Schrödinger equation

In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is a mathematical equation that

describes the changes over time of a physical system in which quantum effects, such
as wave–particle duality, are significant. These systems are referred to as quantum
(mechanical) systems. The equation is considered a central result in the study of
quantum systems, and its derivation was a significant landmark in the development of
the theory of quantum mechanics. It was named after Erwin Schrödinger, who derived
the equation in 1925, and published it in 1926, forming the basis for his work that
resulted in him being awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1933.[1][2]

In classical mechanics, Newton's second law (F = ma) is used to make a

mathematical prediction as to what path a given physical system will take over time
following a set of known initial conditions. Solving this equation gives the position,
and the momentum of the physical system as a function of the external force F on the
system. Those two parameters are sufficient to describe its state at each time instant.In
quantum mechanics, the analogue of Newton's law is Schrödinger's equation for a
quantum system (usually atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles whether free,
bound, or localized). The equation is mathematically described as a linear partial
differential equation, which describes the time-evolution of the system'swave function Schrödinger equation as part of a
monument in front of Warsaw
(also called a "state function").[3]:1–2
University's Centre of New
The concept of a wave function is a fundamental postulate of quantum mechanics, that Technologies

defines the state of the system at each spatial position, and time. Using these
postulates, Schrödinger's equation can be derived from the fact that the time-evolution
operator must be unitary, and must therefore be generated by the exponential of a self-adjoint operator, which is the quantum
Hamiltonian. This derivation is explained below
.

In the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, the wave function is the most complete description that can be given of a
physical system. Solutions to Schrödinger's equation describe not onlymolecular, atomic, and subatomic systems, but also macroscopic
systems, possibly even the wholeuniverse.[4]:292ff Schrödinger's equation is central to all applications of quantum mechanics including
quantum field theory which combines special relativity with quantum mechanics. Theories of quantum gravity, such as string theory,
also do not modify Schrödinger's equation.

The Schrödinger equation is not the only way to study quantum mechanical systems and make predictions, as there are other quantum
mechanical formulations such asmatrix mechanics, introduced by Werner Heisenberg, and path integral formulation, developed chiefly
by Richard Feynman. Paul Dirac incorporated matrix mechanics and the Schrödinger equation into a single formulation.

Contents
Equation
Time-dependent equation
Time-independent equation
Derivation
Implications
Total, kinetic, and potential energy
Quantization
Measurement and uncertainty
 Quantum tunneling
Particles as waves
Many-worlds interpretation
Interpretation of the wave function
Historical background and development
The wave equation for particles
Consistency with energy conservation
Linearity
Consistency with the de Broglie relations
Wave and particle motion
Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics
Time-independent
One-dimensional examples
Three-dimensional examples
Time-dependent
Solution methods
Properties
Linearity
Momentum space Schrödinger equation
Real energy eigenstates
Space and time derivatives
Local conservation of probability
Positive energy
Analytic continuation to diffusion
Regularity
Relativistic quantum mechanics
Quantum field theory
First order form
See also
Notes
References
External links

Equation

Time-dependent equation
The form of the Schrödinger equation depends on the physical situation (see below for special cases). The most general form is the
[5]:143
time-dependent Schrödinger equation(TDSE), which gives a description of a system evolving with time:

Time-dependent Schrödinger equation (general)

d
where i is the imaginary unit, ħ is the reduced Planck constant , the symbol indicates a derivative with respect to time t, Ψ
dt
(the Greek letter psi) is the state vector of the quantum system, r and t are the position vector and time respectively, and Ĥ is the
Hamiltonian operator (which characterises the total energy of the system under consideration). The position-space wave functionof the
quantum system is nothing but the components in the expansion of the state vector in
terms of the position eigenvector . It is a scalar function, expressed as
. Similarly, the momentum-space wave function can be defined as
, where is the momentum eigenvector.

The most famous example is the nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation for the wave
function in the position basis of a single particle moving in a potential
A wave function that satisfies the
(for example, the electric field created by a second particle, usually much heavier, particle
nonrelativistic Schrödinger
(but not a magnetic field; see the Pauli equation):[6]) equation with V = 0 . In other
words, this corresponds to a
Time-dependent Schrödinger equation in position particle traveling freely through
basis empty space. The real part of the
(single nonrelativistic particle) wave function is plotted here.

where μ is the particle's "reduced mass", V is its potential energy, ∇2

is the Laplacian (a Differential Operator), and Ψ is the wave function
(more precisely, in this context, it is called the "position-space wave
function"). In plain language, it means "total energy equals kinetic
energy plus potential energy", but the terms take unfamiliar forms for
reasons explained below.

