1388

Doppler Speed Log

SPEED MEASUREMENT
Collected By: Hassan Abedinia
 Speed Measurement

Speed Log
SONAR (Sound and Navigational Ranging)

This term is used to identify the equipment which work on the principle of reflected acoustic
energy from sea bed or sea water such as Echo Sounder, Speed Log and fish finder.

Characteristic of sound in sea water

a) Sound velocity:
This is from 1445 m/s to 1535 m/s (at 15°c and whit salinity of 3.4% it is about
1505m/s). The increase of salinity, temperature and pressure due to depth will cause
an increase of this speed and vice versa. Normally the general user Echo sounders
and Doppler speed logs are calibrated on 1500 m/s. Most of Doppler speed logs are
provided with a system to compensate for variation of sound speed due to
temperature.
Indicated speed in fresh water > Actual speed
b) Spreading loss of sound in sea water:
This depends on the range of reflector. The amount of energy reflected is
proportional to 1/R4 (received energy). In practice the transmitter beam is maximized
in a lobe of ≈30° in echo sounder and 2-3° in speed log.
c) Attenuation:
This is the absorption of energy by sea water and producing heat. This effect
increases dramatically at frequencies greater than 100 kHz.
d) Volume reverberation:
This is the sound reflection from sea water discontinuities such as sand, planktons,
pollution etc. The amount of volume reverberation increases significantly with the
increase of frequency.
The volume reverberation is a helping factor for Doppler water speed logs and a
noise factor in echo sounders.

Factors affecting choose of frequency

1) Size and cost: Lower the frequency, larger and costlier the transducer.
2) Minimum attenuation (absorption): Higher the frequency (especially greater
than 100 kHz), greater amount of absorption.
3) Minimum volume reverberation (for echo sounders) and more volume
reverberation (for Doppler water speed logs): Higher frequency, greater
amount of reverberation.
4) Free from ship noise (self-noise and ambient noise): Amount of noise is more
at lower frequencies.
Systems employing Janus Doppler principle
A) Single axis Janus (double beam) Doppler speed log: Measures the longitudinal
speed of ship, either speed through the water (STW or water lock) or speed over
ground (SOG or bottom lock).
B) Double axis Janus Doppler navigator: Measures the longitudinal and transverse
ground speed, phasor of them is the velocity that is speed and course over ground.
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 Speed Measurement

C) Doppler docking aid: Measures the longitudinal and transverse ground speed of
bow and stern. The precise magnitude of each is important for anchoring and
docking of large ships. Water disturbance can mask the transducer at aft and prevent
measurement of ships stern transverse speed. This speed then can be calculated
from below formula:
Transverse stern speed=Bow transverse speed - 𝛚𝐥

Where 𝐥 is the length of ship and 𝛚 is the rate of turn.

Doppler speed principle

If an acoustic wave is transmitted horizontally forward from bows of a moving vessel and
then reflected at a fixed target ahead then the received frequency will show a shift from
transmitter frequency. This frequency shift is proportional to the vessel's speed and can be
employed as the principle of ship speed measurement.

Let the ship approach speed is V and the speed of acoustic wave is C with vessel at zero
speed.

i.e V=0 →f=f'=f''→ no shift

But with the approach speed of V then the wave length:

𝐶−𝑉
λ'=
𝑓

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 Speed Measurement

Then the wave is reflected back in sea water again (with same wave length):

𝐶−𝑉
λ'= (1)
𝑓

The vessel with approach speed of V will receive the reflected frequency at a higher
frequency depending on V.
𝐶+𝑉
f''=
λ′

Substituting (1) in above formula:

𝐶+𝑉 𝐶+𝑉
f''= 𝐶−𝑉 =f( )
𝐶−𝑉
𝑓

Using binominal expansion:

𝑉
𝐶+𝑉 1+
𝐶
f''=f( ) → f''=f ( 𝑉 )
𝐶−𝑉 1−
𝐶

𝑉 1+𝑥
Let : =x → f''=f ( )
𝐶 1−𝑥

Using:

𝑛𝐴 𝑛(𝑛−1)𝐴2
(1 + 𝐴)𝑛 = 1 + + +⋯
1! 2!

And:

1+𝑥
= (1+x). (1-x)-1
1−𝑥

(1+x)(1-x)-1 =1+x+x2+x3+…. +x+x2+x3+…. =1+2x+2x2+2x3+….

𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉3
=1+2 +2 2
+2 +….
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶3

2𝑉 2𝑉 2 2𝑉 3
∴ f''=f(1+ + + + ⋯)
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3

The above formula shows that there are no total linear relationship between ship speed and
Doppler frequency shift. Hence the above relation can only be used for very slow speeds.
For example:

1852 𝑉 𝑉2
1knt= m/s ≈0.5 m/s → >>
3600 𝐶 𝐶2

𝑉2
Hence and higher order terms can be neglected.
𝐶2

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 Speed Measurement

Also the beam can't be transmitted horizontally forward; it is transmitted downward at an

angle 𝜽 with respect to horizontal.

Then:

2𝑉 cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 cos2 𝜃 2𝑉 3 cos3 𝜃

f''=f (1+ + + + ⋯)
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3

then:

2𝑉 f cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 f cos2 𝜃 2𝑉 3 f cos3 𝜃

∆f= + + +⋯
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3

Above equation shows that there is no linear relationship between ship speed and Doppler
shift in single configuration, mainly due to presence of second order term. Also there are
other practical problems i.e.:

a) Heave, which will affect the indicated speed, since a component of heave velocity will
be in direction of beam.
b) Pitching or trim, which will change θ and therefore cos θ and indicated speed.

A second beam is added at aft direction and at the same angle (θ) and same frequency. This
configuration is called Janus configuration (double beam).

The difference between received aft and forward frequencies will be the basis of ship's
indicated speed.

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 Speed Measurement

A Janus (double beam) system is used to:

1) Eliminates effect of heave.

2) Eliminates second order term.
3) Minimizes the effect of pitching or trim.

Elimination effect of heave : If the vessel heaves vertically downward then both forward
and aft returned frequencies will increase and vice versa. The difference between the
forward and aft returned frequencies will remain unchanged and hence the indicated speed
will be unaffected.

Elimination second order term:

2𝑉 cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 cos2 𝜃 2𝑉 3 cos3 𝜃

Ffwd= f (1+ + + + ⋯)
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3

Now a second beam received from aft:

𝐶−𝑉 2𝑉 cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 cos2 𝜃 2𝑉 3 cos3 𝜃

Faft= f ( ) =f (1- + − + ⋯)
𝐶+𝑉 𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶3

2𝑉 f cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 f cos2 𝜃 2𝑉 f cos 𝜃 2𝑉 2 f cos2 𝜃

∆f=Ffwd – Faft= [f+ + ]-[f - + ]
𝐶 𝐶2 𝐶 𝐶2

(Since V3<<C3 then 3rd and higher terms are negligible)

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃
∴ ∆f=
𝐶

It is shown that the equation now become linear.

Minimization of pitching or trim: Assume that the vessel experiences a pitching or trim of
δ. The angle of transmitted forward beam will increase by δ (if trim head down).

2𝑉 f cos( 𝜃+δ) 2𝑉 f cos( 𝜃−δ)

Ffwd= f + & Faft= f -
𝐶 𝐶

2𝑉𝑓 2𝑉𝑓
∆f=Ffwd – Faft= cos( 𝜃 + δ)+ cos( 𝜃 − δ)
𝐶 𝐶

2𝑉𝑓
= [ cos( 𝜃 + δ) + cos( 𝜃 − δ)]
𝐶

Using :

cos( 𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos( 𝐴 − 𝐵)= 2cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵

2𝑉𝑓
∆f= 𝐶
[2cos 𝜃 cos δ]

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃 cos δ
∴ ∆f=
𝐶

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃
For never trim: cos δ = cos 0 =1→ ∆f=
𝐶
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 Speed Measurement

As the cosine of angle less than 10° are near unity, then effect of trim or pitching is
minimized.

Example 1:

Calculate the difference between fore and aft received frequencies per knot of speed, if a
single axis Janus Doppler speed and distance log operates at:

1) 300 kHz (Ground speed log)

2) 2MHz (Water speed log)

The transducers are mounted at an angle of 60° with respect to horizontal and take C as
1500 m/s.

Answer:

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃
1) ∆f=
𝐶
1852
V=1knt= m/s =0.514 m/s
3600
𝜃=60°→ cos 𝜃 =0.5
4×0.514×300×103 ×0.5
∆f= =206 Hz
1500
2)

4×0.514×2×106 ×0.5
∆f= =1371 Hz
1500

Example 2:

A single axis speed log & distance log employs transducer mounted at angle of 60° to
horizontal and transmits at 200 kHz. Determine the ship's longitudinal speed if the received
Fore and aft frequencies are respected with 201 kHz & 198.2 kHz . Take C as 1500 m/s.

