HUMAN BIOCULTURE AND

SOCIAL EVOLUTION
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
OF MAN
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans;

and
2. Recognize national, local and specialized museum and
archeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate
ad reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social
evolution as part of being and becoming human.
Biological Evolution of Man

The current biological makeup of humans has long and

complex origins. The biological evolution of man refers to the
long evolutionary history of the human species from primates
to its current form, the homo sapiens. Evolution is not an
overnight phenomenon. It took million of years to end up with
the specific set of biological traits that humanity presently
has. In this lesson, the origin factors and developments
involved in this evolutionary process will be discussed.
The Meaning and Significance of Human
Evolution

Evolution is the process of developing physical and

biological change in a species over a period of
time. Natural changes and events forced species to
adapt to the environment while some faced
extinction for being unable to do so. In this case,
modern humans, belonging to the genus Homo, are
seen as by-products of events and processes that
occurred in the past.
Human evolution, however, must not be seen as
a linear process. Scientists argued that human
evolution developed much like the branches of a
tree wherein each branch extends into smaller,
more specific stems. It just so happened that
among all stems, only one evolutionary profile—
the current human being—was able to adapt
and further develop.
The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its

current physical and biological makeup took millions of years
to complete. Despite this, scientists, through the help of
archaeological pieces of evidence and modern technology,
were able to identify and distinguish distinct transitional stages
of human evolution. These stages are described below:
The Significance of Artifactual Evidences
in Understanding Evolution
Artifactual evidences are the only source of knowledge
in understanding the lifestyle and the developments
that occurred in each transitional stage of human
evolution. Early human species were discovered
through fossils which are remains preserved in rock.
Scientists study the structure, shape, and development
of skeletal properties including head shape and teeth
to determine biological differences across early to
modern species.
Artifactual evidences can also include tools that are used
for hunting and gathering or symbolic writing found in
caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the
Homo erectus, though scientists are still hoping to find
further evolutionary data on other species. Below are
some authentic examples of artifactual evidences that
greatly contributed in understanding human evolution.
An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently
discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served as
evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet
among early stone-tool making humans, the Oldowan
hominin.
A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized
leaves and grasses made archaeologists believe that
cooking food was practiced among early humans
Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their

origins and developments. Nowadays, technological
advances has made delving into the past more
accessible. Interactive and national museums, for
example, make great venues for learning more about the
prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that the
human species has been through is complex and
developmental. As human beings, we are called to
understand and appreciate these advances.
 Tips:

Human evolution always Note that before the

moves forward. It is existence of the genus Homo,
unlikely that humans will the Australopithecines first
regress in terms of emerged. They are the
physical and biological earlier part of human
makeup in the coming evolutionary transition.
centuries.
Keypoints:

• Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a

species over a period of time.
• Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as
branches wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific stems.
• The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis,
Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens from the genus Homo.
• Fossils are artifactual remains that were preserved in rock.
CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF MAN
OBJECTIVES:

1. At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

2. Explain the concept of cultural evolution, and

3. Trace the cultural evolution of early to modern

humans.
Mobile phones are already part of our
everyday lives. In a way, they represent
technological advancements due to constant
changes in their key features.
This evolution and development of mobile phones
only show how culture changes through time.
From the early writings of the cuneiform up to the
present features of the different units of
smartphones and tablets, we can say that the way
of life of people constantly changes. This concept is
called cultural evolution.
What is Cultural Evolution?

Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs,

knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and languages
of humans over time. It proposes that as humans
transform themselves, their culture becomes
progressively complex due to social, environmental,
and biological factors.
The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back
to the beginning of the Stone Age when they started
creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the
earliest known period of human culture which started
roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and
3000 BCE. This period is also known as the prehistoric
period because writing was not yet invented during this
time.
It is divided into three separate periods:

1. Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

2. Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic),
3. New Stone Age (Neolithic), and
4. Paleolithic Period
The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the
Stone Age. This period started the creation and
use of crude stone tools which are the most
primitive among the three periods. The word
"paleolithic" is derived from the Greek words
palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to collectively
mean "old stone age."
The early humans who existed during this period
showed their skills with fire and stones that changed
their diet and food consumption. Hunting and
fishing were the primary activities of the early
humans during the Paleolithic period. They also had
their religious rituals based on nature and
developed their own language based on sounds and
hand signals.
Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic period is the second phase of

the Stone Age. It was considered as the
transition period between the Paleolithic and
Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is
derived from the Greek words mesos (middle)
and lithos (stone) that collectively mean
"middle stone age."
Early humans during this period gradually
domesticated plants and animals. They also started
to form their own settlements and communities.
Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the
primary activities of the early humans. They also
started to use microliths or smaller and more
delicate stone tools.
 Neolithic Period

 The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos
(new) and lithos (stone) that collective translates to "new stone age."