Given the particular differential operators involved, this is a linear

partial differential equation. It is also a diffusion equation, but unlike
the heat equation, this one is also a wave equation given the imaginary
unit present in the transient term.

The term "Schrödinger equation" can refer to both the general Each of these three rows is a wave function which
equation, or the specific nonrelativistic version. The general equation is satisfies the time-dependent Schrödinger equation
indeed quite general, used throughout quantum mechanics, for for a harmonic oscillator. Left: The real part (blue)
and imaginary part (red) of the wave function.
everything from the Dirac equation to quantum field theory, by
Right: The probability distribution of finding the
plugging in diverse expressions for the Hamiltonian. The specific particle with this wave function at a given position.
nonrelativistic version is a strictly classical approximation to reality The top two rows are examples ofstationary
and yields accurate results in many situations, but only to a certain states, which correspond to standing waves. The
extent (see relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum bottom row is an example of a state which isnot a
field theory). stationary state. The right column illustrates why
stationary states are called "stationary".
To apply the Schrödinger equation, the Hamiltonian operator is set up
for the system, accounting for the kinetic and potential energy of the
particles constituting the system, then inserted into the Schrödinger equation. The resulting partial differential equation is solved for the
wave function, which contains information about the system.

Time-independent equation
The time-dependent Schrödinger equation described above predicts that wave functions can form standing waves, called stationary
states (also called "orbitals", as inatomic orbitals or molecular orbitals). These states are particularly important as their individual study
later simplifies the task of solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for any state. Stationary states can also be described by a
simpler form of the Schrödinger equation, thetime-independent Schrödinger equation(TISE).

Time-independent Schrödinger equation (general)

where E is a constant equal to the total energy of the system. This is only used when the Hamiltonian itself is not dependent on time
explicitly. However, even in this case the total wave function still has a time dependency
.

In words, the equation states:

When the Hamiltonian operator acts on a certain wave function Ψ, and the result is
proportional to the same wave function Ψ, then Ψ is a stationary state, and the
proportionality constant, E, is the energy of the state Ψ.

In linear algebra terminology, this equation is an eigenvalue equation and in this sense the wave function is an eigenfunction of the
Hamiltonian operator.

As before, the most common manifestation is the nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation for a single particle moving in an electric field
(but not a magnetic field):

Time-independent Schrödinger equation (single nonrelativistic particle)

with definitions as above.

The time-independent Schrödinger equation is discussed furtherbelow.

Derivation
[7] If the wave-function at time t
In the modern understanding of quantum mechanics, Schrödinger's equation may be derived as follows.
is given by , then by the linearity of quantum mechanics the wave-function at time t' must be given by ,
where is a linear operator. Since time-evolution must preserve the norm of the wave-function, it follows that must be
a member of the unitary group of operators acting on wave-functions. We also know that when , we must have .
Therefore, expanding the operator for t' close to t, we can write where H is a Hermitian operator.
This follows from the fact that the Lie algebra corresponding to the unitary group comprises Hermitian operators. Taking the limit as
the time-difference becomes very small, we obtain Schrödinger's equation.

So far, H is only an abstract Hermitian operator. However using the correspondence principleit is possible to show that, in the classical
limit, the expectation value of H is indeed the classical energy. The correspondence principle does not completely fix the form of the
quantum Hamiltonian due to the uncertainty principle and therefore the precise form of the quantum Hamiltonian must be fixed
empirically.

Implications
The Schrödinger equation and its solutions introduced a breakthrough in thinking about physics. Schrödinger's equation was the first of
its type, and solutions led to consequences that were very unusual and unexpected for the time.

Total, kinetic, and potential energy

The overall form of the equation is not unusual or unexpected, as it uses the principle of the conservation of energy. The terms of the
nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation can be interpreted as total energy of the system, equal to the system kinetic energy plus the system
potential energy. In this respect, it is just the same as in classical physics.
Quantization
The Schrödinger equation predicts that if certain properties of a system are measured, the result may be quantized, meaning that only
specific discrete values can occur. One example is energy quantization: the energy of an electron in an atom is always one of the
quantized energy levels, a fact discovered via atomic spectroscopy. (Energy quantization is discussed below.) Another example is
quantization of angular momentum. This was an assumption in the earlier Bohr model of the atom, but it is a prediction of the
Schrödinger equation.

