ACTION RESEARCH

The Impact of Incentives and

Rewards on Student Learning

McClean (2016)
 Introduction

“I am always ready to learn although I do not always like being taught”. These

words belong to the late British statesman, Winston Churchill (Langworth, 2008); but

these words can also be true for any student in the mind of a teacher.

In today’s classroom there are many reasons for why students are performing

unsatisfactory or why students are unmotivated. Reasons one might hear are school work

is too difficult, the subject matter is irrelevant and the teachers are boring just to name a

few. Therefore teachers have attempted to make learning more attractive, engaging and

palatable.

Much research has been carried out to answer the questions of how to get students

motivated and how to keep them motivated in the classroom (Harter, 1981; Hidi &

Harackiewicz, 2000). As a result two schools of thought have been developed: those that

hold to the constructivist theory of teaching and those who don’t (Woolfolk, 2001).

The constructivist approach to teaching stems from the idea that once students are

actively involved in the teaching-learning process they become more invested in their

learning and play an active role in their education (Shuell, 1996; Charles, 2011). Thus

resulting in them being more motivated and eager to learn and be taught. Since seeing

children actively participating in class activities sometimes translates to motivation, some

teachers have employed the use of incentives to encourage and keep students motivated

on tasks (Covington & Mueller, 2001; The Gale Group Inc, 2003; Ali, Tatlah, & Saeed,

2011).
 This action research aims to investigate the impact of incentives and rewards on

student learning. It focuses on the impact of tangible versus intangible rewards on student

motivation in Mathematics at the 2nd form year level. The term tangible rewards refers to

prizes and gifts; while intangible rewards refers to words of affirmation or

encouragement.

The following questions are asked and the research is aimed at answering these

questions.

1. What impact does tangible rewards have on student motivation?

2. What impact does intangible rewards have on student motivation?

3. What attitudes do students have towards tangible rewards?

4. What attitudes do students have towards intangible rewards?

 Literature Review

Educational psychologists have long recognised that motivation is important for

supporting student learning (Lai, 2011, p. 4). According to Anita Woolfolk (2001, p. 366)

motivation speaks to “the internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour”.

This same motivation psychologists have discovered, can be broken down into two

categories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Woolfolk, 2001).

Intrinsic motivation refers to the engagement in an activity with no reason other

than the enjoyment and satisfaction of engagement itself (The Gale Group Inc, 2003).

While extrinsic motivation refers to being engaged in an activity for the sake of earning

something (Giles-Brown, 2010) . The goals of extrinsically motivated engagement might

be the attainment of tangible rewards such as money, prizes or other benefits or the

avoidance of punishment. Since the latter type of motivation is widely used by teachers to

measure a student’s involvement in the teaching-learning process (Baranek, 1996); this

study will use this as one of the measures of student motivation in mathematics.

It has been noted by Lai (2011, p. 14) that motivation for students varies from

subject to subject and this may be dependent on the student’s interests. According to

Gottfried (1990) motivation in mathematics appears to be related to the student’s

perception of their competence and the teacher’s ratings of mathematics achievement.

Other researchers noted that students tend to attach more value to activities at which

they excel thus making students more motivated to learn subjects in which they

experience success (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).

 The older children get the more their attitudes and interests tend to deteriorate

with respect to subjects such as mathematics, art and science (Epstein & McPartland,

1976; Eccles & Wigfield, 1992). Gottfried and colleagues (2001) also noted that motivation

and self-concept for students tends to increase in age, especially as students accrue more

educational experiences. Some researchers have concluded that children aged 8 – 11 tend

to have an accurate self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses across subject areas

(Guay, et al., 2010). Thus to measure the motivation in mathematics and the impact of a

rewards system on student motivation would be most appropriate amongst the 2nd form

year group.

None of these researchers mentioned the impact of incentives on student

motivation as it relates to mathematics hence the need for such a study. The focus of this

study is on the impact of intangible versus tangible rewards because most educators have

used incentives as a means of eliciting extrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan,

2001). This practice of incentives has gained both supporters and non-supporters.

