International Journal of Information Research and Review, May, 2016

International Journal of Information Research and Review

Vol. 03, Issue, 05, pp. 2375-2384, May, 2016

Research Article
TRENDS OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
1,*Dr. Sadashivam, T. and 2Dr. Shahla Tabassu
1Assistant Professor, Department of Public Administration, Pachhunga University College, (A Only Constituent
College of Mizoram Central University), Aizwal, Mizoram, India
2Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Zakir Husain Evening College, Delhi University, Delhi, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article History: The Globalization has great impact on the country like India, which increases the economic growth of
the country, and because of this, we are seeing a growing urbanized India. Historically, India’s
th
Received 19 February 2016 population has been predominantly rural, but since the year 1991 the urban population was increasing,
Received in revised form and today it stands about more than 30% of the total population of the country. Although, urbanization
21st March 2016
in India has been underpinned by the rapid growth in the economy especially from the last decade of
Accepted 20th April 2016
Published online 30th May 2016 the 20th Century, and there is transformation from rural economy, based on agriculture and its allied
activities to the modern economy related to industrial activities. However, as India’s urbanization
process is increasing we are seeing its negative impacts on the urban areas, by way of lack of basic
Keywords:
facilities like infrastructure, drinking water, housing, transport etc. Thus, this article tries to present the
Urbanization, urbanization taking place in India, and also gives particular attention to the emerging issues and
Population, challenges, associated with the urbanization process in India and some suggestions to overcome it.
ICT (Information and Communication
Technology),
GDP (Gross Domestic Product),
SEZ (Special Economic Zone).

Copyright © 2016, Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

INTRODUCTION But, the urbanization process is also accompanied by number of

problems, because of unmanageable growth of population in
urban areas, and it is related to provision of basic facilities and
The Globalization has led to the rapid growth in the world
services in urban areas like water supply, sanitation, housing,
economy and movement of the people, product, capital etc in a
transport etc. In India, which is one of the fastest developing
faster and easier manner. And because of Globalization, the one
economy, the urbanization process has been growing in good
concept which comes into full swing is the urbanization. The
proportion. In our country, the focus on economic
urbanization has a concept is an integral part of the process of
liberalization, financial sector reforms and the process of
development. Both Industrialization and urbanization are
decentralization, since the 1990s is contributing to further
inseparable, just as agriculture fosters villages, industry
economic growth, thus bringing into sharper focus the
encourages growth of towns (Maheshwari, 2006). There exist a
economic role of cities (Ibid.). But, there also exist the above
close relationship between urbanization and economic growth,
mentioned problems of urbanization in India, which this paper
and good example is the many developed or industrialized
will try to present and give some suggestions to make
countries and also a few developing countries. As a result,
urbanization productive for our society, especially in this 21st
many populations are living in urban areas, because cities,
century when many economist calling it as ‘Asian Century’,
towns and other urban areas have facilitated the evolution of
(especially in the context of China and India) GDP growth.
knowledge and have been the incubators of civilization and the
engines of growth (Singhsodhi, 2003). The urban population in Review of Literature
almost every country will grow, as already for the first time in
human history, the majority of the world population is living in By the middle of 21st century, the urbanization in India will be
urban areas. engulfing more than half of its population. But, the urbanization
as a process in India is quite different from other countries,
*Corresponding author: Dr. Sadashivam, T., especially the western world, where it came into existence
Assistant Professor, Department of Public Administration, Pachhunga
because of gradual progress of industrialization and
University College, (A Only Constituent College of Mizoram Central
University), Aizwal, Mizoram, India.
urbanization together. Thus, in India, the varied nature of
2376 Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st Century

literature available on the topic of urbanization. Some of the boundaries are expanded, bringing into its population people
important literatures are discussed below: Lalit Batra, ‘A who were previously classified as rural]( Satterthwaite;
Review of Urbanization and Urban Policy in Post-Independent Gordon, and Tacoli., 2010). According to the Census definition
India’, (2009) in this paper, he tries to give insight into the of India, an urban area consists of (Census of India, 2011):
existence of urban policy starting from the British rule to the
post independent period (here the shift in urban policy in every 1) All Statutory Towns: All places with a Municipality,
Five Year Plan periods) and more importantly, the current neo- Corporation, Cantonment Board or Notified Town Area
liberal reforms undergoing in the field of urban affairs. Committee, etc. so declared by State law; and
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, (2011)
‘Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services’. 2) Census Towns: which places and satisfy following criteria:-
According to this report, the urbanization in India is inevitable
thus, the need for solving the various problems associated with  a minimum population of 5000 ;
it requires a combination of actions, starting with increased  at least 75% of male working population engaged in non
investment; strengthening the framework for governance, and agricultural pursuits; and
most importantly capacity building for the people and the  a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq km.
institutions engage in urban affairs.
Furthermore, Population Census in India classifies urban
Isher Judge Ahluwalia, in her book ‘Transforming Our Cities: settlement into six size classes as per the limits indicated below
Postcards of Change’ (2014), discusses about, the majority of ( Kundu, 2001 ):
cities in India have been facing huge challenges in all the fronts
or in other words, for the government, the governance of urban Population Size Category
areas is a big challenge. The reasons being lack of basic 100,000 and more Class I
facilities like good roads, water, housing, parks, electricity etc. 50,000 to 100,000 Class II
Although Isher Judge Ahluwalia also given references about 20,000 to 50,000 Class III
10,000 to 20,000 Class IV
some cities in India, which have taken positive steps in solving 5,000 to 10,000 Class V
the issues arises from urbanization. So, the need for big Less than 5,000 Class VI
transformation of Indian cities is the need of the hour. Prasanna
K. Mohanty, in his book ‘Cities and Public Policy: An Urban Urbanization in India
Agenda for India’ (2014), talks about the importance of cities in
catalyzing growth, which in turn leads to the overall The growth of urbanization in India is basically through two
development of the country. The negative aspects of the ways, one is through increase in the urban population, which
urbanization can be overcome through meaningful urban public will be natural and the second one is through migration, which
policy or undertaking reforms in various fields of urban areas is result of people migrating from rural to urban areas and also
like urban planning, finance and management etc. For that thing from small towns/cities to big metros. However, in the 1990s,
to happen, the book discusses about the number of examples i.e. when the Indian government opened up their economy,
from India and global also, regarding how to make and there seen a rise in rapid economic growth of the country. But
implement good urban public policy. Isher Judge Ahluwalia; this economic growth was more of urban growth, which led to
Ravi Kanbur and P.K Mohanty (ed.), ‘Urbanization in India: rapid migration of rural population to urban areas. In the year
Challenges, Opportunities and the Way Forward’, (2014) 1951, only five cities are having population of more than one
contains 11 scholarly articles written by experts on the field of million, which increase to 53 cities in 2011 and it was
urban studies. The challenges of urbanization in India have estimated that by 2031, it will be 70 cities in the country with
been discussed along with the opportunities it presents if it was million populations. Similarly, three cities are having more than
utilized properly and efficiently through good urban planning. 10 million populations in the year 2011, and it was estimated
The need for urban infrastructure, for effective service delivery that six cities will be having 10 million populations by 2031.
systems, it’s financing and most importantly its sustainability Thus, it was estimated that the total urban population by the
along with the role of urban local government has been the year 2030 will be 610 million, which will account for the 40%
focus of this book. Thus, so many important literatures of the total population of the country (Mohan, 2012). The many
available on the present study, and here the authors tried to put cities in our country, are becoming extremely crowded and if
all together and come out with some unique study on the theme we see the 20 most densely populated cities in the world, out of
of urbanization in India in one article. which five will be from India including, Kolkata and Mumbai
(Confederation of Indian Industry, 2010).
Urbanization: A Concept