Another result of the Schrödinger equation is that not every measurement gives a quantized result in quantum mechanics. For example,
gy can have any value across a continuous range.[8]:165–167
position, momentum, time, and (in some situations) ener

Measurement and uncertainty

In classical mechanics, a particle has, at every moment, an exact position and an exact momentum. These values change
deterministically as the particle moves according to Newton's laws. Under the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics,
particles do not have exactly determined properties, and when they are measured, the result is randomly drawn from a probability
distribution. The Schrödinger equation predicts what the probability distributions are, but fundamentally cannot predict the exact result
of each measurement.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is the statement of the inherent measurement uncertainty in quantum mechanics. It states that the
more precisely a particle's position is known, the less precisely its momentum is known, and vice versa.

The Schrödinger equation describes the (deterministic) evolution of thewave function of a particle. However, even if the wave function
is known exactly, the result of a specific measurement on the wave function is uncertain.

Quantum tunneling
In classical physics, when a ball is rolled slowly up a large hill, it will come to a stop
and roll back, because it doesn't have enough energy to get over the top of the hill to
the other side. However, the Schrödinger equation predicts that there is a small
probability that the ball will get to the other side of the hill, even if it has too little
energy to reach the top. This is called quantum tunneling. It is related to the
distribution of energy: although the ball's assumed position seems to be on one side of Quantum tunneling through a barrier.
the hill, there is a chance of finding it on the other side. A particle coming from the left does
not have enough energy to climb the
barrier. However, it can sometimes
Particles as waves "tunnel" to the other side.
The nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation is a type of partial differential equation
called a wave equation. Therefore, it is often said particles can exhibit behavior
usually attributed to waves. In some modern interpretations this description is reversed – the quantum state, i.e. wave, is the only
genuine physical reality, and under the appropriate conditions it can show features of particle-like behavior. However,
Ballentine[9]:Chapter 4, p.99 shows that such an interpretation has problems. Ballentine points out that whilst it is guable
ar to associate a
physical wave with a single particle, there is still onlyone Schrödinger wave equation for many particles. He points out:

"If a physical wave field were associated with a particle, or if a particle were identified with a
wave packet, then corresponding to N interacting particles there should be N interacting
waves in ordinary three-dimensional space. But according to (4.6) that is not the case; instead
there is one "wave" function in an abstract 3N-dimensional configuration space. The
misinterpretation of psi as a physical wave in ordinary space is possible only because the
most common applications of quantum mechanics are to one-particle states, for which
configuration space and ordinary space are isomorphic."
Two-slit diffraction is a famous example of the strange behaviors that waves regularly display,
that are not intuitively associated with particles. The overlapping waves from the two slits
cancel each other out in some locations, and reinforce each other in other locations, causing a
complex pattern to emerge. Intuitively, one would not expect this pattern from firing a single
particle at the slits, because the particle should pass through one slit or the other, not a complex
overlap of both.

However, since the Schrödinger equation is a wave equation, a single particle fired through a
double-slit does show this same pattern (figure on right). Note: The experiment must be
repeated many times for the complex pattern to emerge. Although this is counterintuitive, the
prediction is correct; in particular, electron diffraction and neutron diffraction are well
understood and widely used in science and engineering.

Related to diffraction, particles also displaysuperposition and interference.

The superposition property allows the particle to be in a quantum superposition of two or more
quantum states at the same time. However, it is noted that a "quantum state" in quantum
mechanics means the probability that a system will be, for example at a position x, not that the
system will actually be at position x. It does not imply that the particle itself may be in two
classical states at once. Indeed, quantum mechanics is generally unable to assign values for
properties prior to measurement at all.

Many-worlds interpretation
In Dublin in 1952 Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in which at one point he jocularly warned
his audience that what he was about to say might "seem lunatic". It was that, when his
equations seem to be describing several different histories, they are "not alternatives but all A double slit experiment
really happen simultaneously". This is the earliest known reference to the many-worlds showing the accumulation of
interpretation of quantum mechanics.[10] electrons on a screen as time
passes.

Interpretation of the wave function

The Schrödinger equation provides a way to calculate the wave function of a system and how it changes dynamically in time. However,
the Schrödinger equation does not directly say what, exactly, the wave function is. Interpretations of quantum mechanics address
questions such as what the relation is between the wave function, the underlying reality
, and the results of experimental measurements.