Some researchers believe that the use of incentives to provoke a particular type of

behaviour from students within the classroom is detrimental (Deci E. , 1971). These

researchers hold the view that academic and social skills learned in schools should be

maintained by natural consequence and not artificial rewards. They argue that the use of

incentives leads to moral problems and damages the already existing intrinsic motivation

of students (Kohn, 1994). For example they state that sharing with another child should

come naturally and should not be a forced behaviour due to a rewards system. They also

argue that rewarding one child for good work could have a negative effect on another
student whose work is not to that standard (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Horner &

Spauling, 2009). These researchers all believe that rewards systems produce children who

fail to develop intrinsic and self-managed motivation because when the rewards go so

does the motivation. Many also maintain that this type of motivation comes at the

expense of interest in and excellence at whatever tasks the students are performing

(Kohn, 1994).

On the flip side, other scholars have noted that schools have successfully

employed the use of rewards systems for decades (Slavin, 1997) and rewards are an

effective, important and fundamental part of education (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, &

Little, 2004; Reiss, 2005). These researchers believe that rewards can be used as stepping

stones or the foundation in building the intrinsic motivation of students (Cameroon &

Pierce, 1994; Horner & Spauling, 2009).

What both schools of thought for and against tangible rewards systems hold

common, is that verbal rewards or positive feedback does promote some level of

enhanced intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Horner & Spauling, 2009).

In addition, there are some researchers who hold the view that there is room for both

tangible and intangible rewards in the motivation of students to learn. They state that

teachers must encourage and nurture intrinsic motivation while making sure that

extrinsic motivation supports learning (Brophy, 1988; Ryan & Deci, 1996; Deci, Koestner,

& Ryan, 1999).

 This research topic was birthed due to all of the pros and cons for tangible and

intangible rewards system, plus the need to identify ways in which students are

motivated and stay motivated on subjects like mathematics. This study is aimed at adding

to or verifying the statements made by either side of the fence with respect to student

motivation in mathematics.
 Methodology

This study was carried out on a second form class which contained 31 students. To

answer the questions raised for this research project; both quantitative and qualitative

data collecting methods were used. Observations during class sessions and questionnaires

were some of the instruments used to collect data. The time period over which the data

was collected spanned 6 weeks and the topic of consumer arithmetic was covered.

Below is the instructional plan that was used during the time of the study.
 INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN
FORM: 2α3 AGE RANGE: 12-13 years

TOPIC(S): Consumer Arithmetic

RATIONALE: This topic serves to educate students about the basics involved in the world of finance. This is done through deepening their
understanding of the terms and concepts surrounding buying and selling; plus implementing the calculation of wages, salaries, commission
and income tax. Students will be exposed to case studies and simulated real life scenarios as a means of assessing and assisting their decision
making processes with respect to finances.

COMMENTS: The class consists of 31 students of whom 15 are males and 16 are females. One young lady in the class must sit at the back of
the class due to eye problems and therefore any pictures or other visual aids that are used in the class are modified to accommodate her. In
addition within the class, there is an exchange male student from London, England.

At the Christ Church Foundation School the textbook used at the first year level is Mathematics for Caribbean Schools Book 2 by Althea
Foster and Terry Tomlinson. In addition the use of calculators is not permitted at this year level.
 TOPICS/ GENERAL TEACHING LEARNING RESOURCES/ ASSESSMENT FOLLOW-UP
CONCEPTS OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES/ ACTIVITIES TECHNOLOGIES PROCEDURES ACTIVITIES
METHODS
Define the terms Educational Playing a few Index cards/ Strips of Oral answers Recap the work
Consumer Arithmetic

associated with game [Maths rounds of Maths paper given covered in class
consumer Taboo] Taboo in preparation
arithmetic for next class
Questioning Answering
questions related
to the consumer
arithmetic terms

