Communication may or may not be intentional.

For example a cry can indicate discomfort, but may not

be used deliberately to request some help. Similarly communication may or may not be conventional, and for many people it is difficult.
Conventional communication refers to behaviours such as gestures and pointing that are used by many of us to communicate. Unconventional
communication include strategies such as physically taking someone by the hand to an item as opposed to pointing to it.

For More information on early language development, go to the 'Ages and Stages' section of Talking Point.

Communication difficulties may be a result of a physical disability, sensory impairment, language impairment or learning difficulty. There are many
different ways to communicate and there are many strategies that can help.

Edie is using a voice output communication aid and asking her Mummy to model the playdoh for her.

What is AAC?
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (or AAC) are the different ways
to communicate in addition to, or in replacement of, speech or writing.

AAC resources may be helpful for supporting receptive or expressive communication. Receptive communication means understanding what
someone else is communicating to you. Expressive communication is conveying a message to someone else.

AAC systems may be unaided or aided. Unaided systems do not require any additional resources. Signing is an example of an unaided method of
communication, which also utilises gesture and facial expression. Aided AAC systems involve the use of additional resources and can be
categorised as Low Tech, Light Tech or High Tech.

Low Tech systems involve little or no technology, such as the use of objects or pictures or symbols. These can be used to help understanding
(receptive communication) or to pass on information (expressive communication). Examples of these are Communication Boards, Communication
Books and E-Tran Frames.

Abigail is using her communication book to talk about her magazine 'In the Night Garden'

Light Tech and High Tech AAC are battery operated devices that speak messages. These are often called Voice Output Communication Aids or
VOCAs. These vary widely and may offer a single message up to multiple messages. They may involve a single button press to speak a whole
message or require multiple button presses to build up a sentence.
Annie is using a TechTalk communication aid to talk to her brother and Mum about a book.

For children who are likely to require AAC, there are benefits to introducing systems early on. Prolonged periods of time without a communication
system can lead to frustration or may result in reduced interest and passivity. It is vital to identify systems that will allow children to have some
control in their lives and to demonstrate what they can achieve.

Using AAC systems will always be slower than speech, so introducing strategies early on can be helpful. Sometimes it may be necessary to
practice the physical skills to access the communication resources as well as learn how to use them.

Edie is learning to eye point. She is choosing which toy she would like to play with and will look at the photograph to choose it. She can look at
the picture and then at her communication partner to make a choice.

It is easier for Edie to look at what she wants than to point to it. When identifying the best AAC system it is important to make it as quick and easy
as possible.

There are many different ways that a message can be represented.

Forms of Representation

A real object can be used to indicate an activity. For example, a cup may indicate a drink, or a shoe to indicate going out.
Objects
This may need to be the child’s personal belongings to help them understand the meaning.

Representation of
A representation of that object may be sufficient to be understood. For example, a pair of laces might indicate a shoe.
Object
Photography

Symbol

Written Word SHOE

Stages of Communication Development

Early communication can be described as pre-intentional. This means that the individual is communicating but may not have planned to do so,
such as crying as a result of hunger or discomfort.

Intentional communication develops later and communication skills are used deliberately to pass on information. Often unconventional behaviours
are used before conventional methods are learnt, for example, tugging on people to show them something, or vocalising and gesturing.
Abstract Communication is a dynamic process that creates and conveys a mutual understanding
between two or more people. Since this process is complex and not easily taught, there exist many
communication disorders ranging from a physical limitation, such as ALS, to a cognitive language
disorder, such as autism. Augmentative and alternative communication systems (AACs) help people
with communication disorders by providing them substituted means for communicating. These
systems range from non-technical solutions, such as a paper-based PECS (Picture Exchange
Communication System), to elaborate technical solutions, such as a plasma picture communication
table. Due to the increased attention to AACs, the Worldwide Health Organization (WHO) provides a
framework to evaluate effectiveness. Using this framework as a basis, we identified barriers and
support factors for AAC effectiveness and subsequently best practices for AAC designs. We conclude
with a case study of adapting a paper-based picture based communication system to mobile devices
using open source development for use by children with severe autism. Introduction Augmentative
and alternate communication (AAC) technologies present an opportunity to improve the quality of
communications in real life situations for millions of people who experience communication
disorders. Despite the opportunities that AAC solutions provide, these AAC solutions are often
disparate and may not facilitate equal or effective communication with communication partners.
Communication commonly combines verbal and non-verbal techniques to send a message from one
person to another (Aslant, Born man, & Lloyd, 2006). Prior research has shown that multiple modes
of communication, such as gestures, spoken or written language, or symbols, are used by those with
complicated communication needs. The mode of communication chosen relies on the person’s skill,
the context of the conversation, who they are communicating with and the intent of the message
(Light & Dragger, 2007). In the United States, 42 million people (1 in 6) are estimated to have a
communication disorder. Communication disorders affect the person’s ability to send or receive
messages using one or more modes of communication. They range from language disorders that
inhibit the person’s ability to use and understand language, such as autism or traumatic brain injury,
to physical problems that impact a person’s ability to speak or hear language, such as aphasia in
stroke victims or hearing loss. Annual costs estimates in the United States are from $30 billion to
$154 billion in lost productivity, special education and medical costs (ARHQ, 2002). Additionally,
people with communication disorders face barriers to employment and community participation
(Blackstone, Williams, & Wilkins, 2007). Although many low-tech systems exist to help lessen the
impact of communication disorders, inexpensive hardware and software have led to an enormous
increase in the use of digital and mobile devices for assistive communication. Technology provides
the opportunity to improve the communication for individuals with communication disorders as well
as the opportunity to improve therapies and community participation. This chapter focuses on such
technology-based assistive communication devices. The objectives of this chapter are to review
research, designs, and common problems and successes related to augmentative and assistive
communication devices. We discuss problems leading to unsuccessful AAC devices, designs
improvements and research suggestions to increase their future success.
Conclusion Communication disorders are estimated to affect one out of six persons in the United
States. There are many digital devices and tools available to assist those with a communication
disorder to communicate with others using text, symbols or recorded and synthesized speech.
Electronic communication devices have many advantages over older, paper-based approaches.
Electronic AAC solutions provide flexibility in input and output methods (e.g., touch screen), are
portable, can be integrated with mainstream technology, and can quickly reference a larger
customizable library of symbols and language. Unfortunately, there are also limitations. Sometimes,
they cannot be used in every real-life situation due to lack of adaptability to user differences (e.g.,
physical disabilities or language cognition disorders) and communication situations (noisy or wet
environments). Complicating research, development and use is the lack of funding and training.
Funding is needed from insurance companies, government and private organizations for the
purchase of AAC hardware and software as well as for training and support. Teachers, therapists and
caregivers need to be given enough time devoted to learn about AAC solutions and how they can be
used most effectively. To be more effective, the AAC community needs feedback from other users
and clinicians about the availability of solutions and their effectiveness based on user profiles and
related contributing factors. Research studies can be effective in bringing users, stakeholders and
developers together to better understand the needs, develop effective designs, and provide a
feedback mechanism for the effectiveness of the outcomes.
Communication is very important in our day-to-day life but it becomes crucial during and after a disaster. People need to let their