An important aspect is the relationship between the Schrödinger equation and wave function collapse. In the oldest Copenhagen
interpretation, particles follow the Schrödinger equation except during wave function collapse, during which they behave entirely
differently. The advent of quantum decoherence theoryallowed alternative approaches (such as the Everett many-worlds interpretation
and consistent histories), wherein the Schrödinger equation is always satisfied, and wave function collapse should be explained as a
consequence of the Schrödinger equation.

Historical background and development

Following Max Planck's quantization of light (see black body radiation), Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quanta to be photons,
particles of light, and proposed that the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency, one of the first signs of wave–particle
duality. Since energy and momentum are related in the same way as frequency and wavenumber in special relativity, it followed that
the momentum p of a photon is inversely proportional to itswavelength λ, or proportional to itswavenumber k:
where h is Planck's constant and ħ is the reduced Planck constant, h/2π . Louis de
Broglie hypothesized that this is true for all particles, even particles which have mass
such as electrons. He showed that, assuming that the matter waves propagate along
with their particle counterparts, electrons form standing waves, meaning that only
certain discrete rotational frequencies about the nucleus of an atom are allowed.[11]
These quantized orbits correspond to discreteenergy levels, and de Broglie reproduced
the Bohr model formula for the energy levels. The Bohr model was based on the
assumed quantization of angular momentumL according to:

According to de Broglie the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of

wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit:

Erwin Schrödinger

This approach essentially confined the electron wave in one dimension, along a
circular orbit of radiusr.

In 1921, prior to de Broglie, Arthur C. Lunn at the University of Chicago had used the same argument based on the completion of the
relativistic energy–momentum 4-vector to derive what we now call the de Broglie relation.[12] Unlike de Broglie, Lunn went on to
formulate the differential equation now known as the Schrödinger equation, and solve for its energy eigenvalues for the hydrogen atom.
, as recounted by Kamen.[13]
Unfortunately the paper was rejected by the Physical Review

Following up on de Broglie's ideas, physicist Peter Debye made an offhand comment that if particles behaved as waves, they should
satisfy some sort of wave equation. Inspired by Debye's remark, Schrödinger decided to find a proper 3-dimensional wave equation for
the electron. He was guided byWilliam R. Hamilton's analogy between mechanics and optics, encoded in the observation that the zero-
wavelength limit of optics resembles a mechanical system—the trajectories of light rays become sharp tracks that obey Fermat's
principle, an analog of the principle of least action.[14] A modern version of his reasoning is reproduced below. The equation he found
is:[15]

However, by that time, Arnold Sommerfeld had refined the Bohr model with relativistic corrections.[16][17] Schrödinger used the
relativistic energy momentum relation to find what is now known as the Klein–Gordon equation in a Coulomb potential (in natural
units):

He found the standing waves of this relativistic equation, but the relativistic corrections disagreed with Sommerfeld's formula.
[18]
Discouraged, he put away his calculations and secluded himself in an isolated mountain cabin in December 1925.

While at the cabin, Schrödinger decided that his earlier nonrelativistic calculations were novel enough to publish, and decided to leave
off the problem of relativistic corrections for the future. Despite the difficulties in solving the differential equation for hydrogen (he had
sought help from his friend the mathematician Hermann Weyl[19]:3) Schrödinger showed that his nonrelativistic version of the wave
equation produced the correct spectral energies of hydrogen in a paper published in 1926.[19]:1[20] In the equation, Schrödinger
computed the hydrogen spectral seriesby treating a hydrogen atom's electron as a wave Ψ(x, t), moving in a potential well V, created
by the proton. This computation accurately reproduced the energy levels of the Bohr model. In a paper, Schrödinger himself explained
this equation as follows:

“ ”
 “ The already ... mentioned psi-function.... is now the means for predicting probability of
measurement results. In it is embodied the momentarily attained sum of theoretically ”
based future expectation, somewhat as laid down in a catalog.
— Erwin Schrödinger[21]
This 1926 paper was enthusiastically endorsed by Einstein, who saw the matter-waves as an intuitive depiction of nature, as opposed to
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, which he considered overly formal.[22]

The Schrödinger equation details the behavior ofΨ but says nothing of itsnature. Schrödinger tried to interpret it as a charge density in
his fourth paper, but he was unsuccessful.[23]:219 In 1926, just a few days after Schrödinger's fourth and final paper was published,
Max Born successfully interpreted Ψ as the probability amplitude, whose absolute square is equal to probability density.[23]:220
Schrödinger, though, always opposed a statistical or probabilistic approach, with its associated discontinuities—much like Einstein,
who believed that quantum mechanics was a statistical approximation to an underlying
deterministic theory—and never reconciled with
the Copenhagen interpretation.[24]

Louis de Broglie in his later years proposed a real valued wave function connected to the complex wave function by a proportionality
constant and developed theDe Broglie–Bohm theory.