Guided Discussing the Notebooks Correction of

Discovery terms and their written
meanings definitions

Creating a
glossary of the
terms

Viewing Matching the Laptop Critiquing of

Student terms to their Projector answers for
Demonstration definitions Whiteboard matching activity
 TOPICS/ GENERAL TEACHING LEARNING RESOURCES/ ASSESSMENT FOLLOW-UP
CONCEPTS OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES/ ACTIVITIES TECHNOLOGIES PROCEDURES ACTIVITIES
METHODS
Know simple Inquiry Discussing the Whiteboard Oral answers Prepare a
equations in Questioning use of terms to Laptop given Consumer
Consumer Arithmetic

which the Guided solve for other Projector Arithmetic chart

consumer Discovery terms
arithmetic terms
are used Peer Tutoring Creating Whiteboard Critiquing
Viewing statements based Notebooks written answers
on the discussion
with the aid of a
PowerPoint
presentation

Converting the
statements to
mathematical
equations

Use equations to Cooperative Working in pairs Whiteboard Correction of Further practice

solve for Grouping [Pairs] to solve simple Laptop written answers on solving
unknown Problem solving consumer Projector simple consumer
quantities in Role Play arithmetic Notebooks arithmetic
consumer questions by questions
arithmetic using equations
questions created
 TOPICS/ GENERAL TEACHING LEARNING RESOURCES/ ASSESSMENT FOLLOW-UP
CONCEPTS OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES/ ACTIVITIES TECHNOLOGIES PROCEDURES ACTIVITIES
METHODS
Solve simple Cooperative Working in Worksheets Demonstrating Visit the
Consumer Arithmetic

worded problems Grouping groups to solve Projector the corrections to website* to

with consumer (Think, Pair, simple consumer Laptop the questions practice further
arithmetic terms Share) arithmetic Speakers from the questions
Case Study worded worksheets
problems

Working in Revealing the

Educational teams to varying answers to the
Games[Jeoparday levels of questions that are
& Who Wants to problems as they projected onto
be a Millionaire] are projected the board
onto the board

 Website – www.mathsfoundation.weebly.com
 Since the impact of tangible versus intangible rewards on student motivation in

Mathematics at this year level was the focus of this research; for the first 3 weeks of the

study only intangible rewards like words of encouragement were used to motivate the

students. For the remaining 3 weeks a tangible rewards system was implemented within

the class.

During these 3 weeks each student in the class was given a business size

mathematics badge card; a sheet explaining how each badge is earned and a bookmark

sized progress card on which stars were placed to show progress. Artefacts of these

articles can be found in the Appendix B. At the end of the tangible rewards system

period, the student who amassed the most badges was given a prize from the teacher.

Students were tested during both trial periods of intangible and tangible rewards.

The tests were given in this way to observe if the incentive of a prize affected the

academic performance of the students. Samples of the tests and students’ work can be

found in the Appendix B.

Observations of student participation, such as answering and asking questions,

group collaboration and volunteering to do any tasks in class, were also carried out

before, during and after the implementation of the tangible rewards system. This was

done to obtain as accurate as possible the average number of students who actively

participated in class. This type of observation was used because participation is one of the

key indicators that teachers can use to identify students who exhibit high and low

motivation (The Gale Group Inc, 2003).

 At the end of the 6 weeks, students were given a questionnaire designed by the

teacher. This instrument was used to gather information concerning the students’

attitudes towards the subject and tangible rewards. The ideas for some of the items used

in the questionnaire were obtained from a modified Fennema-Sherman attitudes scale in

mathematics (Doepken, Lawsky, & Padwa, 2007) and the Motivation and Engagement

Scale – High School (Martin, 2015).

The questionnaire consisted of 20 items in total. The general information about

gender and age were eliminated from the second drafting of the questionnaire since this

information was irrelevant to the research. Items 1 through 10 measured the students’

attitude towards the subject inside and outside of the classroom; items 11 through to 18

measured the students’ participation in the classroom. While the last two items measured

the students’ attitude towards tangible gifts and the effort they exert with respect to the

subject.