Answer:

𝜃=60°→ cos 𝜃 =0.5

f = 200 kHz

ffwd=201 kHz & faft=198.2 kHz → ∆f=2.8 kHz

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃 𝐶∆f 1500×2.8×103
∆f= →V= = =10.5 m/s
𝐶 4 f cos 𝜃 4×200×103 ×0.5

3600
V=10.5 m/s × ≈20.4 knts
1852

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 Speed Measurement

Example 3:

A vessel is fitted with a Doppler navigator which operates at frequency of 300 kHz. It
transmits a pair of beams Fore and aft and a second pair port and STBD. Each beam is
inclined at 60° to horizontal. When steering 50 ° true, the frequencies received by the Fore &
aft transducers are 301.9 kHz & 298.3 kHz respectively whilst those received from the port &
STBD transducers where 299.9 kHz & 300.3 kHz respectively. Find the course & speed over
the ground assuming bottom lock operation.

Answer:

The received frequency from STBD is more than port therefore the ship is altering to STBD.

𝜃=60°→ cos 𝜃 =0.5

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃 𝐶∆f
∆f= →V=
𝐶 4 f cos 𝜃

f = 300 kHz

ffwd= 301.9 kHz & faft=298.3 kHz → ∆f=3.6 kHz →

𝐶∆f
V= = 9 m/s (Longitudinal speed)
4 f cos 𝜃

fport= 299.9 kHz & fSTBD=300.3 kHz → ∆f=0.4 kHz →

𝐶∆f
V= = 1 m/s (Transverse speed)
4 f cos 𝜃

3600
S.O.G=√12 + 92 =√82 m/s =9.06 m/s≈ 9.06× ≈17.06 Knots
1852

1 1
tan 𝛼= →α=tan−1 ≈ 6.3°
9 9

C.O.G = 50+6.3 =56.3°

Example 4:

A single axis Janus speed and distance log operates at 250 kHz and transmits beams at an
angle of 30° to vertical. The indicated speed is 15 knots when the vessel has level trim.
Determine the indicated speed if the vessel develops a bow high trim of 10°.

Answer:

𝜃=30° to vertical = 60° to horizontal °→ cos 𝜃 =0.5

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 Speed Measurement

Level trim =without trim

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃 cos δ
Indicated speed ∆f=
𝐶

∆f is indicated speed. So:

Indicated speed= 15× cos 10 ≈ 14.7 Knots

Fresh water correction

Correct speed for fresh water = 0.97 × Indicated speed

4𝑉 f cos 𝜃
∆f=
𝐶

"C" increases with salinity; the logs are normally calibrated for 1500 m/s (≈3.4% salinity)

Temperature correction

If the temperature falls, the reduced value of C will cause an increase of ∆f and hence the
indicated speed and vice versa.

Sperry speed log mechanism for temperature correction

cos 𝜃
Let temperature increases, then the angle 𝜃 decreases hence will remain unchanged.
𝐶

Aeration:

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 Speed Measurement

Transducer sitting consideration

1) A place which is free of aeration

2) At least 2-3 meters away from Echo sounder transducer
3) Sitting of transducer assembly to be horizontal
4) Minimum cable length
5) Access for maintenance

Frequency to speed processing in Sperry speed log

Ff = forward received frequency

Fa= aft received frequency

The Doppler gate generator counts 2049 cycles of For & Aft received frequencies to
generate gates (Identical circuits for Aft & forward).

1
Duration of forward gate=2049×
Ff

1
Duration of aft gate=2049×
Fa
1 1
Time difference (Td) =2049( - )
Ff Ff

This time difference (Td) is fed to a 6 MHz signal counting circuits.

𝑇𝑑
The No. of 6 MHz signal fed into counting circuits= = 6×106 ×Td
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

This is repeated 1920 times (in 14 seconds).

Total No. of cycles (6 MHz) =1920× 6×106 ×Td

The above divided by scale factor of 40 to indicate the ship's speed with two decimal points.

1920× 6×106 ×Td

40

Example5:

Calculate the indicated speed when Ff is 2.01 MHz and Fa is 1.99 MHz .

