low viscosity. The amplitude decreases exponentially with time.
Heavy damping
The system Does Not Oscillate (i.e.

cross equilibrium position) and damping is so
Takes A Long Time To
large that it
Reach Its Equilibrium Position.
An example is a door closer with hydraulic
(liquid-filled) damper that closes the door
automatically but slowly and cannot be forced.
Displacement time graph for a
(a) Heavy damping system (dotted line)
Critical damping (b) Critical damping system (solid line)
The system Does Not Oscillate but

returns to the equilibrium position In The
Shortest Possible Time.
An example is a passenger car suspension
system which reduces discomfort on bumpy
roads.

(i) Car Suspension System
The degree of damping a mechanical system is

important.
The suspension system of a car should ensure a

comfortable ride for passengers when the car moves on
a bumpy road. If the suspension is only lightly
damped, passengers would be thrown up and down since the suspension system would
take some time to stop oscillating. This is what happened when the suspension system is
faulty. The setting up of vibration could make control difficult or cause damage to the car.
A good suspension system is one which is slightly under critically damped.
The shock-absorbing system can only reduce the forces applied. It cannot eliminate them
because the passenger must rise eventually by the height of the bump. Shock absorbers on
a car critically damp the suspension of the vehicle.
In the shock absorber, the motion of the suspension up and down is opposed by viscous
forces when the liquid passes through the transfer tube from one side of the piston to the
other. (Fig. (a) below)
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
(ii) Moving coil meters: utilize electromagnetic damping to prevent tiresome oscillation.
Examples are ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers. (Fig (b)) above)
(iii) Natural damping: A percussive musical instrument (such as bell) gives out a note
whose intensity decreases with time.

(h) Describe practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance.
Forced Oscillations
Originally a light-damped oscillation with a natural frequency fo, being light-

damped, its amplitude decreases as its total energy is being dissipated.
maintain the oscillation at a constant amplitude then

If we wish to
energy must be replenished by an external agent (or a driver)
which exerts a periodic force with a driver frequency f. The rate of
replenishment of energy must be at the same rate at which energy is being dissipated to the
surroundings and within the system.
When an external periodic force is applied to a light-damped

oscillatory system, it sets the system into forced oscillation. The
system then oscillates at the frequency of the external periodic
force.
1. The oscillation will oscillate at the frequency of the driver
(i.e. f) and its amplitude depends on the relative values of
f and fo.
2. The amplitude is larger if f is closer to fo

Depending on the nature of the external driving forces acting on the oscillating system (e.g.
constant or sinusoidal), the oscillating system will exhibit different behaviours.

Resonance
When the driving frequency (f) equals the natural frequency of a system (f0), the
amplitude of oscillation will be a maximum. This is called resonance.
Resonance is a phenomenon in which a forced

oscillating system oscillates with maximum
amplitude when the external driving frequency is
equal to the natural frequency of the system.
There is a maximum transfer of energy from the
driving system to the driven system.
Tacoma bridge

Wine glass resonance in slow motion

Practical example of forced oscillations and resonance
Barton’s Pendulums
A, B and C are three pendulums, each with a light

paper cone for a bob. X is another pendulum with a
heavy metal bob. Pendulum X is displaced
perpendicularly to the plane containing the bobs at rest
and then released.
Pendulum X provides the driving force. The kinetic

energy of X is transmitted along the wooden rod to the
other pendulums, which subject them to a periodic
force from X.
A modified “Barton’s Pendulums”
Damping in this case is light because air resistance experimental setup with 4 pendulums
does not provide a large viscous force.
The motion settles down after a short time and all the
pendulums oscillate with very nearly the same frequency as the driver but with different
amplitudes. This is forced oscillation.
The frequency of X is close to the natural frequency of pendulum B because they have the
same length. As a result, resonance will take place for B and it oscillates with the greatest
amplitude. Pendulums A and C will oscillate with smaller amplitude because their natural
frequency is different from the driving frequency of X.