 The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and
at this point, modern humans started to exist. From being food
gatherers, they became food producers and introduced the concept of
farming. They also became herders from being hunters during the
Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and
invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which
served as their food containers and storage. Modern humans also formed
their permanent homes and started to have their own tribes and villages.
 Keypoints:

• Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge,
customs, skills, attitudes, and languages change over time.

• The Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when
the early humans started the use of weapons and tools made out of stones.

• The Paleolithic period was the first stage of the Stone Age. In this age, the early
humans began to use fire and stone tools. Hunting, fishing, and other practices
such as religious rituals based on nature and language based on sounds or hand
signals also emerged during this period.
Keypoints:

• The Mesolithic period was the transition period between

the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It witnessed the
gradual transformation of human culture such as the
domestication of plants and animals, formation of
settlements and communities, and food gathering.

• The Neolithic period was the last stage of the Stone age.
This period was when modern humans started to exist.
Modern humans introduced farming, started herding
animals, and formed their permanent homes and
settlements.
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF
MAN: NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from a lifestyle

of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and
settlement,
2. Discuss the implications of the Neolithic Revolution to
the evolutionary process, and
3. Explore the significance of human material remains and
artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural and
sociopolitical processes.
Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle.
As such, developments in human life also
occurred in response to the natural
environment. In this lesson, a significant era
of sociopolitical evolution will be tackled—the
Neolithic Revolution.
The Neolithic Revolution

The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers

in society. They were nomadic people who could easily
transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or
gather plants for consumption and survival. This had
been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when
humans started to domesticate animals and crops. This
era of this newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic
Revolution.
From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers
through domestication, the process of increasing human
control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain
traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
The domestication of animals and plants implied that
humans stayed in a particular area to enable their
resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals
utilized for domestication included wheat, barley, corn,
nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.
One of the first Neolithic societies recorded
in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at
present, the country of Iraq. It was believed
that it concurrently existed with other
Neolithic societies in China, the Americas,
and Africa.
Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to
the Evolutionary Process

The Neolithic Revolution facilitated an economic

and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in the early human lifestyle. As
such, advances in different aspects of human life
started during this era.
Below are the implications of the Neolithic
Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human
development.
1. Sociopolitical Development

• The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of

civilization through permanent settlements dictated by
reliable food supply.

• Development in domestication techniques and practices allow

for a more complex society and the possibility for
urbanization.
With the emergence of towns and cities came the
birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the
economy and a hierarchical society with public
leaders and castes.

A form of social stratification was developed. This

created the idea of inequality and ideas of social
power and influence.
2. Economic Developments

• Because of the domestication of crops and

animals, abundant supplies of food and resources
were maintained.

• A selective breeding process of plants and animals

that would allow for the development of new
species was introduced.
3. Biological Developments

• There was increase in lifespan and human

population across civilizations.

• People learned to play different social roles

apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman,
priest, leader).
EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE
OF THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove
the existence and success of the Neolithic
revolution in influencing sociopolitical
development.
Here are some actual evidences found to
support the existence of this era:

• There were morphological changes among Neolithic

people, including brain size and mandible and simple
dietary changes from solely eating plants to consumption
of meat.

• A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found

to have been built during the Neolithic Revolution and
served as a communal storage facility.
Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the
Neolithic Revolution, there was an increased caries rate.
Neolithic teeth were also more worn down and pitted,
owing to hard inclusions from poorly grounded flour.

Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the

bones of women that were task-related and associated with
cereal grinding.
Tips:

• The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic

Revolution occurred gradually. It took thousands of years
for this change to happen.

• If you look at a map of early civilizations under the

Neolithic period, you will notice that all early civilizations
were situated near a body of water. This was strategically
done by early humans because bodies of water may also
function as a source of food and other resources.
Keypoints:

The Neolithic Revolution was a period where agriculture and

farming became prominent through plant and animal
domestication.

Domestication is the process of increasing human control in

breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will
make them useful for other human needs.