loved ones know that they are safe and that all their family members are safe as well. Also, there are situations when family

members get separated. We all have to admit that earthquakes, storms, tornadoes, and all other natural disasters are frightening

and extremely impressive. Mother Nature’s unleashed fury makes people panic and lose their calm and sometimes families get

separated in a stampede. That’s why it is extremely important that eve Other types of emergency
communication systems
Mobile phones, landlines, tablets, and laptops represent our main way of communication these days. If you are lucky, these devices may
help you get through a natural disaster, by offering you the possibility to stay in touch with friends and family or to get in touch with
authorities and rescue teams.

Still, there are many situations when traditional and modern communications failed all together leaving isolated people at the mercy of
chance. That’s why an alternative communication system is absolutely necessary in a shelter or a place where people gather waiting to pass
the natural disaster safely. If you have one at home is even better but if not, you need to know where the closest one is in case you need to
get in touch with rescue teams.

ryone knows what to do in cThe best Emergency Communication System or ECS must have the following attributes:

 Time efficiency and speed – when a catastrophe takes place, people need to take immediate action. In order for this to happen they
must be informed in time about emergencies and bad situations. That’s why a good ECS must be able to transmit clear information in a
very fast manner;
 Affordability – people would never invest their money in an expensive ECS unless they want to join a rescue team (and maybe not
even then). A good communication system must be affordable for the large public in order to be useful. In an emergency situation, it’s
no help to know that there is a very good, high-tech ECS on the market when you don’t own one.
 Everyone can use it – let’s say that you made the investment and bought the latest ECS on the market but you didn’t have the time to
read the manual. Now there are no instructions and you can’t figure it out how to use it. A good ECS must be intuitive and easy to use.
 Sender and receiver – When in an emergency situation, one needs not only to send out notifications but also to receive instructions via
the ECS. We know that this may seem totally outdated, given the era we live in, but some early ECS only had the ability to send out
emergency notifications.
We have witnessed over the last three to five years many disasters both in the United States and abroad. Based on what we are hearing from NOAA and the
National Weather Service the US is likely to see the same number, if not more, tropical storms this year. Storms like those of the size and ferocity of the type
that were so devastating to the southern portion of the US in 2005. So, tropical storms in the US , earthquakes in South America and Asia or volcanoes anywhere
else on the globe, we, humanity, face another year of potential emergencies that will need to be responded to.
One thing that all of these natural disasters have in common, besides the tremendous loss of life and disruption to everyday lives of the populous, is that they are
immediately followed by an almost total loss of the ability to communicate with the outside world. Power is lost, telephone services are discontinued, and cell
phone service is either non-existent or is so congested that it takes hours to get a call through.
So, every year, companies and emergency planners face the problem of providing continued communication before, during, and after a disaster strikes their
areas. This year, more than any other time, in the southern part of America small, medium and large company business continuity planners are looking for
alternatives to standard communications so that they can keep their business and critical operations running in the aftermath of a devastating event.
Failure modes
Most companies continue to rely upon the standard telephone system for their communications needs. In order to provide this service the telecommunications
carrier, regardless of where you are located in the world, relies upon either copper wire or fiber optic cables from its central offices to its customers' premises.
This 'last mile' can either be above ground, which is in the majority of cases, or underground. We have all seen those graphic pictures of poles and trees uprooted
and thrown to the ground after a hurricane or tornado have devastated an area. When this happens that last mile of connectivity between the business and its
telephone provider, Internet provider, or application service provider are abruptly disconnected and utility power is lost. Underground cables are not entirely safe
from disruption of service either. Many times due to flooding and/or power loss these underground services are disrupted as well. In the case of cell phone
providers the cell towers receive your cell phone's call they then route it to a local central office. These towers or the equipment inside of them can also be
damaged or destroyed as well as the last mile circuits which connect those cell towers to the local telephone network. So cell phone service is as tenuous as the
regular telephone service when a disaster strikes. I should also mention that the southeast US is not the only area where loss of communications services takes
place and hurricanes and tornadoes are not the only natural disasters that disrupt communications and power. In the northeast US over the last several years ice
storms and blizzards have also taken their toll on communications and power utilities, for example.
Usually following an event like a tornado, hurricane, blizzard or the like, the communications and power service providers work very hard to restore service,
however, in most cases we are talking several days if not a week for the restoration of power and phone service. This restoration time varies depending on the
size and intensity of the disaster. If it is localized, as it could be for a tornado, then service could be restored more quickly.
These copper and fiber optic cables also interconnect the local telephone company's central offices to other central offices in the region and to long distance
providers, cell phone carriers, Internet and data communications service providers anywhere in the world. These inter-exchange or 'long haul' circuits provide
the ability of interconnectivity and communication to beyond the local area. So if your business communicates between offices in Baton Rouge LA and St. Louis
MO there are probably several service providers and miles of cables involved in carrying the information from one point to the other. These cables travel above
and underground and suffer the same fate as the local last mile circuits do. However, because of the number of calls, subscribers and the importance of these
circuits, the carriers or the businesses that use them generally employed circuit 'diversity'. What this means is that there are multiple paths for the voice or data to
travel. If one path fails there is another which can be used to take the call to its intended destination. This works well for such things as car vs. pole accidents,
isolated incidents like localized fires and floods, but with mass devastation like we experienced with Hurricane Katrina or the tornadoes in the Midwest US,
even the diverse routes are consumed in the overall damage toll.
Power is another failure mode. The central offices and cell phone sites have their own power sources in the form of batteries and emergency generators. If the
event is limited to a few hours or a few days they will be fully operational. However, it was found that in the case of the hurricanes and earthquakes of the last
few years power has been interrupted for several days even up to several weeks and the power plants, central offices, or cell towers in the areas of devastation
were inaccessible for most of that time. This meant that the fuel trucks needed to refuel the generators were unable to get to their destinations and subsequently
