1 DVS Prinsiples & Practice of Marine Diesel Engines 85 (Turbo)

PRINCIPLES 8.
PRACTICE
OF
MARINE DIESEL ENGINES
by
D.K. Sanyal
A tHANDAfKAR PUBLICATION
PRINCIPLES &< PRACTICE
OF
PlESEf ENGI4ES
Preface
Over the years of the Author's experience in teaching marine
diesel engines, the real necessity of presenting a comprehensive
treatise of diesel engines from the point of view of students has
been strongly felt. The marine engineer's education right from the
beginning to the professional level is practical biased. Unless
the basic engineering principles involved are properly emphasised,
a clear picture of the diesel engine remains obscure to him. The
book is an attempt in that direction. In planning the work, the
chapters have been devised to unify those diverse functions which
are common to all diesel engines. An unified treatment to the
subject has been given all through with demonstrative examples
from the current marine diesel engine practice. Common running
problems have also been discussed. At the end, the students are
introduced to some typical modern-day marine diesel engines.
The book is intended for use as a text book in basic courses

in marine diesel engine theory and practice. Candidates who wish
to take up professional Certificate of Competency examinations
for sea going marine engineers and A.M.I.E. examination in
marine engineering would find the book particularly useful.
The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution by

those firms who have supplied valuable technological information
as regards the machinery and equipments made by them and
given consent to reproduce portions of data or illustrations which
the author deemed fit for the purpose of the book. Those firms
whose references have appeared in the book are listed below:
Sulzer Brothers Ltd.

Burmeister & Wain.
M.A.N. Diesel Engines
Doxford Engines Limited.
Second Edition
June.1981.
Reprint Aug. 1990
Price Rs.
Copyright © all rights reserved
Published by V.K. Bhandarkar of Bhandarkar Publications D-46,

Jyoti Sadan, S.T. Road, B'bay and Printed by Samarth Process
109. Alankar Industrial Estate.Bombay - 63.
SEMT — Pielstick
Woodward Governor Company
EUR — Control
SorenT. Lyngso.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. K.S.

Subramaniam, Director, Marine Engineering Training (since
retired) for his encouragement to undertake such a work. Thanks
are also due to Mr. W. Salewaski, MAN Engineer at Calcutta
and colleagues of Marine Engineering Colleges at Calcutta and
Bombay for their very valuable counsel.
I
D.K. Sanyal
Preface to 2nd Edition
This edition has been enlarged by new additions Changes are

made at many places in the text with a view to present the subject
with additional information where such additions were found
necessary. Matters at some places are re-written clearing up
points for better understanding. It is hoped that the students and
professionals will find the book informative as well as descriptive.
The author acknowledges with flianks the B.B.C. Brown

Boveri Company Ltd. Baden, Switzerland for providing technical
information on turbocharges of their produce and permitting to
print their illustrations.
The author acknowledges the following as source of illust-

rations in this book:
Sulzer Bros. Ltd. RD, RND, RNM, RLA &

A & AS engines.
MAN KZE.KZB and VV 40/45

engines.
B&W K-GF engine
Pielstick PC 2 engine
EUR-CONTROL Viscosity & Temperature
Controller
Dox Ford J - engine
D.K. Sany«l.
Contents
BASIC THEORY
Pa
CHAPTER 1. «e
Theoretical cycles 1
Otto cycle or the constant volume cycle 2
Diesel cycle 4
Dual combustion cycle 5
Comparison cf cycles 7
The actual cycle 8
The working cycles 9
Compression Ratio 12
Engine dimensions 14
Mean Piston speed 17
Engine Weight 19
Mechanical efficiency 20
Power ratings 21
Engine Testing 24
Brake Power 25
Indicated Power 26
Test code 29
Output measurement 31
FUELS & COMBUSTION
CHAPTER 2.
Flash point 34
Specific gravity 35
Viscosity 37
Chemical Composition 38
Carbon residue 40
CHAPTER 2 Page
Asphaltic matter 40
Combustion Chamber 44
Fuel oil system 48
AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
CHAPTER3
Type of scavenging 53
Supercharging 55
Pulse system & Turbine Operation 57
Exhaust Grouping I 59
Constant pressure Turbocharging 61
Compressor 72
The intercooler 83
FUEL INJECTION EQUIPMENTS
CHAPTER 4.
Common rail system 88