The wave equation for particles

The Schrödinger equation is a variation on the diffusion equation where the diffusion constant is imaginary. A spike of heat will decay
in amplitude and spread out; however, because the imaginary i is the generator of rotations in the complex plane, a spike in the
amplitude of a matter wave will also rotate in the complex plane over time. The solutions are therefore functions which describe wave-
like motions. Wave equations in physics can normally be derived from other physical laws – the wave equation for mechanical
vibrations on strings and in matter can be derived from Newton's laws, where the wave function represents the displacement of matter,
and electromagnetic waves from Maxwell's equations, where the wave functions are electric and magnetic fields. The basis for
Schrödinger's equation, on the other hand, is the energy of the system and a separate postulate of quantum mechanics: the wave
function is a description of the system.[25] The Schrödinger equation is therefore a new concept in itself; as Feynman put it:

“ Where did we get that (equation) from? Nowhere. It is not possible to derive it from
anything you know. It came out of the mind of Schrödinger. ”
— Richard Feynman[26]
The foundation of the equation is structured to be a linear differential equation based on classical energy conservation, and consistent
with the De Broglie relations. The solution is the wave function ψ, which contains all the information that can be known about the
system. In the Copenhagen interpretation, the modulus of ψ is related to the probability the particles are in some spatial configuration
at some instant of time. Solving the equation for ψ can be used to predict how the particles will behave under the influence of the
specified potential and with each other.

The Schrödinger equation was developed principally from theDe Broglie hypothesis, a wave equation that would describe particles,[27]
and can be constructed as shown informally in the following sections.[28] For a more rigorous description of Schrödinger's equation,
see also Resnick et al.[29]

Consistency with energy conservation

The total energy E of a particle is the sum of kinetic energy T and potential energy V, this sum is also the frequent expression for the
Hamiltonian H in classical mechanics:

Explicitly, for a particle in one dimension with position x, mass m and momentum p, and potential energy V which generally varies
with position and time t:
For three dimensions, theposition vector r and momentum vectorp must be used:

This formalism can be extended to any fixed number of particles: the total energy of the system is then the total kinetic energies of the
particles, plus the total potential energy, again the Hamiltonian. However, there can be interactions between the particles (an N-body
problem), so the potential energy V can change as the spatial configuration of particles changes, and possibly with time. The potential
energy, in general, is not the sum of the separate potential energies for each particle, it is a function of all the spatial positions of the
particles. Explicitly:

Linearity
The simplest wave function is aplane wave of the form:

where the A is the amplitude, k the wavevector, and ω the angular frequency, of the plane wave. In general, physical situations are not
purely described by plane waves, so for generality the superposition principle is required; any wave can be made by superposition of
sinusoidal plane waves. So if the equation is linear, a linear combination of plane waves is also an allowed solution. Hence a necessary
and separate requirement is that the Schrödinger equation is alinear differential equation.

For discrete k the sum is a superposition of plane waves:

for some real amplitude coefficients An, and for continuous k the sum becomes an integral, the Fourier transform of a momentum
space wave function:[30]

where d3k = dkxdkydkz is the differential volume element in k-space, and the integrals are taken over all k-space. The momentum
wave function Φ(k) arises in the integrand since the position and momentum space wave functions are Fourier transforms of each
other.

Consistency with the de Broglie relations

Einstein's light quanta hypothesis (1905) states that the energy E of a photon is proportional to the frequency ν (or angular frequency,
ω = 2πν) of the corresponding quantum wavepacket of light:
Likewise De Broglie's hypothesis (1924) states that any particle can be
associated with a wave, and that the momentum p of the particle is
inversely proportional to the wavelength λ of such a wave (or
2π
proportional to the wavenumber, k = ), in one dimension, by:
λ

while in three dimensions, wavelength λ is related to the magnitude of

the wavevector k:

The Planck–Einstein and de Broglie relations illuminate the deep Diagrammatic summary of the quantities related to
the wave function, as used in De broglie's
connections between energy with time, and space with momentum, and
hypothesis and development of the Schrödinger
express wave–particle duality. In practice, natural units comprising
equation.[27]
ħ = 1 are used, as the De Broglie equations reduce to identities:
allowing momentum, wavenumber, energy and frequency to be used
interchangeably, to prevent duplication of quantities, and reduce the number of dimensions of related quantities. For familiarity SI units
are still used in this article.