the central offices and cell sites went off-line.
So now that we understand that the power and communications utilities have pl anne d for adverse events, but the intensity and massive area of devastation often
make these plans fail. It is left to the individual business owner or operator to determine the criticality of their services and to properly plan for potential
communication and power failures that might impact them.
In the next part of this article, I will endeavor to present the alternatives that exist in case you experience a disastrous event with a communication failure.
ALTERNATIVES
Before I discuss the alternatives I feel that it is important to note that power is a main component of any recovery or mitigation strategy. That is, without power
to run these technologies they will not operate. So, it is important to have reliable and sustainable power for the duration of the resumption and/or recovery
effort. If you cannot verify that this is the case then alternate site recovery is the only viable alternative.
Infrared
One such alternative to commercial communication systems is infrared. This alternative is used if a company needs to interconnect two buildings together.
Infrared provides an optical data, voice and video transmission system. Like fiber optic cable, infrared communications systems use laser light to transmit a
digital signal between two transceivers. However, unlike fiber, the laser light is transmitted through the air. In order for the digital signal to be transmitted and
received, there must be clear line of site between each unit. In other words, there should be no obstructions such as trees or buildings between the transceiver
units. So, if your wireline or wireless communications fails you can still provide communications between two points. The only drawback is the distance and the
line-of-sight requirements.
This solution provides low-cost, high-speed wireless connectivity for a variety of last-mile applications. It provides narrowband voice and broadband data
connectivity and the various products provide scalable, wireless alternatives to leased lines. These infrared systems operate at data rates of 1 Megabit to Multi
Gigabit speeds and they are deployable in one day, without requiring right-of-way or government permits for installation. They can provide an alternative
communication link in hours instead of weeks or months. This is probably not an option for a small business, but for a medium or large business owner the cost
is affordable. Cost can range from $10K to $25K per installation capable of distances of up to 1000 meters.
Microwave
Another alternative to commercial communication systems is microwave (wireless). This alternative is used if a company needs to interconnect two buildings
together that are spaced farther apart than the conventional infrared can operate (i.e., in excess of 1000m). Microwave also provides a data, voice and video
transmission system. Unlike infrared communications systems, which use laser light to transmit a digital signal between two transceivers, microwave uses ultra-
high frequency radio frequency (wireless) transmission. In order for the digital signal to be transmitted and received, there again must be clear line of site
between each unit. However, the distance that this alternative can span is up to 60 miles as long as no obstructions such as trees or buildings are located between
the two locations. If wireline or wireless communications fails communications between two points can still take place. There are several drawbacks to this
solution:
* Distance limited to up to 60 miles
* Requires an FCC license to operate
* Right of Way Permits may be required
* Needs highly trained technicians to install equipment
* Cost can be prohibited to small businesses.
The cost of a microwave system can be between $50K and $100K with installation and license preparation charges to be in the area of another $15K. It still
provides a viable alternative for medium and large businesses.
Small businesses also have an alternative of smaller wireless systems which utilize non-licensed frequencies and which can be installed by an IT person in the
business operation. Cost is about $1000 to $2000, but I must warn you that this is not as reliable a solution as the microwave wireless option and reliable speeds
may be slower.
Satellite
So far I have provided solutions that have been better suited for the medium and large business operations. Satellite provides alternatives for small, medium and
large enterprises and there are various speed and pricing options, which make it a very attractive alternative or mitigation strategy.
Satellite phones
There are several types of satellite alternatives. If a company is only interested in providing a short term telephone back-up alternative then satellite phone
service like INMARSAT, at&t, Iridium, Satcom, Skytel, Worldcell, or Globalstar to name only a few offer basic voice, fax and basic v and e-mail services.
They offer mobile phone services and are not usually capable of providing sustained data communication or Internet types of services. However, this
communications strategy is good for keeping your senior executives and critical operations personnel in contact during disasters. You can rent phones for about
$40/week and then pay about $1.00/minute for basic service or you can buy the phones for $700 to $2000 each and negotiate rates in the area of $0.85/minute.
So as you can see this is not an inexpensive option, but usable depending on the need for communications.
VSAT
VSAT is an acronym for Very Small Aperture Terminal, an earthbound station used in satellite communications of data, voice and video signals. A VSAT
consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed outdoors in direct line of sight to the satellite and a device that is placed indoors to interface the transceiver with
the end user's communications device, such as a PC. It is very much like a satellite TV setup.
VSAT service can be placed into two categories: those that provide basic Internet access services and those that are enterprise grade. For the small and medium
sized business the Internet access type service is often what is selected. Such offerings as: DirectWay, WildBlue, and Connexstar all offer low cost, small
business types of back up solutions which use equipment much like the in-home satellite television services.
The data rates are in the area of 200 kbps uplink and 1.5 Mbps downlink which is very much like residential DSL service. The cost is about $300 for the
equipment and around $100 or less each month. This would provide a small business the ability to utilize VoIP, VPN and connect to the Internet.
For medium and large size businesses there are more sophisticated satellite services. They require satellite antennas, which are 3 to 5 meters in diameter and
much more sophisticated and expensive equipment.
Installation of these more sophisticated satellite services can cost in the range of $100K to $250K with monthly operational service charges from $1000 to
$5000/month. They provide quality of service and committed information rates as part of the service. They can provide for up to 150 toll-quality phone lines,
broadband Internet, and high speed data communications and also provide secure communication (encrypted) is required.
Satellite services can also be rented as part of a contract or call up service. But, rental services are on a first-come-first served basis. As we witnessed during the
tropical storms of last year these portable rental satellite service providers were inundated with requests and try as they would there were only so many units to
go around. Those who did not plan or contract ahead were left without service.
Li-Fi, as coined by Prof. Harald Haas during his TED Global talk,[1] is bidirectional, high speed and fully networked wireless communications
similar to Wi-Fi. Li-Fi is a subset ofoptical wireless communications (OWC) and can be a complement to RF communication (Wi-Fi or Cellular
network), or a replacement in contexts of data broadcasting.