(k) Describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation changes

with frequency near to the natural frequency of the system, and
understand qualitatively the factors which determine the frequency
response and sharpness of the resonance.
Frequency Response Graph
The frequency response graph for forced oscillation is shown below.
When damping is small, the resonant frequency (value of driving frequency at maximum
amplitude) is approximately equal to the natural frequency, fo, of a system.
As damping increases,
 the amplitude decreases for all frequencies,
 the peak becomes flatter and
 the resonant frequency of a system decreases.
amplitude / m
no damping
light damping
damping increases
f0 driving frequency / Hz
Frequency response graph for forced oscillation.

f0 is the natural frequency of the system.
 When there is damping, resonance will occur at a lower frequency, i.e. at f < fo . When
damping is smaller, resonance will be more pronounced. When damping increases, the
maximum amplitude becomes lower. Therefore, the degree of damping determines the
sharpness of the resonance.
 At this point, energy is supplied to the system at the same rate that it is dissipated by the
damping forces. As damping increases, the amplitude at resonance decreases

How a frequency response graph is obtained?


Two objects P and Q are given an initial displacement x0 and then released. The graphs
below show how their displacement vary with time.
P and Q are then subjected to a driving force of constant amplitude and of variable
frequency f. Which graph best represents the way in which the amplitudes of P and Q vary
with f?
A B
C D
Solution:
From the graphs of P & Q, P experiences a lighter damping compared to Q.
Hence, at resonance, P will have a larger amplitude (less damping), while Q will peak at a
frequency less than P (higher damping).
Ans : [D]

(l) Show an appreciation that there are some circumstances in which

resonance is useful and other circumstances in which resonance should
be avoided.
Useful Applications of Resonance

(i) Radio - Electrical resonance occurs when a radio circuit is tuned by making its
natural frequency for electrical oscillations equal to that of the incoming signals.
(ii) Microwave oven – In microwave ovens, microwaves of frequency similar to the
natural frequency of water is used. When food containing water molecules is placed
in the oven, the molecules resonate, absorbing energy from the waves and thus heat
up. This also explains why plastic and glass containers do heat up when placed in
such ovens.
(iii) Musical instruments - Resonance in musical instruments creates a richer audible
sound of the selected note
(iv) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - MRI is primarily used in medical imaging to
visualise the structure and function of the body. A MRI machine directs a radio
frequency (RF) pulse towards the area of the body to be examined. This frequency is
carefully selected based on the particular tissue to be imaged and the strength of the
main magnetic field is such that (hydrogen) protons, which absorbed the energy, will
resonate. When the RF pulse is switched off, the (hydrogen) protons will tend to
oscillate at their natural frequency and released the extra stored energy in the form of
EM radiation, which the machine can pick up, analyse and then generate a computer
image
(left): A MRI machine

(right): Flow diagram for MR imaging process
.

Undesirable Effects of Resonance
(i) Resonance in rigid structures - Unwanted vibrations may act on rigid structures
such as buildings and bridges causing resonance which may be destructive,
unpleasant or simply inconvenient. Sources of such unwanted vibrations include
earthquakes, mechanical human sources as as masses of people walking, wind.
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster in US (1940) was caused by the wind
producing an oscillating resultant force in resonance with a natural frequency of the
bridge.
(ii) Aircraft - Parts of the aircraft has to be tested for resonance by shaking it at different
frequencies. It is important that the natural frequency of vibration of the aircraft do
not equal any that may be produced by the forces experienced in flight. Otherwise,
resonance might occur and undue stress result.
Guided Worked Example
(a) In the preparation of tide tables for coastal resorts and harbours, use is made of a graph of
depth of water against time at a particular place. One such graph is shown above.
(i) Describe the steps you would take to obtain such a graph practically for a particular
harbour.
(ii) What is the period of this oscillation?
(iii) What is the amplitude of this oscillation?
(iv) Sketch the acceleration-displacement graph of the water movement. Explain why the
water movement is simple harmonic based on your graph.
(b) In some harbours, the rise and fall of the water level is simple harmonic. What does simple
harmonic mean?
(c) In one harbour, the equation for the depth h of water is
2t
h = 5.0 + 3.0 sin
45600
2t
where h is given in metres and t is the time in seconds. (The angle is in radians).
45600
For this harbour, calculate
the maximum depth of water
(ii) the minimum depth of water
(iii) The time interval between high-and-low-water
(iv) two values of t at which the water is 5.0 m deep
(v) the length of time for each tide during which the depth of water is more than 7.0 m