Answer:

1 1
1920× 6×106 ×Td 2049[ − ]×1920×6×106
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑓
Indicated speed= = = 29.51 Knots
40 40

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 Speed Measurement

Transducers
A transducer is a converter of energy. RF energy, when applied to a transducer assembly,
will cause the unit to oscillate at its natural resonant frequency. If the transmitting face of the
unit is placed in contact with, or close to, seawater the oscillations will cause acoustic waves
to be transmitted in the water. Any reflected acoustic energy will cause a reciprocal action at
the transducer. If the reflected energy comes into contact with the transducer face natural
resonant oscillations will again be produced. These oscillations will in turn cause a minute
electromotive force (e.m.f.) to be created which is then processed by the receiver to produce
the necessary data for display.
Three types of transducer construction are available; electrostrictive, piezoelectric resonator,
and magnetostrictive. Both the electrostrictive and the piezoelectric resonator types are
constructed from piezoelectric ceramic materials and the two should not be confused.

Electrostrictive transducers

Certain materials, such as Rochelle salt and quartz, exhibit pressure electric effects when
they are subjected to mechanical stress. This phenomenon is particularly outstanding in the
element lead zirconate titanate, a material widely used for the construction of the sensitive
element in modern electrostrictive transducers. Such a material is termed ferro-electric
because of its similarity to ferromagnetic materials.
The ceramic material contains random electric domains which when subjected to mechanical
stress will line up to produce a potential difference (p.d.) across the two plate ends of the
material section. Alternatively, if a voltage is applied across the plate ends of the ceramic
crystal section its length will be varied.
The natural resonant frequency of the crystal slice is inversely proportional to its thickness.
At high frequencies therefore the crystal slice becomes brittle, making its use in areas
subjected to great stress forces impossible. This is a problem if the transducer is to be
mounted in the forward section of a large merchant vessel where pressure stress can be
intolerable. The fragility of the crystal also imposes limits on the transmitter power that may
be applied because mechanical stress is directly related to power. The power restraints thus
established make the electrostrictive transducer unsuitable for use in depth sounding
apparatus where great depths need to be indicated. In addition, the low transmission
frequency requirement of an echo sounder means that such a transducer crystal slice would
be excessively thick and require massive transmitter peak power to cause it to oscillate. The
crystal slice is stressed by a voltage applied across its ends, thus the thicker the crystal
slice, the greater is the power needed to stress it.
The electrostrictive transducer is only fitted on large merchant vessels when the power
transmitted is low and the frequency is high, a combination of factors present in Doppler
speed logging systems. Such a transducer is manufactured by mounting two crystal slices in
a sandwich of two stainless steel cylinders. The whole unit is pre-stressed by inserting a

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 Speed Measurement

stainless steel bolt through the centre of the active unit as shown in Figure 2.6.
If a voltage is applied across the ends of the unit, it will be made to vary in length. The bolt is
insulated from the crystal slices by means of a PVC collar and the whole cylindrical section
is made waterproof by means of a flexible seal. The bolt tightens against a compression
spring permitting the crystal slices to vary in length, under the influence of the RF energy,
whilst still remaining mechanically stressed. This method of construction is widely found on
the electrostrictive transducers used in the Merchant Navy. For smaller vessels, where the
external stresses are not so severe, the simpler piezoelectric resonator is used.

Electromagnetic Log

The measuring technique employed is the principle of electromagnetic induction. If a

conductor of length l meters moves with a transverse speed V m/s relative to a magnetic
field intensity B Wb/m2 then a voltage e is induced between the ends of the conductor.
e=Blv volts
An alternating current is passed through a coil having a vertical axis. The coil supply is
typically 50v &50-60 Hz at approximately 0.75 ampere. The alternating magnetic field
produced is projected below the hull of the vessel. The voltage induced into the conducting
seawater is picked up by two monelmetal electrodes mounted athwart ships on an inert
surface, typically resin. Monelmetal is a corrosion resistant alloy containing 67% nickel,
28% copper and smaller quantities of the metals iron, manganese end aluminum. The
induced voltage e is proportional the longitudinal speed and is typically 50uV to 400uV per
knot.
An alternating magnetic field is employed to combat the formation of electrochemical e.m.f's
which would be set up in a DC system. In any hydrogen bearing solution, such as seawater,
positive ions migrate to the negative electrode and deionise to form an insulating layer of
hydrogen gas. Additionally alternating signals are much easier to amplify, however
the coil supply lead and pick up lead must be screened. The drifts in direct coupled (DC)
amplifiers can easily mask the detection of low amplitude do signals.

S i n c e t h e e l e c t r o d e e . m . f i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f l u x densit y B, t hen B
m ust be closel y r egulat ed or an arrangement employed to cancel the effect of
any changes in the magnetic field. Current changes in the coil will be caused by changes
of temperature, supply voltage or frequency.