The final pool of items on the questionnaire were used because the feedback for

these items fulfilled the aim of the study. To measure the reliability of the questionnaire,

Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for the two sections of the questionnaire. The alpha

coefficient for both sections, items 1 – 10 and items 11 – 18, was 0.7.

For the presentation and analysis of the data collected, tables were used to show

the comparison of students’ tests results as well as student responses for items on the

questionnaire. Pie charts were also be used to illustrate the comparison for some of the

responses from the questionnaire. To show the average number of students who actively
participated in class throughout the study; the mean was tabulated from an excel

spreadsheet that was used by the teacher during the observations.

 Results

As was aforementioned a questionnaire was used to gather some of the data.

Tables 1 through 3 show the data gathered from the questionnaire.

Table 1 shows the responses of students to the first 10 items in the questionnaire

Item Statement Disagree Neutral Agree

1 I am good at mathematics 1 8 20

2 I can get good grades in mathematics 2 1 26

3 I am sure that I can learn mathematics 0 1 28

4 I think I can handle more difficult mathematics 4 16 9

5 Most subjects I can handle but I do not do so well in 21 5 3

mathematics
6 I am willing to work hard in mathematics even if my 2 2 25
grade does not improve
7 If I can’t understand my schoolwork at first I keep 2 8 19
going until I do
8 I usually do more reading about mathematics outside 17 7 5
of class because I find mathematics interesting
9 Getting the best grades in mathematics is important 1 9 19
to me
10 I enjoy the challenge of learning more complicated 3 4 22
and new topics in mathematics

From this table it is clear that the majority of the class has a positive attitude

towards the subject and they also have confidence in their ability to do mathematics.

Table 2 shows student responses to items numbered 11 to 18 from the questionnaire

Item Statement Very Often Sometimes Never

Often
 11 I ask questions in class 6 6 15 2

12 I answer questions in class 10 7 11 1

13 I gladly work in groups when asked to by 16 7 4 2

the teacher
14 I come to class prepared ( with all the 5 8 16 0
instruments and textbook)
15 I volunteer to demonstrate solutions to 4 9 8 8
my classmates
16 I am bored 1 1 16 11

17 I do not pay attention to what is going on 0 1 7 21

18 I actively participate in every activity 13 11 4 1

during the lesson

The results in Table 2 show that most of the students believe that they participate

in class regularly.

Table 3 shows the students' responses to the last 2 items on the questionnaire

Item Statement Yes No

19 I usually work hard at mathematics 28 1

20 I would work harder at mathematics if I were getting a tangible prize 16 13

(gift)

Interestingly, almost half of the participants indicated that a tangible prize would

not motivate them to work harder in mathematics. This response could be one of two

reasons, this portion of the participants either believe that they are working at their

fullest potential already or they are intrinsically motivated more so than extrinsically

motivated.
 The charts below pinpoint certain items from the questionnaire and show the

comparison of the responses for these items.

A Visual Comparison of Students' Responses for Items 3, 6,

8 and 10
10 3 4 22
Item Number

8 17 7 5

6 2 2 25

3 1 28

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Student Responses
Disagree Neutral Agree

Figure 1 shows the students’ responses for items 3, 6, 8 and 10 from the questionnaire

These questions were chosen because they give a glimpse into the students’

attitudes towards the subject inside and outside of the classroom. An alarming 97% state

that they are sure that they can learn mathematics based on the results for item 3 and

86% state that they are willing to work harder in mathematics even if their grade does

not change due to the results for item 6. However 59% state that they do not read about

mathematics outside of the classroom. While based on the responses to item 10, 76% state

that they enjoy learning more complicated and new topics in mathematics.
 A Visual Comparison of Students' Responses to Items
Numbered 11 to 18

18 13 11 4 1

17 1 7 21

16 1 1 16 11
Item Number

15 4 9 8 8

14 5 8 16

13 16 7 4 2

12 10 7 11 1

11 6 6 15 2

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Student Responses

Very Often Often Sometimes Never

Figure 2 shows the student responses for items 11 to 18 from the questionnaire

These items show us the students’ self-assessment of their participation in their

mathematics classes. The majority of the students stated that they ask and answer

questions in class, they gladly work in groups when asked to and come to class prepared.