Fuel setting 91
Injection pump 93
Fuel cam 100
Drive for Camshaft 103
Chain Drive 104
Setting of the fuel pump 108
Adjustment of fuel pump 112
Gas compressor system 129
Fuel injection valve 131
Injectors setting 135
ANALYSIS OF DIESEL ENGINE STRESSES
CHAPTERS.
Stress & strain 136

Brittle fracture 137
Fatigue 138
CHAPTER 5 Page
Engine Dynamical system 148
The Firing sequence ISO
Vibration 152
LUBSICAHON IN DIESEL ENGINES
CHAPTER 6.
Oiliness 163
Diesel Engine Journal bearing 164
Crosshead Bearing 165
Cylinder lubrication | 166
Treatment of oil 182
DIESEL ENGINE COMPONENTS
CHAPTER?. i
Crankshaft 190
Material of construction 191
Crankshaft alignment 196
Dial deflection Gauge 196
Crankshaft deflection reading 202
Crankshaft failure 206
Piston cooling 219
Piston ring 220
Overhauling of Piston 224
Overheated piston 226
Oil scrapper rings 228
Cylinder liner 229
Chrome plated ring 232
Cylinder Liner 2iS
Diesel Engine Bearing *M
Large bearings 246
Defects in bearings 249
GOVERNORS
CHAPTER 8. Page
Governor Characteristic 264
Droop 265
Overspeed Governor 269
Hydraulic Governors 271
Basic Governor Function 274
STARTING AND REVERSING
CHAPTER 9. '
Master air starting valve 283

Air Starting valve (MAN) 286
Distributor 287
MAN starting control system 292
Starting System SULZER 294
Air Bottle 302
MAINTENANCE OF DIESEL ENGINES
CHAPTER 10.
Overhaul Intervals 306

Indicator Diagrams 306
Draw Diagrams 311
Slope of the Combustion curve 313
Detection of fault by Indicator diagram 317
Cooling water 321
AUTOMATION IN DIESEL ENGINE
CHAPTER 11.
Viscosity Controller 330

Cooling water circuit 334
Alarm System 339
CHAPTER 14 Page
Lubricating oil system 450
Power transmission to propeller 454
THE GAS TURBINE

CHAPTER 15.
The Gas Turbine 459

Nfarine Application of Gas Turbine 463
L.P. Compressor 464
i
Miscellaneous Questions 470
CHAPTER 14 Page
Lubricating oil system 450
Power transmission to propeller 454
THE GAS TURBINE

CHAPTER 15.
The Gas Turbine 459

Nfarine Application of Gas Turbine 463
L.P. Compressor 464
i
Miscellaneous Questions 470
Rg No. Title Page No.
(49) Sulzer RND Fuel Pump 111

(50) Operation of Fuel Pump 113
(51) Fuel Pump setting 115
(52) Fuel Pump (MAN) 117
(53) Fuel Pumps setting diagram 118
(54) Determination of TDClift 119
(55) Plunger with helix at both ends 121
(56) Fuel Pump (pielstick) 122
(57) Fuelpump (fi AW) 124
(58) Governor connection with fuel-pump 127
(59) Governor connection with fuel-pump {Sulzer) 128
(60) Gas compression Fuel pump 129
(61) Cam operated Fuel valve 130
(62) (a) HydraulkaUy operated Fuel Valve 132
(*) HydraulicaUy operated fuel Valve 134
CHAPTER 5
(63) Transition Temperature of M.S. from