In the year 1950, only about 30% of the world population lived The (Table 1) clearly shows that the total population of India
in urban areas, which were increased to above 50% in 2012. It was increased from 102.86 crores in 2001 to 121.02 crores in
was estimated that by the year 2030 more than 70% of world 2011. The number of towns/urban agglomerations has
people will be lived in urban areas. The term ‘urbanization’ increased from 5161 to 7935 from the period 2001 to 2012,
means the increasing share of a nation’s population living in which was an increase of 2774 towns/urban agglomerations.
urban areas [and thus a declining share living in rural areas]. A The urban population in the year 2011 was 37.71 crores, which
nation’s urban population can grow from natural increase was 28.61 crores in 2001. The percentage of urban population
[births minus deaths], net rural to urban migration and to the total population of the country was 31.16 % in 2011,
reclassification [as what was previously a rural settlement which was 27.8% in the year 2001.
becomes classified as urban or as an urban settlement’s
2377 International Journal of Information Research and Review Vol. 03, Issue, 05, pp. 2375-2384, May, 2016

Table 1. Decadal Urban Population Growth in India (Census of India)

Year Total Population No. of Urban Population Share of Urban Population Decadal Growth of Urban
(in crores) Towns/UAs (in crores) to Total Population (%) Population (%)
1951 36.11 2,843 6.24 17.3 41.4
1961 43.92 2,365 7.89 18.0 26.4
1971 54.81 2,590 10.91 19.9 38.2
1981 68.33 3,378 15.95 23.3 46.1
1991 84.63 3,768 21.76 25.7 36.4
2001 102.86 5,161 28.61 27.8 31.3
2011* 121.02 7,935 37.71 31.16 31.8
*Data from provisional tables released by Census of India 2011. Source from-Report of the Working Group on Urban Poverty, Slums, and
Service Delivery System, Steering Committee on Urbanization of Planning Commission, 3rd October, 2011, New Delhi, p. 59.

The (Table 2) shows the average annual percentage growth rate One interesting fact, can be seen from the (figure 1.1) is that in
of population of both rural/urban and overall total. During the top 5 urbanized States, three are from southern States; and in
period from 1951 to 1961, the average annual percentage top 10 urbanized State, a total of 4 southern States Tamil Nadu,
growth rate of population of rural was 2.06% and 2.64% for Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh represent. The four
urban, whereas the overall total was 2.16%. One interesting fact southern States mentioned before are also the major contributor
about the (Table 1.2) is that, the average annual percentage for our country (India) GDP. The employment is the main
growth rate of population for rural areas, since the year 1981 reason for migration of male, compare to female in various
till present decreased. streams of migration given in the (Figure 1.2). For male, the
migration from rural to urban areas was 60.9%, whereas for
Table 2. Rural/Urban Differential in Growth female it was only 3%. Even within urban to urban areas, male
of Population-India migration was 48.2%, compare with 3% for female. On account
of marriage only, female migrate more rather than for
Period Average annual percentage growth rate of population employment cause.
Rural Urban Total
1951-1961 2.06 2.64 2.16
1961-1971 2.19 3.82 2.48
1971-1981 1.93 4.61 2.47
1981-1991 2 3.64 2.38
1991-2001 1.81 3.15 2.15
2001-2011 1.22 3.18 1.76
Note: 1991 population includes interpolated population figures for
Jammu & Kashmir.
Source from-Selected Socio-Economic Statistics India-2011,
Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programe
Implementation, Central Statistics Office, Social Statistics Division,
New Delhi, October, 2011, p.20.