Schrödinger's insight, late in 1925, was to express thephase of a plane wave as a complex phase factor using these relations:

and to realize that the first orderpartial derivatives were:

with respect to space:

with respect to time:

Another postulate of quantum mechanics is that all observables are represented by linear Hermitian operators which act on the wave
function, and the eigenvalues of the operator are the values the observable takes. The previous derivatives are consistent with the
energy operator, corresponding to the time derivative,

where E are the energy eigenvalues, and the momentum operator, corresponding to the spatial derivatives (thegradient ∇),

where p is a vector of the momentum eigenvalues. In the above, the "hats" ( ˆ ) indicate these observables are operators, not simply
ordinary numbers or vectors. The energy and momentum operators are differential operators, while the potential energy function V is
just a multiplicative factor.

Substituting the energy and momentum operatorsinto the classical energy conservation equation obtains the operator:
so in terms of derivatives with respect to time and space, acting this operator on the wave function Ψ immediately led Schrödinger to
his equation:

Wave–particle duality can be assessed from these equations as follows. The kinetic energy T is related to the square of momentum p.
As the particle's momentum increases, the kinetic energy increases more rapidly, but since the wavenumber |k| increases the
wavelength λ decreases. In terms of ordinary scalar and vector quantities (not operators):

The kinetic energy is also proportional to the second spatial derivatives, so it is also proportional to the magnitude of the curvature of
the wave, in terms of operators:

As the curvature increases, the amplitude of the wave alternates between positive and negative more rapidly, and also shortens the
wavelength. So the inverse relation between momentum and wavelength is consistent with the energy the particle has, and so the
energy of the particle has a connection to a wave,all in the same mathematical formulation.[27]

Wave and particle motion

Increasing levels of wavepacket localization, meaning the particle has a more localized position.

In the limit ħ → 0, the particle's position and momentum become known exactly
. This is equivalent to the classical
particle.
Schrödinger required that a wave packet solution near position r with wavevector near k will move along the trajectory determined by
classical mechanics for times short enough for the spread in k (and hence in velocity) not to substantially increase the spread in r.
Since, for a given spread in k, the spread in velocity is proportional to Planck's constant ħ, it is sometimes said that in the limit as ħ
approaches zero, the equations of classical mechanics are restored from quantum mechanics.[31] Great care is required in how that limit
is taken, and in what cases.

The limiting short-wavelength is equivalent to ħ tending to zero because this is limiting case of increasing the wave packet localization
to the definite position of the particle (see images right). Using the Heisenberg uncertainty principle for position and momentum, the
products of uncertainty in position and momentum become zero asħ → 0 :

where σ denotes the (root mean square) measurement uncertainty in x and px (and similarly for the y and z directions) which implies
the position and momentum can only be known to arbitrary precision in this limit.

One simple way to compare classical to quantum mechanics is to consider the time-evolution of the expected position and expected
momentum, which can then be compared to the time-evolution of the ordinary position and momentum in classical mechanics. The
quantum expectation values satisfy the Ehrenfest theorem. For a one-dimensional quantum particle moving in a potential , the
Ehrenfest theorem says[32]

Although the first of these equations is consistent with the classical behavior, the second is not: If the pair were to satisfy
Newton's second law, the right-hand side of the second equation would have to be

which is typically not the same as . In the case of the quantum harmonic oscillator, however, is linear and this
distinction disappears, so that in this very special case, the expected position and expected momentum do exactly follow the classical
trajectories.

For general systems, the best we can hope for is that the expected position and momentum will approximately follow the classical
trajectories. If the wave function is highly concentrated around a point , then and will be almost the same, since
both will be approximately equal to . In that case, the expected position and expected momentum will remain very close to the
classical trajectories, at least for as long as the wave function remains highly localized in position.[33] When Planck's constant is small,
it is possible to have a state that is well localized in both position and momentum. The small uncertainty in momentum ensures that the
particle remains well localized in position for a long time, so that expected position and momentum continue to closely track the
classical trajectories.