Solution
(a) (i) - Set up a measuring scale on a fixed column, which starts from zero at the bottom of
the harbour & extend a few metres above the high-tide level (e.g. 10 m)
- At beginning of each hour, read off the reading of the depth from the scale and
record it together with the time of reading
- Repeat this each day for several weeks.
- At the end of the data collection, average the water-level reading for each time
recorded.
- Plot a graph of the average water-level reading vs. the time of day (or hour of day).
(ii) T = 14 hours.
(iii) Amplitude = 2 m.
(iv) The graph is linear with a negative gradient and passes through the origin.
a/m s-2
x/m
-2 2
(b) Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion where the water level rise and fall about an
equilibrium level. The acceleration of the water particles are proportional and opposite to
its displacement from the equilibrium level.
(c) (i) maximum depth xmax = 5.0 + 3.0 = 8.0 m (when sin t = 1)
(ii) minimum depth xmin = 5.0 – 3.0 = 2.0 m (when sin t = -1)
(iii) time interval between high-and-low tide is HALF a period!!
2 2
Interval = ½ Period = ½ ( )=½( ) = 22 800 s
 2
45600
(iv) when the water is 5.0 m deep, x = 0
This happens when sin t = 0 € t = 0, , 2, 3… etc.
2 2
Hence, 2 values of t is when t=0 & t = 
45600 45600
€ t = 0 s & t = 22 800 s
(v) To find the duration when the tide is higher than 7 m, we have to determine the value
of t1 & t2.
2t
Hence, h = 5.0 + 3.0 sin =7
45600
2t 75
€ sin =
45600 3.0
2t
€ = 0.730 rad or (-0.730)
45600
€ t1 = 5296 s and t2 = 17 502 s
Hence, duration when tide is more than 7 m
= 17 502 – 5296 = 12 200 s (3 sf)

Acknowledgements
- KF Chan, Charles Chew, SH Chan (3rd edition), Comprehensive Physics for ‘A’ level
Vol.2. Federal Study Aids
- Halliday, Resnick, Walker (6th edition), Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & sons,
Inc.
- Nelkon & Parker (7th edition, 1995), Advanced Level Physics. Oxford, Heinemann
Educational Publishers
- Serway (4th edition, 1996), Physics for scientists and engineers with modern Physics,
Saunders College Publishing
- Edited by Oh TH, 2014
- Adapted from Oscillation lecture notes, Chua S H, 2012

Extra Reading (for further understanding)

– not explicitly required in syllabus
(A) Oscillation of a mass suspended from a spring
When a mass is suspended on a spring, the spring is extended. This is called the static
extension, e [Figure (b)].
Note:
Since the spring is extended, there is
Since the system is in equilibrium,
elastic potential energy stored in the
mg = ke …………. (1)
where k is the force constant of the spring. 1 2
spring of ke .
2
Consider the resultant downward force at any If the mass is then displaced a further
displacement, x, distance x0 and then released, the mass
will oscillate with amplitude x0.
Resultant force () = mg – F1
= mg – k(e + x)
= -kx [since mg = ke from equation 1]
(where F1 is the restoring force in the spring at that instant and is given by
Hooke’s law, F1 = (k) x (extension))
Negative sign: shows that resultant force is always opposite in direction

to the displacement F1
Applying Newton’s 2nd Law (Resultant force, F = ma):

ma = -kx
k mg
a = - x [compare with a = -2x for SHM]
m
k
Hence, motion is SHM with  
2
m
2 m e
Period of motion is given by T = = 2 = 2 
ω k g
[since mg = ke from equation (1)]
This means that the natural period of oscillation for a spring-mass system is
governed by the mass and spring constant, k.

(B) Simple Pendulum
At any instant, the force pulling the bob back to O is tangential to the path at that point which
is displaced x from O.
Restoring force = -mg sin
ma = -mg sin
a = -g sin 
a  -g (for small ) l
x g
a = -g = - x
l l
since the above is of the form (a = -2x), the motion is SHM with
g 
2  . 
l O
2 mg
Hence, period T= = 2 l
ω g
This means that the natural period of oscillation for a simple pendulum is governed
by the length of the pendulum and the gravitational field strength, g.
(C) Object on an Oscillating Platform
Consider resultant force acting on object R

upwards:R – mg = ma
x
mg
Because the platform is performing SHM,
a = -2x Equilibrium position
R – mg = -m2x
R = mg - m2x
As x varies, R is a minimum when x = xo

Rmin = mg - m2xo
Thus, as frequency of oscillating platform is varied, R will be zero when: mg = m2xo
Once this happens, the object will lose contact at the “top” of every cycle and a
clattering sound is heard. The lowest frequency at which this happens is given by
ω 1 g
fmin = =
2 2 A