It was 2% during 1981 to 1991, which decreased to 1.81% in

1991 to 2001 and finally in last decade i.e. from 2001 to 2011 it
was 1.22%. Whereas for urban areas, the average annual Various Sources: Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, by High
percentage growth rate of population was 3.64% during 1981 to Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) for estimating the investment requirements
for urban Infrastructure services, Ministry of Urban Development, Government
1991; which decreased to 3.15% in 1991 to 2001; and in last of India, March 2011, New Delhi, p.13. Source- www.niua.org/projects/hpec
decade from 2001-2011, it increased to 3.18%. Thus, there seen /finalreport_ hpec.pdf, accessed on 15th September 2012.
a decrease in the percentage growth rate for rural areas, from
2% to 1.22% during 1981 to 2011 period. But, for urban areas
the population growth rate, was still hovering around 3% plus,
during the above mentioned three decades and interestingly
during the period from 2001 to 2011, it increases slightly from
3.15% to 3.18%. Thus, the population growth rate for urban
areas was more than rural areas.

Various Sources: Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and

Services, by High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) for
estimating the investment requirements for urban Infrastructure
services, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India, March 2011, New Delhi, p.13. Source- www.niua.org/
projects/hpec/finalreport_hpec.pdf, accessed on 15th September
2012. The urbanization rate among the top 10 major states of
Note: The above data is based on National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
India in terms of population, area and per capita income, (see
2010. Source from-Ram B. Bhagat, “Migrants (Denied) Right to the City”,
figure 1.1). The state of Tamil Nadu is the most urbanized state
Urban Policies and the Right to the City in India 2011-Rights, Responsibilities
in India with 48.45%; followed by Kerala with 47.72%;
and Citizenship, November 2011, UNESCO, New Delhi.
Maharashtra with 45.23% and others respectively.
2378 Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st Century

In India, especially after 1990s there emerge some metropolitan Hyderabad, Chennai, and Delhi and every day number of
cities with specialize urban economy which we can (see in people is migrating towards these cities for jobs; and ultimately
Figure 1.3) map of India. The reason for studying this map is, urbanization is increasing in these cities. Interestingly in year
because employment is the main cause for migration and both 2011, out of the seven States which accounts for 62% of India’s
skilled and unskilled people migrate from one place to another. urban population, the five cities

Note: The blue colour in the map is related to ICT services. The red colour is displaying high technology manufacturing which basically covers pharmaceutical
products; aircraft, spacecraft and parts. The purple colour is related to fast growing export manufacturing industries include electrical, electronic equipment;
machinery; organic chemicals; accessories, pharmaceuticals products; iron and steel; articles of iron or steel; and ships.
Source from-India: Urbanization beyond Municipalities-An economic analysis of urbanization and the urban economy, Centre for Policy Research, The World
Bank, July, 2011, p.17. Source from-http://www.cprindia.org/sites/default/files/18lall.pdf, accessed on 26th July 2012.

Figure 1.3. Three Emerging Distinct Metropolitan Specializations

The three distinct metropolitan cities region emerging are: first mentioned above Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad
is Delhi and NCR [National Capital Region] in northern part of and Chennai comes under in 5 States: they are Tamil Nadu,
India, as fast growing export manufacturing industries with Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
4.5%, whereas ICT [Information and Communication However, there are also other cities in India, which also
Technology] services and high technology manufacturing contribute towards the GDP of the country. And already 43% of
industries accounts for 2.6 % and 2.6% respectively. The the country’s wealth is generated by top 100 cities (Staff
second is Mumbai and Ahmedabad in western part of India, Reporter, 2012, June 12).
emerged as high technology manufacturing industries with
9.6%; while for ICT services it was 5.2%; and for fast growing Thus, cities are the real growth engines and generators of
export manufacturing industries 5.1% respectively .The third national wealth; not only in India but also across the globe,
one is Bangalore-Hyderabad-Chennai triangle in southern part which was rightly proved by Jane Jacobs in her book ‘Cities
of India, emerged as ICT services hub with 25.9%, quite largest and the Wealth of Nations’ in 1984. Further, her analysis
in number compare with other two [fast growing export suggests that the wealth of nations is actually the wealth of its
manufacturing industries and high technology manufacturing cities, and the roots of the ailments that plague nations can be
industries], which is understandable, as India is the major traced to the state of their cities (Ministry of Urban
player in the world IT sector market. The high technology Development, Government of India, 2011).
manufacturing industries accounts for 3.2%, whereas for fast
growing export manufacturing industries it was 5.8%; which is Issues and Challenges in Urbanization
slightly higher in number compare with other two metropolitan
cities region. The cities mentioned in above three distinct As our country moves along on the path of urbanization, we
metropolitan cities region, are also most populated in the will find new problems and challenges emerging out of it, some
country, especially the cities which are having more than five of which are already felt. While urbanization process resulted
million population are: Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, into economic growth in our society, but equally it is true that,
2379 International Journal of Information Research and Review Vol. 03, Issue, 05, pp. 2375-2384, May, 2016

there exist number of problems associated with the providers also depend on the growth of farmers incomes
urbanization. Some of them are discussed below: The (Singh, 2010 ). Because of climate change, there has been a lot
urbanization is also one of the reasons, for the global warming of desperate migration of those poor villagers to the towns and
throughout the world and led to climate change even in India, cities in search of ways to make a living; and this will increase
we already seeing the impact of climate change on monsoon when the land is no longer productive or severe drought, flood
pattern and in near future, we will see more in other areas. and other extreme weather conditions make it impossible to
earn a living by farming. This will have political implications
The climate change is primarily caused by the building up of too, as these climate change migrants will put pressure on an
greenhouse gases e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide already existing lack of infrastructure and basic amenities in
and others in the atmosphere, which led to the rise in the urban areas (Sadashivam, 2010a). This will also affect the food
temperature of the earth. The climate change is basically the production in the country, if we see, large number of rural
result of human induced activities such as agricultural systems, people are depend upon for their living on agriculture
industrial activities, fossil fuel consumption, land use pattern profession and migrating to the cities will automatically affect
and many more (Sadashivam, 2010 ). the food security in India.