This is seen in the responses for items 11 to 14. Some 72% state that they have

volunteered to demonstrate solutions in their mathematics classes at some point in time.

Although 55% state that they get bored in the sessions sometimes, an overwhelming 97%

state that they pay attention in class most of the time and actively participate in activities.

This is seem in the results for items 16 through 18.

 Students'Responses to Item 19
Yes No

3%

97%

Figure 3 is a pie chart showing the responses of the students to item 19 on the questionnaire

Twenty-eight out of the twenty-nine students who took part in the survey

indicated that they worked hard in mathematics as shown in the pie chart above. Of all

the participants, only 55% stated that they would work harder if they were getting a

tangible prize. This is illustrated in the pie chart below.

Students' Responses to Item 20

Yes No

45%

55%

Figure 4 is a pie chart showing the students' responses to item 20 on the questionnaire
 The table below shows the results of the students for tests carried out during the

study. Test 1 was carried out when the students were motivated by words of affirmation

and encouragement. While test 2 was carried out when the tangible rewards system was

implemented.

Table 4 shows the test results for the students before and during the tangible rewards system

Student Code Test 1 % Test 2 %

Stu01 45 71
Stu02 100 abs
Stu03 65 76
Stu04 60 67
Stu05 95 100
Stu06 75 76
Stu07 40 60
Stu08 70 67
Stu09 45 69
Stu10 95 88
Stu11 55 55
Stu12 30 86
Stu13 40 60
Stu14 45 88
Stu15 50 81
Stu16 90 79
Stu17 55 62
Stu18 30 74
Stu19 abs 68
Stu20 80 83
Stu21 45 79
Stu22 75 55
Stu23 55 76
Stu24 75 79
Stu25 50 33
Stu26 95 93
Stu27 30 79
Stu28 55 86
Stu29 55 88
Stu30 100 100
Stu31 35 83
 Comparison of Test Percentages for Each Student
120

100

80
Test Percentage

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Students
Test 1 % Test 2 %

Figure 5 gives a visual representation of the comparison between test 1 and test 2 percentages for
the students

When the percentages themselves are compared between tests for each student, 22

out of the 30 students had improved from test 1 to test 2 while one student’s percentage

remained unchanged. The chart below gives a better correlation of the distribution of the

percentages for both tests.

Frequency Distribution Comparison of Test 1 and Test

2 Percentages
10

8
Students

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Test 1 Test 2

Figure 6 shows the frequency distribution of percentages for both tests

 The average percentage for test 1 was 62%; while for test 2 the average was 75%.

Before the tangible rewards system was implemented eleven out of the thirty students

who took test 1 gained over 70%. For test 2, twenty out of the thirty students who took

that test gained 70% or more. This means that before the incentives were introduced 37%

of the class was gaining at least 70% and when the incentives were introduced that

percentage rose to 67%.

On average 13 students would actively participate in class based on the

observations done before the tangible rewards system compared to 21 students during the

tangible rewards system. After the tangible rewards system the average fell to 15 students

actively participating in class.

 Discussion

Based on the data collected from the various sources; this study proved that

rewards systems do have some impact on student motivation in mathematics. As

researchers stated tangible rewards do elicit some measure of extrinsic motivation and

this is seen in the increase in the average number of students who actively participated in

class.

During the time span when words of affirmation were used as motivation 42% of

the students were observed to be actively participating in class. When the incentives

were introduced, that percentage rose to 68% but afterwards fell to 48%. This drop in

observed participation after the rewards system confirms two things that researchers

stated:

1. When the incentives are gone so does the extrinsic motivation (Kohn, 1994)

2. Incentives can be used to elicit extrinsic motivation which could set the

foundation for intrinsic motivation (Cameroon & Pierce, 1994; Horner & Spauling,

2009)

This second statement was seen in the fact that although the average percentage of

students participating dropped after the incentives were gone; it was still greater than the

average percentage of the students participating before.