(D) Velocity and Acceleration of a Body in SHM

Assuming that x = x0 sin t If instead we started from x = x0 cos t
dx dx
Hence, velocity, v= Hence, velocity, v=
dt dt
= x0  cost = - x0  sint
dv d2 x dv d2 x
Acceleration, a= = Acceleration, a= =
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
= - x0 2 sint = - x0 2 cost
By comparison, a = -2[x0 sint] By comparison, a = -2[x0 cost]

a = -2x a = -2x
This working intends to show that the equations x = x0 sin t & x = x0 cos t are valid
solutions to the defining equation a = -2x.
(E) Equation for Velocity

For x = x0 sin t For x = x0 cos t
dx dx
velocity, v = velocity, v =
dt dt
= x0 cost = - x0 sin t
Squaring both sides: Squaring both sides:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
v = x0  cos t
2
v = x0  sin t
v 2 = x 2 cos2 ωt …..(1) v 2 = x 2 sin2 ωt …..(1)

ω2 0
ω2 0
However, since However, since

x = x0 sin t x = x0 cos t
 x2 = x02 sin2 t ……. (2)  x2 = x02 cos2 t ……. (2)
Hence, (1) + (2): Hence, (1) + (2):

2
v + x2 = x 2
[cos2ωt+ sin2ωt] v 2 + x2 = x 2
[cos 2 ωt+ sin2ωt]
ω22 0
ω22 0
v v
 2
+ x =x 2
 +x =x2
2
ω22 0
ω22 0
 v =  [x02- x2]
2
 v =  [x02- x2]
2
 2 2 2 2
v    xo  x  v   xo  x
Note that the  sign indicate that there are two velocities with the same magnitude, which
correspond to the two cases when the body is at the same position but moving in opposite
directions.

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JJ 2014 H2 PHYSICS (9646) Oscillations

Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe simple examples of free oscillations.

recognise and use v = vocos ωt; v   xo  x

© Physics Department Page 1 of 41

We are going to learn another type of motion in this topic:

An oscillation is a periodic motion in which the

The motion is periodic, as it repeats itself at standard intervals in a specific manner.

© Physics Department Page 2 of 41

(a) Describe simple examples of free oscillations.

it vibrates at its natural frequency. There are no

Examples include, assuming the absence of air resistance/friction,

(1) a simple vertical (vibrating) spring-mass systemi,

© Physics Department Page 3 of 41

(b) Investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and

Cone contains sand & is set swinging

Paper pulled at constant velocity in direction

Sand tracks on paper

© Physics Department Page 4 of 41

O Mass oscillating horizontally, The displacement of the oscillating

Paper pulled at constant x/m

© Physics Department Page 5 of 41

Since an oscillatory motion can be graphically represented by a sinusoidal representation,

The product of 2 radian and the frequency.

Stage (determined by its displacement and

© Physics Department Page 6 of 41

For instance, in a simple pendulum, ONE complete

When pendulum reaches position O from A, we say it

The difference in the stages of motion between two

If two oscillations are in step with one another, they

A 0.020 Hz B 0.13 Hz C 8.0 Hz D 30 Hz E 50 Hz

© Physics Department Page 7 of 41

A periodic motion where its acceleration is

Two important characteristics of a body undergoing SHM

(1) Its acceleration, a is proportional to its displacement, x from equilibrium position.

Mathematically, combining (1) and (2):

© Physics Department Page 8 of 41

© Physics Department Page 9 of 41

A a = –10 x B a = –(2π)2x C a = (2π/10)2x D a = –(2π/10)2x

© Physics Department Page 10 of 41

What is the amplitude and period of motion?

© Physics Department Page 11 of 41

(e)Recall and use x = xosin ωt as a solution to the equation a = – ω2x.

Derivation of the above equations is not required.

SHM can be represented as

For x = x0sin t, at t = 0 (starting time), the value of x = 0. i.e.

For x = x0cos t, at t = 0 (starting time), the value of x = x0. i.e.

© Physics Department Page 12 of 41

© Physics Department Page 13 of 41

(f) recognise and use v = vocos ωt; v   x o2  x 2

Derivation of the above equations is not required.

maximum velocity at equilibrium position vo = x0

vmin = 0 vmin = ±ω x 2

minimum velocity at amplitude

See Section E under Extra Reading to use v = v0 cos t to derive v = ±ω x 2

© Physics Department Page 14 of 41

A 3.2 x 10-5 m s-1 B 2.0 x 10-4 m s-1 C 2.0 x 10-2 m s-1

A π/9 s B 2π/9 s C π/3 s D 2π/3 s E 2π s

© Physics Department Page 15 of 41