It is wireless and uses visible light communication or infra-red and near ultraviolet (instead of radio frequency waves) spectrum, part of Optical
wireless communicationstechnology, which carries much more information, and has been proposed as a solution to the RF-bandwidth
limitations.[2] A complete solution includes an industry led standardization process.

ase this happens a Technology details[edit]

This OWC technology uses light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a medium to deliver networked, mobile, high-speed communication in a
similar manner to Wi-Fi.[3] Li-Fi could lead to the Internet of Things, which is everything electronic being connected to the internet, with the LED
lights on the electronics being used as Li-Fi internet access points.[4] The Li-Fi market is projected to have a compound annual growth rate of 82%
from 2013 to 2018 and to be worth over $6 billion per year by 2018.[5]

Visible light communications (VLC) works by switching bulbs on and off within nanoseconds,[6] which is too quickly to be noticed by the human
eye. Although Li-Fi bulbs would have to be kept on to transmit data, the bulbs could be dimmed to the point that they were not visible to humans
and yet still functional.[7] The light waves cannot penetrate walls which makes a much shorter range, though more secure from hacking, relative to
Wi-Fi.[8][9] Direct line of sight isn't necessary for Li-Fi to transmit a signal; light reflected off the walls can achieve 70 Mbit/s.[10][11]

Li-Fi has the advantage of being useful in electromagnetic sensitive areas such as in aircraft cabins, hospitals and nuclear power plants[citation
needed]
without causing electromagnetic interference.[8][9] Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum, but whereas Wi-Fi
utilizes radio waves, Li-Fi uses visible light. While the US Federal Communications Commission has warned of a potential spectrum crisis
because Wi-Fi is close to full capacity, Li-Fi has almost no limitations on capacity.[12] The visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the
entire radio frequency spectrum.[13] Researchers have reached data rates of over 10 Gbit/s, which is more than 250 times faster than
superfast broadband.[14][15] Li-Fi is expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi.[7] Short range, low reliability and high installation costs are the
potential downsides.[5][6]

PureLiFi demonstrated the first commercially available Li-Fi system, the Li-1st, at the 2014 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona.[16]

Bg-Fi is a Li-Fi system consisting of an application for a mobile device, and a simple consumer product, like an IoT (Internet of Things) device,
with color sensor, microcontroller, and embedded software. Light from the mobile device display communicates to the color sensor on the
consumer product, which converts the light into digital information. Light emitting diodes enable the consumer product to communicate
[17] [18] [19]
synchronously with the mobile device.

nd how to get in touch as soon as they are safe.

 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is the term used to describe various methods of communication that
can ‘add-on’ to speech and are used to get around problems with ordinary speech.
AAC includes simple systems such as pictures, gestures and pointing, as well as more complex techniques involving powerful
computer technology.

Some kinds of AAC are actually part of everyone's communication, for example: waving goodbye; giving a 'thumbs up' instead
of speaking; pointing to a picture or gesturing in a foreign country. However, some people have to rely on AAC most of the time.

Different types of AAC

 No-tech communication does not involve any additional equipment - hence it is sometimes referred to as 'unaided communication'.
Examples are: body language, gestures, pointing, eye pointing, facial expressions, vocalisations, signing.
For more details see: Getting started: communication without technology.
 Low-tech communication systems do not need a battery to function and include: pen and paper to write messages or draw;
alphabet and word boards; communication charts or books with pictures, photos and symbols; particular objects used to stand for what the
person needs to understand or say. This is sometimes referred to as 'aided communication' because additional equipment is required.
 High-tech communication systems need power from a battery or mains. Most of them speak and/or produce text. They range
from simple buttons or pages that speak when touched, to very sophisticated systems. Some high-tech communication systems are based on
familiar equipment such as mobile devices, tablets and laptops, others use equipment specially designed to support communication. This is
sometimes referred to as 'aided communication' because additional equipment is required.

Frequently asked questions

What reading and spelling skills are needed?
Some people use spelling to create messages, but good reading and spelling skills are not essential for AAC because there are
powerful systems based on using symbols, pictures, photos or objects instead.

What is the best kind of AAC system to use?

There is no ‘best’ type of AAC system. Each system has its own pros and cons; the most suitable one for an individual will
depend on their abilities, needs and personal preferences. Many people have more than one AAC method, and choose which
to use depending on the listener and the particular situation.

What about people who can’t press keys?

There are lots of solutions for people who would have difficulty physically operating a piece of equipment. Accessibility options
include a keyguard, a pointer, a switch to control a scanning system or even an eye gaze controller. For more details,
see Access methods: switches, keyboards and eye-gaze.

How do people get the AAC system that they need?