One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was

Mesopotamiawhich is, at present, the country of Iraq.
 The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and
human implications to the evolutionary process.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created
idea of inequality and ideas of social power and influence.
 Many artifactual evidences prove the existence and success
of the Neolithic revolution in influencing sociopolitical
development.
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN: EARLY
CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RISE OF STATES
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from the rise of civilizations to

the development of states,

2. Discuss the implications of the rise of civilizations and development of

states to human biocultural and social evolution, and

3. Explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual

evidence in interpreting cultural and social, including political and
economic, processes.
The Neolithic revolution, through the
domestication of plants and animals, paved the
way for the beginnings of early civilizations like
Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the development
and implications of these civilizations will be
discussed and explained.
THE RISE OF CIVILIZATIONS
Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when
the early humans learned to settle in just one area to domesticate
plants and animals for survival. The first civilizations were found
mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq.
The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the ancient
Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and
the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and
science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of
water, the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable
resources for the early civilizations.
During these periods, civilizations were mainly
agrarian societies that treated both genders
equally as the first labor only involved farming,
domestication, and harvesting. Though this may
be the case, social roles began to emerge, with
some members of the community becoming
priests or priestesses, laborers, and farmers.
The Development of
States
In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in
4,000 BCE, two significant developments
took place that influenced the flow of the
sociopolitical process of the early
civilizations.
These were:

1. the rise of states, and

2. the invention of writing.

Historians believe that these developments
occurred because of trades among different
regions. The early civilizations would have had
some form of writing to document or record
traces of their products and deals.
During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system
of commerce grew with prosperity, leading to the
development of cities and changes in sociopolitical
positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship
to replace priestly rule. This was done to foresee the
flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This
era gave rise to numerous developments such as the
invention of the wheel and the transition from the use
of stone tools to copper tools.
In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age,
copper instruments were replaced with bronze tools.
Along with this, the rise of city-states continued to
flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for economic
and political stability. As a result, more empires,
civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE RISE OF
CIVILIZATIONS AND STATES
The rise of civilizations and states led to
urbanization, economic focus, political
power, and material development. These
changes allowed both positive and
negative implications that directly affected
future developments in the sociopolitical
evolution of men.
Below are some implications of the rise of
civilizations and states:

• Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them.
Soon, professional armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.

• Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of

civilizations and states. During this time, people began to discover various raw
materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons.

• Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership among

city-states began to be more organized and developed. With the kingship system
replacing the priestly leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized
decisions and communications with other states.
ARTIFACTUAL EVIDENCE PROVE THE EXISTENCE
AND OCCURRENCE OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS AND
STATES
Here are some of the actual evidences found to
support the existence of this era.

In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley

discovered the remains of two four-wheeled
wagons that dated back to the time of
Mesopotamia.

Excavations in the 1840s revealed human

settlements in Mesopotamia during 10,000 BCE.
Tips:

Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to “between two

rivers”. This translation refers to the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates that surround the land.

The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before the

Egyptian civilization. After the Middle Eastern
civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed
along the Nile River.
Keypoints:

• The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia,

particularly in China and Mesopotamia which is now Iraq.

• The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East

that is believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and the
birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade,
and science due to its fertile land area.
Keypoints:

• In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two

important developments took place that influenced the flow
of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations. These
were the rise of states and the invention of writing.

• The implications of the rise of civilizations and states

include warfare, developments in metalwork, and changes
in political systems.
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION
OF MAN: DEMOCRATIZATION
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain democratization as a sociopolitical evolution, and

2. Explore the significance of human material remains and

artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural, social, political,
and economic processes.
 The early civilizations created new environments, called
city-states which introduced new developments in various
aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these
continuous progress and ventures?

The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for

the introduction of new developments during the Copper
and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted the
following periods and developments.
DEMOCRACY & DEMOCRATIZATION
 Democracy means "rule by the people." The
term comes from the Greek words demos, which
means "people," and kratos, which means
"rule." While democracy is often traced back to
the Greeks, particularly the Athenian democracy
during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive
democracy is said to have existed during the
hunting and gathering period in independent
tribes.
 The form of democracy during 500 BCE in
city-states is said to be a form of direct
democracy where citizens participate directly in
decision-making. On the other hand, the
evolved form of democracy−representative
democracy−that became widespread in nation-
states is where officials are elected to represent
a group of people.
 HISTORICAL PATH TO A
DEMOCRATIC CITY-STATE
 Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa
eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of
Greece and Rome. Both Greeks and Romans
adapted to the farming culture developed by the
Mesopotamians, even following the latter’s
sociopolitical structure of kingship. Eventually, they
were able to engage in trade as their resources
highly developed and impacted socioeconomic
growth.
Greece

Societal status and groups began to develop:

• the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-

states),

• the aristocracies and noblemen, then

• the farmers.
Wars were already occurring between city-states,
and tension grew between social classes.

Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform

themselves into wealth-laden rulers just like their
predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the
primarily abundant metal during the period was
iron, a relatively cheaper metal compared to
bronze. If the king sought greater power, he
would not be able to do so easily since
weaponry and machinery, primarily made of
iron, were much cheaper, and could be afforded
by practically anyone within the city-state.
In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the
intentions of the king, the noblemen gathered
together and ousted him, leading to a successful
establishment of the first republics.
THE BEGINNINGS OF
DEMOCRATIZATION
The developments in the Greek city-states led
to the birth of democracy and the rise of
democratization in societies.
Oligarchy

• Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.

• City-states began to change the form of leadership into
oligarchy where rulers were from aristocratic families.
• Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the
ongoing wars between city-states, even ordinary people like
the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against
drastic changes.
• The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and
aristocracies, so ordinary people also used their collective
power against an abusive government.
Tyranny

• Since there were few noble people in government, city-states,

in effect, were ruled by a tyrant, a positive term for a Greek
leader that means “boss.”
• Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both
land owners and farmers.
• For some time, peace and equality emerged among social
classes.
• In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a
tyrant made some wrong and abusive decisions that eventually
lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.
BIRTH OF DEMOCRACY

• Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-

states proposed that power must be held by the common people.
• This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually
developing the city-states to have a democratic setting.
• In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was
considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
• It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this
ruling, especially the poorer, more backward areas. Still, the political
change in Greece soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling thereafter.
• Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making
during this time was limited to males and therefore, did not encompass the
total population.
Significance and Implications
of Democratization
The development of democracy led to changes that
greatly impacted the ordinary people by reducing
inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The
beginnings of democratization in Greece laid a foundation
for modern-day democracy.

Also, the establishment of a democratic government

promoted more cultural and artistic implications that
eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations
from any other ancient civilization.
Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic
and cultural implications of democratization:

• Greek literature began its ascent as poet

Homer created his epics, the Iliad and the
Odyssey.

• Stone temples that appeared as early as 600

BC were improved through classical Greek
structures upon the rise of democratization.
 Keypoints:
• In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the king bearing the
highest position in all Greek city-states, followed by the aristocracies and noblemen,
then the farmers.

• In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen
collectively acted on ousting him, leading to a successful establishment of the first
republics.

• It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was
considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
• The establishment of a democratic government had cultural and artistic implications.
• Wars and tensions across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary
factors in the rise of democracy.
 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFACTS IN
INTERPRETING SOCIAL, CULTURAL,
POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC PROCESSES
Objective:

At the end of this lesson, you are

expected to be able to explore the
significance of human material remains
and artifactual evidence in interpreting
cultural, social, and political.
Artifacts

Archaeologists have discovered artifactual

pieces of evidences even dating back to the
beginning of human evolution. As a result,
present-day social and biological scientists
are able to open a window to what life was in
the past. In this lesson, the significance and
value of artifacts in several aspects will be
described and discussed.
Artifacts are objects made or modified by
humans in the past. They are recovered after a
long time through archaeological endeavor or
by chance. Apart from serving as windows to
the past, artifacts are also deemed significant
because they are tangible or authentic proof
that a certain period in history actually
occurred.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ARTIFACTS

Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting

social, cultural, political, and economic processes that
occurred in the past. Their existence proves and
describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of
artifacts and the understanding of various processes
have provided a stable foundation for the
socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that
humans have come to recognize today.
IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFACT PRESERVATION

There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved

and taken care of. Below are some of them:

1. Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made

hundreds, even thousands of years ago, are very delicate
objects that cannot be replaced by any available material
in the present time.
2. Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that
occurred in the past would not have been known if not for the
discovery of artifacts.
3. Artifacts give people a sense of identity. Artifacts greatly describe
culture and society. They provide people with an opportunity to
further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some
collective qualities that their culture may have.
4. The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great
successes archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still
more to discover about history. Treating artifacts like pieces of
puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.
PRESENT-DAY “ARTIFACTS” FOR THE FUTURE

Many advances have already been made and

discovered within this century. It is logical to treat
these discoveries as significant elements that can help
shape the future. As such, the technologies and
developments that the world has today must also be
well-preserved. These must be treated with certainty
that one day, these “artifacts” will be discovered and
be understood by future generations.
Tips:

• Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was

originally part of the distant past but was recently
discovered. They may include bones, fossils, tools, and a
lot more.

• Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts.

Anthropologists study an area’s culture. Together, they
work to create a holistic picture and identity of a certain
group.
Keypoints:

• Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the

past. They are recovered after a long time through
archaeological endeavor or by chance.
• Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social,
cultural, economic, and political processes.
• It is important to preserve artifacts because they are
irreplaceable, help understand the past, and give people a
sense of identity.
• Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts
for the future generation.