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 Speed Measurement

Speed processing employing a servo system

An alternating signal e p , proportional to the coil current, is obtained from a

current transformer whose primary carries the coil current. The secondary
current is applied to a potentiometer. The transformer dot notation indicates that
ep is in antiphase with e, the electrode e.m.f. The series sum of these signals forms the
servo amplifier input signal e s. When the signals e and ep are equal in magnitude then
the signal es is zero, and n o a lt er n at in g vo l t a ge is a p pl i e d t o t h e f e ed back
w i n d i n g o f t h e 2 p h a s e s e r v o m o t o r . T h e r o t o r o f t h e servomotor is
stationary.

A rise in longitudinal speed will increase the amplitude of e and thus generate a
signal e s which produces a voltage in the feedback winding. This drives the rotor
clockwise to move the speed pointer up the scale. The mechanical link to the
potentiometer moves the slider downwards to a position where ep = e. The servo system is

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 Speed Measurement
once again in balance, the rotor stops and the new speed is indicated. A reduction in
longitudinal speed will produce a feedback voltage in antiphase to the previous
condition.

Any change in magnetic field, caused by a change in field coil current, will produce
equal changes in e and e p , which will not affect the balanced condition of the
system. The servomotor rotor is often coupled to the rotor of a transmitting
synchro and receiving synchro pair to give a remote speed indication to the bridge.

Distance recorder

The servomotor rotor also positions the slider of a potentiometer which is supplied with
a constant DC voltage. The slider potential is an analogue of the ship's speed.
This voltage is integrated and the output .applied to a comparator. The output of the
comparator changes state when the output of the integrator reaches t h e com par at or
r ef er e nc e vo lt a ge. T h i s r es et s t he integrator (C is discharged) and the output of the
comparator returns to its normal state. The comparator output is a series of pulses and the
time constant of the integrator is selected to reach threshold every 0.005 Nm. T his
pr oduce s 200 pulse s per naut ical m ile. T hese distance pulse are used to
drive navigation equipments, for example a TM unit of radar. Divider circuits
can produce the necessary pulses for a trip miles counter or total miles counter.

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 Speed Measurement
Speed measurement using water pressure

When a tube, with an opening at its base, is vertically submerged in water, a pressure, proportional
to the depth to which the tube is submerged, will be developed in the tube. If the tube is held
stationary the pressure remains constant and is termed ‘static’ pressure. If the tube is now moved
through the water, whilst keeping the depth to which it is submerged constant, a second pressure
called ‘dynamic’ pressure is developed. The total pressure in the tube, called a Pitot tube, is
therefore the sum of both the static and dynamic pressures.

To ensure that the dynamic pressure reading, and thus speed, is accurate, the effect of
static pressure must be eliminated. This is achieved by installing a second tube close to the
first in such a way that the static pressure produced in it is identical to that created in the
Pitot tube but without the pressure increase due to movement through the water.

In a practical installation, tube B, the Pitot tube, extends below the vessel’s hull to a depth d,
whereas tube A, the static pressure intake tube, is flush with the hull. With the vessel
stationary, the static pressures from tube A to the top of the diaphragm and tube B to its
underside almost cancel. The unequal pressures, which cause a small indication of speed to
be displayed when the vessel is stationary, are compensated for in the log electromechanic-
-al system and the erroneous indication is cancelled. As the vessel moves through the water,
in the direction shown, water is forced into tube B producing a combined pressure in the
lower half of the chamber equal to both the static and dynamic pressures. The difference in
pressure, between upper and lower chambers, now forces the diaphragm upwards thus
operating the mechanical linkage. Obviously the greater the speed of the vessel through
the water, the more the diaphragm will move and the greater will be the speed indicated.

Unfortunately, the dynamic pressure developed in tube B, by the relative movement through
the water, is proportional to the square of the vessel’s speed. Pitot’s Law states that this
pressure p is proportional to the square of the ship’s speed v multiplied by the coefficient K.

p = K × v2

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 Speed Measurement

where the constant K is derived from the vessel’s tonnage, shape of hull, speed of the ship,
and the length of the protruding part of the Pitot tube (distance d).

As shown in above Figure, the speed indication produced is not linear. It is necessary
therefore to eliminate the non-linear characteristics of the system and produce a linear
speed indication.
This is achieved mechanically, by the use of precisely engineered cones or electronically
using CR (capacitive/resistive) time constant circuitry.

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