There are many options so it is a good idea to get specialist advice in order to identify the most appropriate AAC system or
systems. The starting point is usually to contact the local speech and language therapy service. They may be able to help, or
may refer on to a specialist AAC service (see our List of AAC Assessment Services).
UAW begins campaign to beat
back opposition to second
sellout at Fiat Chrysler
By Jerry White
12 October 2015
After the resounding defeat of its first attempt, the United
Auto Workers is once again engaged in a campaign to beat
back the resistance of 40,000 Fiat Chrysler workers and
impose a four-year agreement that preserves the interests
of the auto companies and the UAW apparatus.
Just before the midnight “strike notice” deadline expired on
October 8, the UAW announced it had reached a tentative
deal with FCA negotiators and called off a walkout. UAW
President Dennis Williams told reporters Friday that the
agreement was “one of the richest contracts we have ever
negotiated.”
The “marketer-in-chief” for the contract, as Reuters dubbed
Williams, “told reporters that he misread the intensity for
which lower-paid second-tier workers wanted a clear path
toward top pay rather than a bridge closer to it, and he
should have allowed more time before holding the previous
ratification vote.”
Local UAW leaders told the Wall Street Journal that
ratification meetings are currently scheduled for October 20
and 21. Informational meetings will take place this week.
UAW Local 1268 in Belvidere, Illinois and UAW Local 7 at
the North Jefferson Assembly plant in Detroit, for example,
have scheduled “National Contract Explanation” meetings
on Tuesday, October 13 and Thursday and Friday, October
15-16, respectively.
With the connivance of the corporate-controlled media, the
UAW has sought to palm off the deal as phasing out the
hated two-tier wage and benefit system, first accepted by
the UAW in 2007 and expanded as a precondition for the
Obama administration’s bailout of the industry in 2009.
Currently, 45 percent of the workforce—or some 17,000
workers—at FCA are second-tier workers, earning little
more than half the pay of so-called legacy workers hired
before 2007.
Far from abolishing this system, which is a major demand
of autoworkers, under the proposed agreement a second-
tier worker would have to wait eight years before reaching
$29 per hour. In other words, it would take a newly hired “in
progression” worker until 2023 to earn roughly the same
rate in nominal terms that a first-tier worker makes right
now. There would be no change to the substandard health
care and pension benefits for these workers. According to
the UAW, that is a “direct path to traditional wages.”
What this really means is that the UAW and the company
are setting a new, lower “traditional wage,” which will be
established once older, higher-paid workers are forced out
through a combination of speedups, tougher absentee
policies, early retirement schemes and corporate
restructuring. Since first-tier workers have not received a
raise in more than a decade, the end result will be a two-
decade long freeze in autoworker wages.
Moreover, the new top wage may very well be closer to the
$25.35 per hour, which was included in the first contract
rejected by workers. As the business web
site Forbes noted, “The tentative contract on which the
workers will vote runs for four years, to 2019. The UAW is
making a promise for the future that won’t take place under
the life of this agreement... But as the past 40 years have
shown, many aspects of UAW contracts have been set
aside, temporarily suspended, or amended before the
contracts were finished. Paid personal holidays, cost of
living allowances, wages and medical coverage have all
been affected at one company or another.”
This is exactly what the UAW did when it dumped its
pledge—contained in the 2011 UAW-FCA contract
“highlights”—to restore the 25 percent cap on second-tier
workers, a measure that would have transferred 7,000
lower-paid workers into the first tier on September 15, 2015.
There is already widespread opposition to the sellout. As
one Detroit FCA worker told the World Socialist Web Site
Autoworker Newsletter, “We need to stand together and
fight! That’s the only way we are going to see a real
change. We are fighting for our futures. This second
contract offer is just as disrespectful as the first! I hope
second-tier workers understand this—eight years, really?
They will never see this $29 by the end of this four-year
contract; they will change it! The UAW is garbage! Please,
people- don’t fall for it! The only way to win is to fight
together.”
A young Ford worker at the Chicago Assembly Plant
echoed this sentiment, saying, “People are ready to stand
up. This new contract is not enough. It continues the
disrespect and everybody wants equality. The corporate
entities are ruling the world. It’s a global fight. I’m working
on swing shifts and so much overtime I don’t get to see my
young son. We have to stand up. Be fair to the retirees.
Give us what we deserve.”
The claim that the UAW wrenched massive concessions
from FCA through backroom maneuvers and suppressed
strikes is a fraud. In addition to maintaining multiple tiers,
every other aspect of the four-year agreement is designed
to destroy achievements won by autoworkers over
generations of struggle.
* After suffering a ten year wage freeze, top-paid
workers are receiving an insulting six percent increase
over the next four years with no restoration of Cost of
Living. If these workers had received COLA and a three
percent annual improvement factory traditionally contained
in UAW contracts, they would be making $51.04 per hour
right now, instead of $28.50.
* Any meager pay increases will be more than eaten up
by hikes in out-of-pocket health care costs as Obama’s
Cadillac Tax on supposedly over-generous medical
plans comes into affect in 2018. The UAW has agreed to
help FCA “reduce costs” including through the introduction
of hundreds of dollars in deductibles for workers who refuse
to sign up for inferior health plans.
While the UAW has temporarily dropped its proposal for a
union-run health “co-op,” it is committed to push for it again.
UAW-GM officials are already distributing “Co-op Talking
Points” to swindle GM workers. The deal also includes an
agreement between the UAW and FCA to transfer the
health care plan for workers from Blue Cross Blue Shield to
some other provider, with the clear intention of reducing
costs and coverage.
* The agreement continues the practice of substituting
base pay increases with profit-sharing and other
bonuses. The latter are not only subject to taxes and union
dues deductions but do nothing to improve hourly wages
used to calculate overtime, vacation pay, pensions and
other benefits. The major aim of the auto executives, Wall
Street and the UAW has been to prevent any increases in
fixed labor costs.
Future compensation will be ever more closely tied to
productivity and “worker commitment,” opening the way to a
21st century version of the piecework system. In lieu of pay
increases, workers’ livelihood will be held hostage to
corporate profit levels, meaning they will have to pay for
economic crises and the shortsighted and often criminal
decisions of corporate executives over whom workers have
no control. As FCA boss Sergio Marchionne insists,
workers need to “share in the downside as well as the
upside of the corporation.”
* The deal accepts the destruction of nearly 3,000 jobs
at Warren Truck in suburban Detroit and other
factories. Marchionne has made no secret that he wants to
make FCA a more attractive partner for a mega-merger to
eliminate “overcapacity” and share capital costs, a move
that would trigger a further consolidation of the global auto
industry at the cost of tens of thousands of jobs.
Under the agreement, the UAW also has the power to
reopen local agreements and impose whatever
concessions it chooses to improve plant “competitiveness.”
This will only accelerate the fratricidal struggle between
workers over who will work for the lowest wages and worst
conditions.
* The hated Alternative Work Schedules (AWS) and no
overtime payments for after eight hours are maintained.
This will leave workers at the mercy of grueling work
schedules and the damage it causes to workers’ physical,
mental and family lives.
Over the next two weeks, the UAW, the corporations and
the news media will intensify their efforts to stampede
workers into supporting this deal. For all of its talk about the
“membership deciding,” the UAW has sought to peel off
opposition by increasing the signing bonus for first-tier
workers from $3,000 to $4,000. The new deal includes a
higher pay increase for second-tier workers with the most
seniority in order to divide and weaken the powerful
opposition expressed in the initial “no” vote.
Over the last two weeks, Wall Street has bid up FCA stocks
from $12.21 to over $15 per share in a show of confidence
to FCA executives. Nevertheless, industry insiders are
worried over signs of a worker rebellion against the UAW
that has long served to suppress opposition to the
corporation’s dictates. “If (UAW members) don’t vote for
this, then their expectations are too unrealistic and I don’t
know if they can get a contract at Chrysler,” said Art
Schwartz, former GM negotiator and president of Labor and
Economics Associates in Ann Arbor.
What is realistic or unrealistic can only be determined in the
course of struggle. A fight by autoworkers is winnable, but
not through the UAW. The initiative begun by workers to
defeat the first sellout, which included workers exchanging
information from the WSWS Autoworker Newsletter and
other sources on Facebook and other social media, should
be taken to the next stage. Rank-and-file factory
committees should be organized in every plant to take the
conduct of this struggle out of the hands of the UAW.
These committees should establish lines of communication
among FCA plants to campaign for the defeat of the second
sellout deal, and to unite with GM, Ford and auto parts
workers and broader sections of workers in the US and
internationally.
The struggle to overturn the regime of poverty wages and
the dictatorship of the corporate and financial elite over
society requires an industrial and political counter-offensive
by the working class against both big business parties, the
pro-company trade unions and the profit system they
defend.
This case study profiles one non-speaking client with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). I will describe two different augmentative-alternative communication
(AAC) strategies used with this client. The rational for teaching both AAC strategies is provided along with AAC objectives, directions for implementation, feedback for
correct and incorrect responses, list of needed materials, when strategies should be implemented and by whom. The information provided in this case study was used to
help train parents and school professionals to implement AAC strategies for a specific client.