The Schrödinger equation in its general form

is closely related to theHamilton–Jacobi equation(HJE)

where S is action and H is the Hamiltonian function (not operator). Here the generalized coordinates qi for i = 1, 2, 3 (used in the
context of the HJE) can be set to the position in Cartesian coordinates asr = (q1, q2, q3) = (x, y, z).[31]
Substituting

where ρ is the probability density, into the Schrödinger equation and then taking the limit ħ → 0 in the resulting equation, yields the
Hamilton–Jacobi equation.

The implications are as follows:

The motion of a particle, described by a (short-wavelength) wave packet solution to the Schrödinger equation, is also
described by the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of motion.
The Schrödinger equation includes the wave function, so its wave packet solution implies the position of a (quantum)
particle is fuzzily spread out in wave fronts. On the contrary
, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation applies to a (classical)
particle of definite position and momentum, instead the position and momentum at all times (the trajectory) are
deterministic and can be simultaneously known.

Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics

The quantum mechanics of particles without accounting for the effects of special relativity, for example particles propagating at speeds
much less than light, is known as nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. Following are several forms of Schrödinger's equation in this
context for different situations: time independence and dependence, one and three spatial dimensions, and one andN particles.

In actuality, the particles constituting the system do not have the numerical labels used in theory. The language of mathematics forces
us to label the positions of particles one way or another, otherwise there would be confusion between symbols representing which
variables are for which particle.[29]

Time-independent
If the Hamiltonian is not an explicit function of time, the equation is separable into a product of spatial and temporal parts. In general,
the wave function takes the form:

where ψ(space coords) is a function of all the spatial coordinate(s) of the particle(s) constituting the system only, and τ(t) is a
function of time only.

Substituting for ψ into the Schrödinger equation for the relevant number of particles in the relevant number of dimensions, solving by
[15]
separation of variablesimplies the general solution of the time-dependent equation has the form:

Since the time dependent phase factor is always the same, only the spatial part needs to be solved for in time independent problems.
∂
Additionally, the energy operator Ê = iħ can always be replaced by the energy eigenvalue E, thus the time independent Schrödinger
∂t
equation is an eigenvalue equation for the Hamiltonian operator:[5]:143ff

This is true for any number of particles in any number of dimensions (in a time independent potential). This case describes the standing
wave solutions of the time-dependent equation, which are the states with definite energy (instead of a probability distribution of
different energies). In physics, these standing waves are called "stationary states" or "energy eigenstates"; in chemistry they are called
"atomic orbitals" or "molecular orbitals". Superpositions of energy eigenstates change their properties according to the relative phases
between the energy levels.
The energy eigenvalues from this equation form a discrete spectrum of values, so mathematically energy must be quantized. More
specifically, the energy eigenstates form a basis – any wave function may be written as a sum over the discrete energy states or an
integral over continuous energy states, or more generally as an integral over a measure. This is the spectral theorem in mathematics,
and in a finite state space it is just a statement of the completeness of the eigenvectors of Hermitian
a matrix.

One-dimensional examples
For a particle in one dimension, the Hamiltonian is:

and substituting this into the general Schrödinger equation gives:

This is the only case the Schrödinger equation is an ordinary differential equation, rather than a partial differential equation. The
general solutions are always of the form:

For N particles in one dimension, the Hamiltonian is:

where the position of particlen is xn. The corresponding Schrödinger equation is:

so the general solutions have the form:

For non-interacting distinguishable particles,[34] the potential of the system only influences each particle separately, so the total
potential energy is the sum of potential energies for each particle:

and the wave function can be written as a product of the wave functions for each particle:

For non-interacting identical particles, the potential is still a sum, but wave function is a bit more complicated – it is a sum over the
permutations of products of the separate wave functions to account for particle exchange. In general for interacting particles, the above
decompositions are not possible.
Free particle
For no potential, V = 0 , so the particle is free and the equation reads:[5]:151ff

which has oscillatory solutions forE > 0 (the Cn are arbitrary constants):

and exponential solutions forE < 0

The exponentially growing solutions have an infinite norm, and are not physical. They are not allowed in a finite volume with periodic
or fixed boundary conditions.

See also free particle and wavepacket for more discussion on the free particle.