Table 3. State-wise projected Slum Population from 2011 to 2017 (in millions)

State 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Andaman & Nicobar Islands 0.034 0.035 0.037 0.038 0.040 0.041 0.043
Andhra Pradesh 8.188 8.273 8.357 8.440 8.522 8.603 8.681
Arunachal Pradesh 0.098 0.103 0.109 0.114 0.120 0.126 0.131
Assam 1.071 1.100 1.130 1.160 1.191 1.222 1.254
Bihar 1.684 1.707 1.730 1.753 1.774 1.796 1.817
Chandigarh 0.332 0.349 0.365 0.382 0.397 0.411 0.430
Chhattisgarh 2.112 2.169 2.228 2.288 2.348 2.410 2.471
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 0.026 0.029 0.032 0.034 0.037 0.040 0.043
Daman & Diu 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010
Delhi 3.163 3.261 3.361 3.464 3.571 3.682 3.793
Goa 0.155 0.161 0.168 0.175 0.181 0.186 0.192
Gujarat 4.663 4.760 4.857 4.954 5.052 5.150 5.246
Haryana 3.288 3.391 3.495 3.600 3.707 3.815 3.924
Himachal Pradesh 0.087 0.089 0.091 0.093 0.095 0.097 0.099
Jammu & Kashmir 0.494 0.504 0.514 0.524 0.534 0.544 0.554
Jharkhand 0.932 0.949 0.966 0.984 1.001 1.019 1.037
Karnataka 3.631 3.700 3.770 3.840 3.910 3.981 4.049
Kerala 0.533 0.536 0.539 0.541 0.544 0.546 0.548
Lakshadweep 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Madhya Pradesh 6.393 6.523 6.654 6.786 6.918 7.051 7.181
Maharashtra 18.151 18.550 18.951 19.353 19.754 20.153 20.557
Manipur 0.075 0.076 0.077 0.077 0.078 0.078 0.079
Meghalaya 0.205 0.209 0.212 0.215 0.219 0.223 0.226
Mizoram 0.106 0.108 0.110 0.112 0.114 0.116 0.118
Nagaland 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.089
Orissa 1.736 1.771 1.805 1.841 1.876 1.912 1.948
Puducherry 0.137 0.143 0.150 0.156 0.162 0.167 0.174
Punjab 2.798 2.864 2.930 2.996 3.063 3.128 3.194
Rajasthan 3.826 3.895 3.962 4.030 4.095 4.160 4.225
Sikkim 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.016
Tamil Nadu 8.645 8.863 9.081 9.299 9.515 9.730 9.940
Tripura 0.131 0.134 0.137 0.140 0.143 0.146 0.149
Uttar Pradesh 10.878 11.127 11.379 11.631 11.885 12.140 12.394
Uttarakhand 0.826 0.846 0.866 0.887 0.907 0.927 0.948
West Bengal 8.547 8.641 8.733 8.825 8.919 9.014 9.106
India 93.056 94.978 96.908 98.845 100.787 102.729 104.668
Source from: Report of the Working Group on Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Delivery System, Steering Committee on
Urbanization of Planning Commission, 3rd October, 2011, New Delhi, p.60.

Rather than, those occurring naturally in bio-physical As the population is increasing, we will see this problem more,
environments. Although, agriculture is also the villain for already food inflation in our country is increasing, and affects
contributing the above cause, but more importantly it was the lives of both rural and urban people. But, more on the
because of increase in the growth of vehicles in the cities and former category and even in urban areas, it will be more on the
towns, more use of fossil fuels and construction activity by poor urban people. Furthermore, it will be increase more, as the
clearing the green and vacant lands for constructing buildings, contribution of agriculture and its allied activities towards the
roads, highways, malls etc. According to Medha Patkar a well GDP in recent times is going down. Also, with the increase in
known social activist in India, in last 10 years more than 18 urban population, more and more agricultural land or areas
lakh hectares of agricultural land directed to non-agricultural need to be converted for constructing houses, bridges,
purpose (Patkar, 2012, August 23). The climate change will highways for urban use, which will affect agriculture
have sufficient impact on agriculture, as already more than 55% production in near future.
of the country’s consumers draw their livelihood directly from
agriculture as cultivators and agricultural labourers. Moreover, B) Over the next few decades, the population growth in urban
rural non-farm workers, such as rural artisans and rural service areas will be increase, because of rural-urban migration and
2380 Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st Century