This case study is merely an example of work I have performed in my private practice. SLPGuru does not recommend or endorse any specific tests, physicians, products,
procedures, opinions, or other information that may be mentioned in this article or elsewhere on the Site. Please refer to the terms of Service before proceeding to use
this Site.

1. Client Profile:
Shelly is an adorable, 5-year-old, non-speaking, female with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Shelly presents with severe ASD to the degree in which her
symptoms impact her learning and independence skills. She is enrolled in a full day preschool program which uses an educational curriculum designed for children ages
2.5 to 5 years of age who have been diagnosed with ASD. The preschool curriculum is loosely based on a combination of Dr. Stanley Greenspan’s DIR/Floor Time Model
and TEACCH.
Cognitively, Shelly demonstrates skills in the areas of cause-effect relationships, means-end causality and emerging joint attention skills. She is beginning to sort by color
with some assistance and requires physical prompting to use an object schedule to transition between classroom activities. Shelly's attention fluctuates based on her
mood. On a good day she may attend to non preferred activities for up to 2 minutes given a highly preferred reinforcer upon completion of each task.
Shelly communicates primarily through facial expressions, leading adults by the hand to what she wants, crying, laughing, and vocalizations that often reflect her mood or
feelings. Shelly will seek attention by taking an adult's hand or by establishing eye contact. Shelly uses a Go Talk 9+ voice output communication aide (VOCA) and/or the
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) to make requests from a field of four photographs but occasionally requires gestural prompts. Shelly is able to
consistently follow a few basic one step commands (e.g., "stop" and "come here"). Shelly often walks with a wide base gait and has some difficulty with balance. She has
many sensory issues including hyper-sensitivity to pain (e.g., pain of constipation or an ear infection). Shelly seeks oral stimulation and therefore uses a chewy on a
regular basis; she would bite her hand prior to having a chewy. She self calms herself by going to a beanbag chair in the library area of the classroom. Shelly is learning
to use a VOCA to express her anger more appropriately than biting her hand and to excuse her from activities to go to her beanbag chair if necessary.

2. Strategy 1:

A. General description: Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS).

PECS was developed by Lori Frost, M.S., CCC-SLP and Dr. Andrew Body approximately 20 years ago as a communication system designed specifically for children with
ASD. One of the hallmark deficits of ASD is poor joint attention and thus, impaired pragmatic skills. Frost and Bondy developed a communication system that is designed
to compensate for these deficit areas by having children physically hand their message to their communication partner. As a result of poor joint attention skills, many
children with ASD have difficulty using gestures and pointing. This makes using communication point boards and VOCAs difficult for many students with ASD. Even
children who are able to point don’t always look to make sure there is a communication partner receiving their message.

PECS requires a child to find a communication partner and physically give them their message. This system helps to make an abstract concept such as “exchanging
thoughts and ideas” more concrete for children with ASD. Children first learn to exchange either a picture symbol, photograph or object (depending on the level of
representation they understand) to receive a highly desired item or action (i.e., bubbles or tickles). When children are first learning to communicate using the picture
exchange system they often require an extended, open hand cue from their communication partner. They also may require hand-over-hand assistance provided by
another adult positioned behind the child to hand the symbol to their communication partner. It is important to fade physical prompts as soon as possible and fade the
open hand prompt soon there after.

When the child can independently hand an adult a communication symbol, begin working on distancing yourself from the child and the child from the communication
symbol. The goal is for the child to independently seek out his communication symbol and then find a communication partner to give it to. After this skill has been
established, the child should learn to discriminate between two different symbols. Give the child two symbols, one to represent a highly preferred item or action and the
other to represent a neutral or non-desired item (i.e., a sock or clothespin).

B. Rationale:
Shelly uses a simple single message VOCA (i.e., Big Mac) to make requests during certain classroom activities. Her classroom is engineered with several PECS books
containing both photographs and picture symbols for various items in each area of the room. Thus, Shelly uses a combination of the VOCA and PECS to communicate
throughout her day. It is important to have a “no-tech” backup communication system for VOCA users because when their device breaks they still need a way to
communicate. I want Shelly to have plenty of opportunities to communicate throughout her day and I want to keep her “no-tech” communication aide skills sharp.

C. AAC Objective:
Teach Shelly to discriminate between 4-6 different photographs to request desired items. This will increase expressive language skills in the area of requesting and
increase her independence level.

D. Materials:
Communication book with highly preferred items represented with photographs. You must have highly preferred items readily accessible to immediately reinforce Shelly
when she makes a request (e.g., fruit, cookies).

E. Directions for Implementation:

i. How to Implement This Strategy

Allow Shelly to have access to her communication book at all times. You may decide to leave it in one central location in your house so she can always find it when she
needs it. If she prefers to carry it with her, great! This means she is taking ownership of her communication system.
Shelly has several photographs of highly desired items in her communication book. For structured teaching times (e.g., meal time) stick 4-6 photographs onto the Velcro
on the front cover of the book to allow her to choose from these items. This is narrowing her choices and may help her to discriminate between the different photographs.
First, show her the desired item and tempt her with it (e.g., if the item is food pretend to eat it and tell her how good it is) to get her interest.