One of the incentives used during the tangible rewards system was the Wiz Kid

badge. A student earned this badge by gaining 70% or more in one test and two

assignments. As was stated earlier in the results section, the number of students gaining at
least 70% before the incentives was 37%, after the incentives this percentage rose to 67%.

This clearly indicates that incentives can impact positively on the quality of work

produced by students; since the topic was the same and both tests were weighted

similarly. In addition although 97% stated that yes they worked hard in mathematics;

55% still indicated that they would work even harder if they were given a tangible prize.

There was not enough evidence to clearly quantify how intangible rewards

impacted student motivation for this study. This could be due to the fact that researchers

have noted that verbal rewards have a greater impact on college aged students than on

children (Lai, 2011).

Responses to the items such as “I am willing to work hard in mathematics even if

my grade does not improve” and “I enjoy the challenge of learning more complicated and

new topics in mathematics”; show that there was some level of intrinsic motivation for

this particular sample of students. Overall the responses to the first 10 items on the

questionnaire show that there was a high level of self-competence amongst the sample

group. It was noted that high self-competence correlates to intrinsic motivation

(Gottfried, 1990).

Prior mathematics achievement and prior mathematics motivation was also stated

to be one of the motivators for students to be interested in learning mathematics

(Gottfried, 1990). This was clearly seen in the responses to items 2, 3, 4, and 10. Where

for item 2, 89% indicated that they achieved good grades in mathematics and items 3, 4

and 10 attest to the willingness of the students to learn mathematics inclusive of more
difficult topics. In addition the fact that 45% of the students stated that tangible rewards

would not motivate them to work harder in mathematics shows that almost half of the

class do not see incentives as an instrument of motivation.

 Summary & Recommendations

The data gathered in this study showed that while tangible rewards do have an

impact on student motivation in mathematics; it is much harder to measure the impact of

tangible rewards on student motivation in mathematics. It appears that tangible rewards

can be used to positively encourage students to aim for higher marks in tests and

assignments. These rewards can also be used to elicit more involvement in classroom

activities. Tangible rewards can also be used as a stepping stone to encourage intrinsic

motivation in a small percentage of students.

The research carried out also showed with this particular age group, students are

fairly evenly matched with respect to their views on tangible rewards impacting their

motivation towards mathematics. The difference between those for and against the use of

tangible gifts as an instrument of motivation in mathematics was only 3.

One of the limitations encountered whilst carrying out the study was determining

which type of motivation was most affected by the use of either intangible or tangible

rewards. A recommendation for further research into this area is to measure the impact of

tangible versus intangible rewards on the intrinsic motivation of students in mathematics.

This recommendation is made because intrinsic motivation is said to be longer lasting and

it reinforces critical thinking skills (Lai, 2011) which are necessary for the learning of

mathematics. There is a need for teachers to know what it is that makes students

genuinely interested in and motivated to continue in mathematics as they grow older.

Once this is known then teachers can encourage and try to reproduce this type behaviour

in their students.

Another limitation encountered, which can serve as a precaution, was the

constant reinforcement of what the purpose of the rewards system was for. Some students

had misunderstandings about the way in which some of the badges were earned and tried

to undermine the process. There must be a clear understanding between the teacher and

the students as to what constitutes the earning of prizes when a rewards system is

implemented.

Overall there is place for both intangible and tangible rewards in the motivation of

students in mathematics. Intangible rewards help to encourage the students to keep

trying even when a task seems difficult while tangible rewards can be used to get them

started on a task. However tangible rewards should be used sparingly but not in a

controlling manner. One of the by-products of both rewards was the camaraderie forged

amongst the students. This is one of the fundamental blocks in the learning of

mathematics.
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