also, because of natural population growth in urban areas. But, States in India, they have poverty ratio of 53.7% and 56.3%
the one issue, which too becomes more pertinent is urban respectively among casual labourers in urban areas, which was
poverty and even in present time, it is an important issue in more than the national average for urban areas ( Ibid.). Also,
urban development and governance. The urban poor occupy the according to the provisional results of the 68th NSSO [National
lowest rungs of the social hierarchy and deprive of basic Sample Survey Organization] which was conducted in 2009-10,
services and amenities. They occupy the marginal positions in has come out with some important findings. Firstly, in the
the socio-cultural system of the communities (Singh, 2004). category of monthly expenditure of the poorest 10 per cent of
The Government of India since, the Fifth Five Year Plan [1974- urban population has risen by 17.2%, while that of the richest
1979] has emphasized on removal of urban poverty and 10 per cent is up by 30.5%. In the second category in urban
initiated various policies and programmes in this direction India, the poorest 10 per cent spend rupees 23.4 per day on an
( Ibid.). The most important one being SJSRY [Swarna Jayanti average, while in contrast the richest 10 per cent spend rupees
Shahari Rozgar Yojana] which was designed to provide gainful 255.1per day (Sethi, 2012, August 2). C) Rampant growing
employment to the urban poor, by encouraging setting up of number of urban slums in metropolitan cities like Delhi,
self-employment ventures and provision of wage employment Mumbai and Calcutta were because of poverty, many poor
opportunities for families below poverty line in urban areas urban people can’t afford even a rented house, just forget about
(Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, buying a house in cities and towns. They have no choice but to
Government of India, 2007). But, still the urban poverty live in slums, which are developed on most unhealthy and
remains the major problem for the government to solve. One polluted land sites, where even the basic facilities of water,
factor comes, in the way of urban poverty eradication was electricity, sanitation etc were absent or in some cases are not
being migration in large number of people from rural to urban sufficient. According to the 2001 census of India, the slum
areas, which results in poor living in urban areas are more than population was 42.6 million, which forms 15% of the country
rural areas. These people are usually stays in slums and total urban population and 23% of population of cities and
sometimes in road side, with temporary tent or even did not get towns reporting slums. The census also reports that 41.6% of
any shelter also [especially in all big metros], which can be the total slum population resides in cities, which have over one
seen visibly in day light and more so at night, when you take million populations (Planning Commission, Government of
round of the city. The policies and programmes implemented India, 2011).
by the governments, for decrease of urban poverty were some
extent ineffective, because of lack of supervision, monitoring According to the (Table 1.3), the projected slum population
and coordination on the part of the agencies of the from the period 2011 to 2017 is highest for the State of
governments. The late Prime Minister of India Mr. Rajiv Maharashtra, which will going to increase from 18 million to
Gandhi had once said, that out of 100 paisa* only 15 paisa 20 million; the next was the State of Uttar Pradesh which will
reaches the intended beneficiary of various development be increase from 10 million to 12 million; and whereas for the
programmes in the rural areas. This saying is also true for the States like Tamil Nadu and West Bengal, it will increase from
urban intended beneficiary for any development programmes. eight million to nine million. Many of people living in slums
areas are depend upon the community type toilet, and in some
The all India HCR [Head Count Ratio] for below poverty line cases, especially in small and medium towns people use open
has declined by 7.3% from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 29.8% in defection, which is less hygiene and more prone to various
2009-10. The rural poverty has declined from 41.8% in 2004- diseases.
05 to 33.8% in 2009-10, which was a decline of 8% during
above period. In the above mentioned same period, the urban It is a great disrespect to female, who are most affected because
poverty has declined from 25.7% to 20.9%, which was decline of open defection. But, one thing has to be noted that all poor
of 4.8%. If we compare data of both rural and urban areas, it people didn’t live in slums. According to UN-Habitat, a slum
clearly shows that urban areas are lagging, behind in the household is a group of individuals living under the same roof
reduction of poverty rate, even though during the above in an urban area, who lack one or more of the following:
mentioned period was the most successful period for the Indian durable housing, sufficient living area, access to improved
economy, which saw huge economic growth. But this doesn’t water, access to sanitation and secure tenure (Arabi, 2009 ).
truly translate in reduction of poverty in urban areas, especially One main problem associated with the slums in many metros
to the urban poor. Also, the poverty ratio among the different and cities are that, the governments don’t have reliable and
social groups in urban areas is high for SC [Scheduled Caste] correct data, about how many populations are living in slums.
34.1% and ST [Scheduled Tribe] 30.4%; whereas for OBC Also, government authority didn’t include and count those poor
[Other Backward Classes] 24.3% and for all other classes it was urban people, who don’t reside in slums, which is a mistake on
low as 20.9% (Press Information Bureau, 2012, March 19). It is the part of the governments and it abstain from its duty to
interesting fact, which clearly reflects with majority of provide the basic services to these non- slums people, who are
population, who stays in slums and unauthorized places are SC poor and needed some help.
people and they are mostly poor.
For example in Delhi, according to the 2001 census an urban
slum population was 1.85 million, which constitute 18.7% of
Among religious groups in urban areas, the Muslims have Delhi’s urban population. But, if full data has taken of
highest poverty ratio 33.9%; and the lowest religious group is unauthorized settlements, including jhuggi jhopdi clusters
Christians having 12.9% poor. In the category of poverty ratio [Squatter settlements], slum-designated areas [slums
among different occupational categories in urban areas, it was recognized by the government, many of which are in the walled
more in case of casual labourers which was 47.1%. Even in city], unauthorized colonies and jhuggi jhopdi resettlement
States like West Bengal and Punjab, which are the prosper colonies [Squatter resettlement colonies], these are estimated to
2381 International Journal of Information Research and Review Vol. 03, Issue, 05, pp. 2369-2374, May, 2016