1. Feedback for Correct Responses:

If Shelly hands you the correct photograph for the item, immediately reinforce her with the desired item, hold the photo up by your mouth and say, “Oh, you want (desired
item)!” If she is requesting food, give her very small pieces of food so she has more opportunities to make requests and will not satiate on the food too quickly. If she is
requesting a puzzle give her one or two pieces so she has to ask several times to complete the puzzle. During these teaching moments we want to get in a lot of practice!
As she becomes more accurate in discriminating between photographs we won’t have her make as many requests as we are now.

2. Feedback for Incorrect Responses

Scenario A:
If Shelly reaches for the desired item instead of a photo in her book point to her book or tap it to remind her to use her pictures. If she still does not use her pictures have a
second adult seated behind her help her place the photograph in your open hand. Shelly should not need this much prompting but on occasion she may need a reminder
to use her pictures.

Scenario B:
If Shelly hands you a different photograph immediately reinforce this by giving her the item represented in the photograph even if you know she doesn’t want that item.
Show her the photograph she chose and say, “Oh, you want the (item in the photo)!” You are teaching her that the photos have meaning and she must look at the photos
and choose carefully or she will not get what she wants.

ii. Who Should Implement This Strategy

Anyone can implement this strategy if they understand these implementation strategies. Make sure that all people implementing this strategy fully understand how to
communicate with Shelly using her PECS so she is taught in a consistent manner.

iii. When to Implement This Strategy

The structured teaching times can be implemented when ever there are opportunities for Shelly to make a request for a desired item or action. For example, have her
PECS book available during meals so she can tell you when she wants more juice or fruit. Take her PECS book outside so she can ask for a push on the swing or a
bounce on the trampoline. It is important that she have access to her PECS book at all times so she can communicate at all times. If she has difficulty carrying it with her,
consider carrying it for her or leaving it in central location in your house where she can always find it.

3. Strategy 2:

A. General description: Voice Output Communication Aide (VOCA)

A VOCA is a powerful communication aide because it gets people’s attention by giving a non-speaking individual a voice. Voice output provides an additional benefit in
that the user hears the verbal model every time they select the picture representation of what they want. The user’s peers may also pay closer attention to their messages
because they can hear them. Typical peers are often interested in how VOCAs work and they enjoy helping their disabled peers improve their communication skills by
helping them to learn to use their communication devices.

B. Rationale:
The Go Talk 9+ voice output device has 9 cells and 4 levels. Shelly is currently using 4 cells on 3 different levels. Different levels represent different vocabulary topics. For
example, the first level has snack choices, the second has song choices for circle time and the third level has toy choices. On each level, the bottom right hand cell is
programmed for her to express: “I’m mad!” Shelly frequently expresses anger and frustration inappropriately by biting her hand. She is learning to use the Go Talk 9+ to
make requests and to appropriately express her anger and frustration. The Go Talk 9+ was selected after Shelly demonstrated a clear understanding of the PECS to
make requests and was able to use a Big Mac voice output device to express her anger given gestural prompts. Shelly’s strengths include: appropriate use of eye contact
and her ability to initiate interaction with adults, looking at her communication partner and pointing skills.

C. AAC Objective:
Teach Shelly to replace inappropriate behaviors such as biting her hands and screaming with using her Go Talk 9+ VOCA to more appropriately express her anger and
frustration.

D. Materials:
Go Talk Voice Output Device, bean bag chair, cause-effect music toy.

E. Directions for Implementation:

i. How to Implement This Strategy

Encourage Shelly to carry her Go Talk 9+ with her at all times. She must have access to her device at all times so when she feels angry she can tell you appropriately
without biting herself. It is important for her to learn to take responsibility for her communication system and carry it with her all the time.

Shelly has several photographs of highly desired items on her Go Talk 9+, but each overlay also has a spot for “I’m mad!” in the bottom right corner. I have placed it in the
same spot on every overlay to help Shelly remember where it is located. When she is angry it is very easy for her to bite to let you know how she feels. To replace this
behavior we have to make it as easy as possible for her to get her point across in a more appropriate way. At school she often calms herself down by taking a minute to
lie in a bean bag chair and suck her thumb or listen to music. She typically needs only a few minutes to calm down.

When you notice that Shelly is beginning to become agitated (i.e., she starts to scream) help her activate the message on her Go Talk 9+ that says, “I’m mad!” Then tell
her, “I know, you’re mad!” and immediately offer her, her bean bag chair and/or music toy. It is important to have her activate her device and offer her a break before her
behaviors escalate.

1. Feedback for Correct Responses:

If Shelly allows you to help her activate her Go Talk 9+ with physical assistance, immediately offer her, her bean bag chair and/or music toy and say, “I know you’re mad!”
She will typically look at you and calm down within a few minutes.

2. Feedback for Incorrect Responses

If Shelly is so upset that she does not allow you to help her activate her device, wait for her to calm down and then try again. Hand-over-hand assistance does not
typically upset Shelly; however, if her behaviors have escalated she may need time to calm herself before she is attending to what you telling her.

ii. Who Should Implement This Strategy

Anyone can implement this strategy if they understand these implementation strategies. Make sure that all people implementing this strategy fully understand how to
communicate with Shelly using her Go Talk 9+ so she is taught in a consistent manner.

iii. When to Implement This Strategy

It is important that Shelly have access to her Go Talk 9+ at all times so when she becomes angry or frustrated she can express herself appropriately. Encourage her to
carry her device with her so she will always have access to it.
mitations: A User’s Perspective
A client and their family are vital for the effective use and feedback of the AAC system. These members, along peers, teachers, SLP’s, and others who interact
with the client help shape the impact of AAC on someone’s life. AAC changes lives, but unfortunately no world is perfect, and there are limitations in utilizing
these systems.