Constant potential
For a constant potential, V = V0, the solution is oscillatory for E > V0 and exponential for
E < V0, corresponding to energies that are allowed or disallowed in classical mechanics.
Oscillatory solutions have a classically allowed energy and correspond to actual classical
motions, while the exponential solutions have a disallowed energy and describe a small amount
of quantum bleeding into the classically disallowed region, due to quantum tunneling. If the
potential V0 grows to infinity, the motion is classically confined to a finite region. Viewed far
enough away, every solution is reduced to an exponential; the condition that the exponential is
decreasing restricts the energy levels to a discrete set, called the allowed energies.[30]

Harmonic oscillator
The Schrödinger equation for this situation is

It is a notable quantum system to solve for; since the solutions are exact (but complicated – in terms of Hermite polynomials), and it
can describe or at least approximate a wide variety of other systems, including vibrating atoms, molecules,[35] and atoms or ions in
lattices,[36] and approximating other potentials near equilibrium points. It is also the basis of perturbation methods in quantum
mechanics.

There is a family of solutions – in the position basis they are

where n = 0,1,2,... , and the functions Hn are the Hermite polynomials.

Three-dimensional examples
The extension from one dimension to three dimensions is
straightforward, all position and momentum operators are replaced by
their three-dimensional expressions and the partial derivative with
respect to space is replaced by thegradient operator.

The Hamiltonian for one particle in three dimensions is:

generating the equation:

with stationary state solutions of the form:

where the position of the particle is r. Two useful coordinate systems

for solving the Schrödinger equation are Cartesian coordinates so that A harmonic oscillator in classical mechanics (A–B)
r = (x, y, z) and spherical polar coordinates so that r = (r, θ, φ), and quantum mechanics (C–H). In (A–B), a ball,
although other orthogonal coordinates are useful for solving the attached to a spring, oscillates back and forth. (C–
equation for systems with certain geometric symmetries. H) are six solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for
this situation. The horizontal axis is position, the
For N particles in three dimensions, the Hamiltonian is: vertical axis is the real part (blue) or imaginary part
(red) of the wave function. Stationary states, or
energy eigenstates, which are solutions to the
time-independent Schrödinger equation, are shown
in C, D, E, F, but not G or H.

where the position of particlen is rn and the gradient operators are partial derivatives with respect to the particle's position coordinates.
In Cartesian coordinates, for particle n, the position vector is rn = (xn, yn, zn) while the gradient and Laplacian operator are
respectively:

The Schrödinger equation is:

with stationary state solutions:

Again, for non-interacting distinguishable particles the potential is the sum of particle potentials
and the wave function is a product of the particle wave functions

For non-interacting identical particles, the potential is a sum but the wave function is a sum over permutations of products. The
previous two equations do not apply to interacting particles.

Following are examples where exact solutions are known. See the main articles for further details.

Hydrogen atom
This form of the Schrödinger equation can be applied to thehydrogen atom:[25][27]

where e is the electron charge, r is the position of the electron relative to the nucleus r( = |r| is the magnitude of the relative position),
the potential term is due to theCoulomb interaction, wherein ε0 is the electric constant (permittivity of free space) and

is the 2-body reduced mass of the hydrogen nucleus (just a proton) of mass mp and the electron of massme. The negative sign arises in
the potential term since the proton and electron are oppositely charged. The reduced mass in place of the electron mass is used since the
electron and proton together orbit each other about a common centre of mass, and constitute a two-body problem to solve. The motion
of the electron is of principle interest here, so the equivalent one-body problem is the motion of the electron using the reduced mass.

The wave function for hydrogen is a function of the electron's coordinates, and in fact can be separated into functions of each
coordinate.[37] Usually this is done inspherical polar coordinates:

m
where R are radial functions and Yℓ (θ, φ) are spherical harmonics of degree ℓ and order m. This is the only atom for which the
Schrödinger equation has been solved for exactly [38]
. Multi-electron atoms require approximative methods. The family of solutions are:

where:

is the Bohr radius,

are the generalized Laguerre polynomialsof degree n − ℓ − 1 .

n, ℓ, m are the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic quantum numbers respectively: which take the values:
NB: generalized Laguerre polynomialsare defined differently by different authors—see main article on them and the hydrogen atom.

Two-electron atoms or ions

The equation for any two-electron system, such as the neutral helium atom (He, Z = 2 ), the negative hydrogen ion (H−, Z = 1), or the
positive lithium ion (Li+, Z = 3 ) is:[28]

where r1 is the relative position of one electron (r1 = |r1 | is its relative magnitude), r2 is the relative position of the other electron
(r2 = |r2| is the magnitude), r12 = |r12 | is the magnitude of the separation between them given by

μ is again the two-body reduced mass of an electron with respect to the nucleus of mass
M, so this time

and Z is the atomic number for the element (not aquantum number).

The cross-term of two laplacians