have a population of 9.84 million in 2011. Thus, represent more been seen an increase of 15.8% in suicide cases. The
than half of Delhi’s total population, which is estimated to be percentage share of suicides among the top States in India was
19 million in 2011. Further, more than 100, 000 people are 12.4% for Maharashtra; Tamil Nadu accounts for 12.2 %; West
residing on under bridges, pavements and by the road side and Bengal 10.9%; and Karnataka 8.3%% respectively.
basically many of them are rickshaw pullers and casual workers Interestingly, these are the States which comes in the top ten
(Agarwal, 2011). Even, the evacuation and rehabilitation of the urbanized States in India. Thus, the four metropolitan cities
people living in slums areas to other areas are complex issue. starting with Chennai (2214); Bengaluru (1906); Delhi (1847);
Because of two reasons, one is political vested interest of the and Mumbai (1196) have reported highest number of suicides
politicians, who use these slum areas as their vote bank (National Crime Records Bureau, 2015). The increase in
constituency, since majority of elite and middle class people suicide cases was seen from the period 1990s, when in India
don’t go for vote during elections. Thus, these slum votes Liberalization policies were started. Although, slowly
become more important for winning an election. Second reason economic growth of the country increased, this has impacted
is even when the people are rehabilitated from the government the lives of the people in positive manner. However, this also
side, but slums people don’t want to go to rehabilitation site resulted into increased in stress and anxiety levels of the
because, their newly houses are far away from the main city, people, because of disparity in incomes; the race to reach the
and lacking basic facilities related to water, electricity and top of the professional ladder and excess competition, which
transportation. leads to increase in suicide of the people in number of cases.
Thus, the post-liberalization atmosphere which is also a one of
D) There exist many sociological implications of the concept of the reason for the increase in urbanization has led to severe
urbanization and the some important one being, first because of aspirational backlash, causing thousand of Indians, from
urbanization lot of construction activity taking place in the students to techies and corporate honchos to housewives, to kill
metropolitan cities like Delhi, Chennai etc. Furthermore, there themselves (Punj, 2012, August 5).
is an increase in number of vehicles, where one family have
more than one vehicle which resulted into lack of parking Suggestions to Overcome Negative Implications of the
spaces and traffic jams especially in Delhi roads, which in Urbanization
recent time has led to lot of quarrels and heated debate between
the people and in some cases it led to minor injury and even The reforms in institutional frameworks of urban institutions
deaths also. The second social implication is increasing number are need of the hour, so to have effective urban governance. For
of street children, who either stays with their parents or lives making this, there is a need to re-look and updated the 74th
alone in streets. There exist a number of novel provisions in our constitutional amendment act of 1992, related to urban local
constitution, for the child protection and development, but all self government.
these are good in papers only not in practical life. The street
children are involved in rag picking, begging, selling small
items [toys, balloons etc], shoe polishing, loading and
unloading etc. The child labor became a more prominent in big
cities and towns including the capital of India. The children are
employed, because they are cheaply available and work long
hours without any complaints (Staff Reporter, 2012, August 6).
The street children are the most abused and exploitated group,
other than exposed to hazardous work; they also face the
problem of child trafficking, pornography, prostitution,
begging; and as a result, living a vulnerable life in cities and
towns. In the State of Delhi, the street children who are below
18 years are constitute 1% of total children population, which is
quite large in number. Thus, the crime rate* against children Source from-A Report on Intelligent urbanization- Roadmap for India,
was the highest at 166.9% in Delhi as per the NCRB [National Confederation of Indian Industry, Prepared by BooZ & Co in association with
Crime Records Bureau] 2014, among the various States in CISCO, 2010, New Delhi, p.11.
India. The children also fall prey to substance abuse, and they
The urban agencies should be given more financial and
never able to get timely or adequate medical assistance (Shajan
independent powers and include in its various provision of
Binda Perappadan, 2012, August 6). The street children don’t
urbanization, according to the changing situation and
have access to education, health and other facilities, as a result,
environment, so that it can face the challenges of urbanization,
some children automatically involved in some kind of petty
as the powers and functions given in the 74th act was two
crime during childhood and when they became adult, their
nature of crime will become serious one. decades old. And also, it is still matter of choice for the State
government, to devolve various powers and functions in what
manner and extent to their urban local bodies, which is
The third social implication can’t be ignored especially, the
unfortunate and needs to be done away with. There was also a
issue of suicide which is especially rising every year in cities
instances in many State, where the government is emphasizing
and towns. According to the NCRB in the year 2014, more than
and creating new urban development authority or agency for
1, 31,666 suicides has taken place in India, out of which more
than half of them in urban areas. The suicide rate* in cities was urban development, and which was actually under the control
of State government, which undermines the functioning of
higher (12.2%) as compared to all-India suicide rate which was
urban local self government in the State and needs to be
(10.6%). In the year 2004, the number of suicide cases was
discouraged in totality. S.R. Maheshwari has rightly
1,13,697. Thus, during one decade from 2004-2014, there has
emphasized that, the several functions performed hitherto by
2382 Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st Century