Access
The first is access. Many of these systems contain expensive equipment. Medicaid and other insurance companies do not want to put out large sums of money on
AAC devices, and will try to convince families to pay for it themselves (Light).Whenever writing to to aks for financial support, if it is mentioned the device is
to be used in schools, insurance

Many insurance companies and medicaid try to find ways to not pay for high tech AAC aided devices. Clients are limited with personal expression when they cannot be given financial
aid, hindering their communication further.
companies will also turn down the funding request and require the school to purchase such equipment (Light). When price is a factor, access becomes severely
limited, especially when the roads to financial aid are almost impassable.
Knowledge of Technology
Another limitation is knowledge of the technology. Not only are SLP’s limited in knowing what is new and best for each client, but parents, teachers, and peers
are limited in knowledge about systems in general. The first roadblock is when people are not technology literate (Light). This poses a dilemma for interacting
with a client’s high tech device and their entire communication system. If illiteracy is not an issue, the next is programming. Understanding how to program
devices and accessing AAC support is not a common skill. Whether its laying out the information in a usable manner, or even knowing how to insert the data
desired, at home and in school knowledge is limited, causing shortcomings to form in a clients communicative abilities.
Troubleshooting
In addition to technology knowledge is the limited scope to troubleshooting devices. Many parents, peers, and teachers do not know how to fix problems when
they arise with sophisticated aids. Most of the time, a note is placed on the device and sent home with the child after school, or the manufacturers help hotlines
are in constant use by parents who are at a loss to fix said devices (Light). It is not for lack of wanting to fix the problem, but from lack of ability. This hurts the
client, for their means of communication is constantly being removed from environment, discouraging consistency and independent communication
development.
Societal Awareness
The final complication is a lack of awareness and education of society. People who experience communication impairments are at a disadvantage. They

AAC users are truly no different than us, but socializing can be a challenge at times.
cannot communicate in a way that is socially normal, or even acceptable by some people’s standards (Light). As human nature wills it, we as a society do not
react well to that which we find foreign or an anomaly, which discourages interaction with AAC users and AAC use itself. This results in isolation of those who
use AAC socially, as well as decline of positive self image and self worth (Light). Because of peer ignorance and lack of will to understand, no good deed goes
unpunished in regards to hopeful implementation of AAC in social environments.
 Who They Are For
According to the American Speech-Language/Hearing Association (ASHA), over two million people use augmentative devices or alternative methods of communication.
People who use these devices include those with autism, cerebral palsy, multiple disabilities, stroke, and head or spinal cord injury, as well as many others with
disabilities, illnesses, and injuries.


 Advantages
The advantages of augmentative communication devices are many, and many special educators and therapists encourage those with disabilities to use them. These devices have been
shown to improve users’ self esteem and reduce their frustration (especially when due to their inability to communicate effectively). They can also allow users to increase their
participation in daily life and make their learning more interactive rather than passive. In addition, augmentative communication devices can motivate users to learn how to communicate
in other ways and change other people’s attitudes toward them and interactions with them.

 Disadvantages
Even with all of these advantages, however, these devices do come with some disadvantages as well. It takes time to teach the user to utilize the device correctly, as well as to train
teachers, parents, and other people who might interact with the user in how to interpret it. It also depends on an electronic device, which means that the user can be left without
any communication tools at all if the device gets lost or broken. When the device begins to malfunction, it may need technical support or know-how. It can also be bulky, heavy, or
expensive, and in some instances it can take a long time for the user to communicate one short thought.
Internet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the worldwide computer network. For other uses, see Internet
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with the World Wide Web.

Internet

An Opte Project visualization of routing pathsthrough a portion of the Internet

General[show]

Governance[show]

Information infrastructure[show]

Services[show]

Guides[show]

Internet portal

 V

 T

 E

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link billions of devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that [1]

consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to
global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as mobile
apps including social mediaapps, the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of
the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, multiplayer online games, telephony, and peer-to-
peernetworks for file sharing.
The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States
government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer
networks. The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for
[2]

interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of a new
U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for
other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new
networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of commercial
[3]

enterprises by the early 1990s marks the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and
[4]

generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal,

and mobile computers were connected to the network.
Although the Internet has been widely used by academia since the 1980s,
the commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of
modern human life. As of 2014, 38 percent of the world's human population has used the
services of the Internet within the past year—over 100 times more people than were using it in
1995. Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s to early 2000s and from the late
[5][6]

1990s to present in the developing world.

Most traditional communications media, including telephony and television, are being reshaped
or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Internet telephony and Internet
television. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or
are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The entertainment industry, including music, film, and
gaming, was initially the fastest growing online segment. The Internet has enabled and
accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums,
and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers and
small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet
affect supply chains across entire industries.
The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for
access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching
[7]

definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space
and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and
standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),
a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate
with by contributing technical expertise.
[8]
A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to
be heard directly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals suitable for transmission via
cables or other transmission media over long distances, and replays such signals simultaneously in audible form to its user.

In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible
replication of the human voice. This instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that enabled
people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and
households, and are today some of the most widely used small appliances.

The essential elements of a telephone are a microphone (transmitter) to speak into and an earphone (receiver) which reproduces the voice in a
distant location. In addition, most telephones contain a ringer which produces a sound to announce an incoming telephone call, and a dial used to
enter a telephone number when initiating a call to another telephone. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a rotary dial, which
was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial, first introduced to the public by AT&T in 1963.[1] The receiver and transmitter are usually
built into a handset which is held up to the ear and mouth during conversation. The dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to
which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the telephone network to
the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, or sometimes a loudspeaker. Telephones
permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously.

A landline telephone is connected by a pair of wires to the telephone network, while a mobile phone, such as a cellular phone (which first became
commercially available in the early 1980s) is portable and communicates with the telephone network by radio transmissions. The public switched
telephone network has many switching centers that interconnect telephones around the world for direct communication with each other. Each
telephone line has an identifying telephone number. To initiate a telephone call the user enters the destination telephone's number into a dial
or numeric keypad on the phone. Graphic symbols used to designate telephone service or phone-related information in print, signage, and other
media include ℡ (U+2121), ☎ (U+260E), ☏ (U+260F), ✆ (U+2706), and ⌕ (U+2315).

Although originally designed for simple voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional
capabilities. They may be able to record spoken messages, send and receive text messages, take and display photographs or video, play music
or games, surf the Internet, do road navigation or immerse the user in virtual reality. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones issmartphones that
integrate all mobile communication and computing needs.