local bodies were taken away and are now performed by urban government has identified three areas in Delhi [Vasant Vihar,
development authority or single purpose agencies, which are Mehrauli and Malviya Nagar] under pilot study through PPP,
State government organization. Thus, the State government has for providing water services to the people residing in the above
transferred responsibility to different organizations at the local mentioned places. One thing has to be done for making PPP
level, other than the municipal government like trusts, transport successful, is that all the projects under PPP should be brought
undertaking, housing boards, electricity boards etc (op.cit., under RTI [Right to Information] Act, so that any information
Maheshwari). Furthermore the (Figure 1.4) shows the [except vital information related to the safety and security of
percentage of municipal government expenditure of GDP of the the country] related to the project can be accessed by the people
country was 0.5% for India, whereas for other countries like at any time, as it was done in South Africa under RTI act. Also,
Poland it was 4.5%; Brazil 5.0 %; South Africa 6.0%. Even the people have to be involved in the policy making,
comparison within the BRICS [Brazil; Russia; India; China and implementation and management of any PPP project by the
South Africa] countries, where both Brazil and South Africa governments. The reason for being involvement of people is to
were the members, the India’s share was quite low and make them felt, that the goods and services generated from the
unsatisfactory. Thus, the economic viability of urban local project is for their own benefit and they also equally
bodies needs to be strengthened and increase in its expenditure responsible for its management.
for various municipal activities.
India is not only a developing economy, but also a liberal
Rural areas need to be made developed, so that people don’t democracy too, where there are competing demands for public
thing about migrating in such huge number. Here, the role of investment. There required a lot of money for infrastructure
State government becomes more important, along with the build up and governments don’t have such huge amount; and
Panchayati Raj Institutions, the latter needs to be given more also, the big foreign and domestic companies are not interested
powers and functions. The 73rd constitutional amendment act to invest in India, because they cite the problem of high costs
related to rural local self government needs to be re-look and [interrupted] power, bad infrastructure and high transactions
frame according to the real needs of the rural people, especially costs in general (Menon & Mitra, 2009). Here, the SEZ
because of climate change, the people who depends upon [Special Economic Zone] can be promoted and utilize as a tool;
agriculture directly or indirectly are mostly going to be to attract and locate investments not only in big metros and
affected. Furthermore, initiating number of programmes for the cities, but also more importantly in those areas where
welfare of the people living in rural areas, especially related to investments for infrastructure were lacking, especially in small
providing employment by the government; like Mahatma towns and cities, which also create employment opportunities.
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which Although, already number of SEZs were established and
guarantees 100 days of work for one unemployed person in a functioning in the country, which came through the Special
family in a year. Since, unemployment is the main reason for Economic Zones Act, 2005 which was passed by the
migration of the people, especially to urban areas. Also, the Parliament in May 2005, but it came into effect on 10th
private players need to be encouraged, so to set up business in February 2006. So far 585 SEZs are approved, out of which
rural areas by giving them concession of various kinds. Even if 381 have been notified and among them 143 SEZs are already
people want to migrate for better opportunity and life in that functioning and exporting in excess of Rupees 3,oo,ooo crore,
situation, instead of putting pressure on big cities, it is which accounts for over 28% of the country’s total exports. It
preferable to identify and develop the small towns and cities, also provides direct employment to 7,00,000 persons in the
which can absorb the rural migrant located near to their place. country (“Special Economic Zones in India”, 2007) But, the
issue of land acquisition, especially related to agricultural land
The basic infrastructure of urban areas, need to be developed. for a project is a big controversy, which needs to be taken into
For which over the next decade, the investment of rupees in account in a proper manner. Otherwise, we have to face the
excess of US Dollar 1 trillion of public investment is needed, problem like Nandigram SEZ controversy which took place in
according to an estimate of CII [Confederation of Indian the year 2006, in the state of West Bengal and created lot of
Industry] (op.cit., Confederation of Indian Industry, 2010 ). problems between farmers and the administration.
Similarly, other organizations and committees have also
estimated, like the Mckinsey which estimates the urban
infrastructure expenditure for next 20 years, will be total of Climate change policies should be made central, to India’s long
$1.20 trillion; out of which the two most important sectors is term urbanization policies. Especially, if we see there exist a
water infrastructure which needed $200 billion and second one major problem of water and power in big cities and towns, this
urban transport which needed $590 billion. The Ahluwalia can be partially solved by making every citizen accountable for
Committee of the Government of India estimates, urban climate change. Initially, starting with the upper middle class,
infrastructure expenditure will be total of $785 billion, out of who are staying in posh colonies or areas making it mandatory
which water infrastructure needed $150 billion and urban for them, for having rain water harvesting and installing solar
transport $460 billion (op.cit., Mohan, 2012 ). plant in their roof top. The reason, for being start with the rich
people because, they have the money and space for doing it.
The governments don’t have such sufficient resources in their Gradually, the governments should implement it for the middle
hands, thus both Central and State governments need to and below middle class, although it will be not easy to do it for
encourage private participation investment in the infrastructure the latter two category, because of financial and space
creation and development. The Scheme of PPP [Public Private limitation. But more than space, it was the financial constraint
Partnership] should be explored and encouraged, in the field of which is a big hindrance. Here, both Central and State
financing various public goods and services in urban areas. For governments need to take initiative, for providing freely to rain
example, recently in the month of August 2012, the Delhi water harvesting and installing solar plant, in roof top of the
2383 International Journal of Information Research and Review Vol. 03, Issue, 05, pp. 2369-2374, May, 2016

houses of the people belong to below poverty line and Notes

subsidizing it for the middle class. The above initiatives of the
governments should be started as a pilot project. If the results Note 1: Crime Rate means: incidence of crimes committed
are good, then it needs to be expanded and if not satisfactory, against children per one lakh population of children (up to 18
then it needs to be re-modified by rectifying the present years of age).
problems. Note 2: Suicide Rate means Number of Suicides per one lakh
population.
But, one thing has to be remember that the policy for rain water
harvesting and solar plant installation, can’t be put in a Note 3: 100 Paisa means One Rupee (Indian Currency).
backburner or discarded from now onwards, rather it has to be
implemented in more effective manner. Along with this, the REFERENCES
policy of water and power conservation should be taken into
seriously, as both go hand in hand. Although, Government of Agarwal, Siddharth. 2011. The State of Urban Health in India:
India on 30th June 2008, released its NAPCC [National Action Comparing the poorest quartile to the rest of the Urban
Plan on Climate Change] in which 8 national missions are Population in selected States and Cities. Environment and
given and out of which, one related to National Water Mission; Urbanization, 23(1), 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
and second on National Solar Mission ( op.cit., Sadashivam,T. 0956247811398589
2010 ). However, according to one recent study by two authors, Arabi, U. 2009. Dynamics of recent Urbanisation Trends:
Sujatha Byravan and Sudhir Chella Rajan who have evaluated Implications on Poor in Developing World. Nagarlok An
India’s NAPCC, and some of which are published in one of the Urban Affairs Quarterly, XLI(1), 61.
reputed English national newspaper in India called ‘The Batra, Lalit. 2009. A Review of Urbanization and Urban Policy
Hindu’. in Post-Independent India. Working Paper Series-Centre for
the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru
According to two of them, if sustainable development is indeed University, New Delhi.
a central guiding principle in India’s climate policy, it has not Byravan, Sujatha and Rajan Chella Sudhir. 2012, April 22.
been prioritized in the approaches and outcomes of individual Warming signs for the Economy. The Hindu. Retrieved
missions. These missions were placed in 8 separate bins has led from http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-
to viewing the problems and solutions with sector-specific ed/article3804291.ece?homepage=true
lenses. And according to them, India needed an approach that is Census of India. 2011. Press Release: Rural-Urban distribution
inter-disciplinary in its character, breaks traditional ministerial of Population (Provisional). Retrieved July 15, 2012, from
boundaries, and learns rapidly from the effects of warming that Press Information Bureau website,
are ongoing and our successes and failures in dealing with them http://pibmumbai.gov.in/English/PDF/E2011_PR1143.PDF
(Byravan & Sudhir, 2012, April 22). Confederation of Indian Industry. 2010. A Report on Intelligent
urbanization- Roadmap for India, Prepared by BooZ & Co
in association with CISCO: New Delhi.
Conclusion
Isher Judge Ahluwalia. 2012, April 25. Indian cities as engines
of growth. The Indian Express. Retrieved from
This is rightly said, that this century is urban century, where
http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/indian-cities-as-
more people are living in urban areas. The urbanization concept
engines-of-growth/941048/
provides both the challenges and opportunities for every
Isher Judge Ahluwalia. 2016, April 20. Cities at Crossroads:
country, although it may not be uniform in every country. In
Setting cities free. The Indian Express. Retrieved from
India also, the urban population is increasing in good number,
http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/india-
but there exist a problem of infrastructure deficit, which was a
smart-city-project-amrut-mission-2761155/
big hurdle in the way of providing basic services to the people
Kundu, Amitabh. (2001). Infrastructure Financing And
and also more importantly the economic growth of the country.
Emerging Pattern Of Urbanisation: A Perspective.
Thus, it is the right time for our country, to think and act
Retrieved from http://planningcommission.nic.in/
seriously about the negative implications of the urbanization
reports/genrep/bkpap2020/9_bg2020.pdf
concept, and make it useful for the development of the country.
Maheshwari, S.R. 2006. Local Government in India. Agra:
But, urbanization needs to be sustainable in two counts i.e.
Lakshmi Narain Agarwal.
First, it is need to equally benefit all the people in the society
Menon S. Narayan & Mitra, Kanti Soumya. 2009. Special
i.e. socially inclusive and secondly, environmentally
Economic Zones: The Rationale, in Special Economic
sustainable.
Zones-Promise, Performance and Pending Issues. CPR
Occasional Paper Series. New Delhi: Centre for Policy
Also, generally the three important questions needs to be
Research.
answered by the future study on urbanization was, first question
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation,
is regarding, ‘what does urbanization mean for rural areas
Government of India. 2007. National Urban Housing and
needs to be explored’? The second question is ‘does
Habitat Policy-2007’. Retrieved from
urbanization leads to reduction in poverty rate is questionable’?
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/dvepa/housingpolicy2007.pdf
Thirdly, ‘are the developing and under-developing countries are
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. 2011.
prepared to handle their urban transition’? The answer to these
Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services. By
questions will help us to understand, the urbanization concept
High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) for estimating the
very well for the development of the any society and people
investment requirements for urban Infrastructure services,
living in it, including India.
2384 Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st Century

March. Retrieved from http://www.niua.org/projects/ Satterthwaite, David; Gordon, McGranahan and Tacoli, Cecilia.
hpec/finalreport_hpec.pdf 2010. Urbanization and its implications for food and
Mohan, Rakesh. 2012. Long Term Urban Transport Policy. farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
Centre for Policy Research, Urban Workshop organized on 365 (1554), 2809-2820. Retrieved from
May 29th. Retrieved from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/280
http://www.cprindia.org/sites/default/files/28_mohan.pdf 9.full.html#related-urls
National Crime Records Bureau. 2015. Accidental Deaths & Sethi, Nitin. 2012, August 2. Inequality rising in India, Shows
Suicides in India 2014. Ministry of Home Affairs, data on Spending. The Times of India. Retrieved
Government of India. Retrieved from fromhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Inequality-
http://www.ncrb.gov.in/. rising-in-India-shows-data-on-
Patkar, Medha. 2012, August 23. Nailing the lie of the Land. spending/articleshow/15319586.cms?prtpage=1
The Hindu. Retrieved from Shajan Binda Perappadan. 2012, August 6. Delhi the country’s
http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article3808362.ece Capital for crime against street children. The Hindu: New
Planning Commission, Government of India. 2011. Report of Delhi.
the Working Group on Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Singh, S.P. (2010). Rising food Inflation: Issue and Measures.
Delivery System. Steering Committee on Urbanization of Kurukshetra-A Journal on Rural Development, 58(6), 35.
Planning Commission. Singh, Satpal. (2004). Urban Poverty and Gender in India.
Press Information Bureau. 2012. Press Note on Poverty Nagarlok- An Urban Affairs Quarterly, 36(1), 1-3.
Estimates-2009-10. March 19, Government of India, Singhsodhi, Inderjeet. 2003. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Planning Commission. Renewal Mission-A Road to Urban Sector Reforms in
Punj, Deepshiksha. 2012, August 5. Urban Suicide-The New India. Nagarlok-An Urban Affairs Quarterly, 38(3), 8-9.
Killer. The Sunday Standard Magazine : New Delhi. Special Economic Zones in India. (2007) Retrieved August 4,
Ramachandran, M. (2011, October 1). Proper development 2012, from Department of Commerce, Ministry of
strategy needed for Indian cities and towns. The Economic Commerce and Industry, Government of India website,
Times. Retrieved from http://articles. http://www.sezindia.nic.in/addPolicy.asp
economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-10- Staff Reporter. 2012, August 6. Lajpat Nagar market kindling a
01/news/30233075_1_urban-development-urban-slum- revolution. The Hindu: New Delhi.
population-basic-facilities Staff Reporter. 2012, June 12. Parekh lambasts govt. on
Sadashivam, T. 2010. Climate Change and Its Impact: A Key urbanization. The Times of India. Retrieved from
Challenge for Humanity. University News, 48(25), 19-22. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-
Sadashivam, T. 2010a. Climate Change and Rural business/Parekh-lambasts-govt-on-
Development: The Challenge for Agricultural Dynamics. urbanisation/articleshow/14041064.cms
International Journal of Rural Studies, 17(2), 22.

*******