Charpys V-notch test. 137
(64) Stress cycle diagram complete stress reversal 138
(65) Cyclic Stress variation 139
(66) Appearance of Fatigue Crack 141
(67) Creep Curve 141
(68) Distribution stresses in the frame 143
(69) Force diagram on engine structure 144
(*) Piston at TDCand firing
(fc) Piston at BDC 145
(70) (a) Inertia Gas forces 146
(*) Inertia and Gas forces during a
Complete working cycle 147
(71) Inertia and Gas forces (2 stroke engine) 147
(72) (a) Tilting moment 149
(b) Balancing of Inertia masses 149
(73) Effect of damping 153
(74) Torsional Vibration two-mass system 155
(75) Vibration Damper 157
(76) Hydraulic tensioning 159
Pig No. Title Page No.
(104) Diesel engine Piston (Pielstick) in

005) Trunk piston (Pielstick Pc2) 218
(106) Force diagram on piston ring 220
(107) Gauging of Piston & Ring Groove 224
(108) Piston Clearances 227
(109) Large diesel engine Cylinder
liner (Man) 233
(HO) Cylinder Liner Sulzer 235
(111) Cylinder liner Pielstick 236
(112) Presentation of result 238
(113) Cylinder Cover, 241
(114) Exhaust valve with cooled seat insert 243
(115) Bearing surface 245
(116) Main Bearing 248
(117) Withdrawal of main bearing bottom shell 251
(118) Connecting Rod with bearings 253
(119) Connecting Rod (Pielstick Pc2) 214
(120) Trunk engine connecting rod 2S5
021) Diesel Engine components 257
CHAPTER 8
(122) Simple Sheet action governor 262

(123) Forcediagram for Governor 265
(124) Governor stabilises at lower speed Nl 266
(125) Governor stabilises at a higher speedN2 267
(126) Schematic Diagram of Relay Governor with
Servomotor 269
(127) Overspeed Governor with Servo Mechanism 271
(128) Woodward Governors 272
(129) Schematic Diagram of UG 40 Governor 273
(130) Governors 275
(131) UG.Governor Load Limit Control 277
(132) WoodwardS.G. Governor 278
(133) Electronic Governor block diagram 279
Fig. No. Title Page No.
(77) (a) Cylinder cover stud 159

(*) Crank pin bearing bolt 159
CHAPTER 6
(78) Oil pressure in hydrodynamic wedge 162
(79) Hydrodynamic lubrication 163
(80) Journal bearing while running under
perfect lubrication 165
(81) Lubrication of Crosshead bearing 167
(82) (a) Cylinder Lubrication RND 173
(b) Crank angle * 174
(83) (a) I. V.O.CyUnder Lubricator 175
(b) Working principle I. V.O. Lubricator 176
(0 Cylinder Lubricator 178
(84) Cylinder Lubricator Feed Quill Valve 178
(85) Lubrication system of a large diesel engine 179
(86) Construction ofL.OUSump 180
(87) Lubricating Oil Cooler 185
(88) Lubricating Oil Filter 187
CHAPTER 7
(89) Main Engine Bed Plate 189

(90) Bed Plate 190
(91) Stress diagram in
SulzerRND 10 crankshaft 194
(92) Diesel Engine crankshaft
(93) Fully Assembled Crankshaft 197
(94) Bridge guage 198
(95) Crankshaft alignment 199
(96) Presentation of deflection
readings 200
(97) Crankshaft deflections 201
(98) Crankshaft deflection Curve 207
(99) Crankshaft, types of failure 209
(100) Oil and water cooled pistons 211
(101) Oil cooled Piston 213
(102) Water Cooled Piston (Man) 215
(103) Piston Cooling arrangement {Man) 216
Fig No. Title Page No.
(160) A Simple Alarm System 336

(161) Multi Channel Alarm System with Data-Logger. 340
(162) Schematic Diagram of a Bridge Control System. 342
(163) Engine Control System from Remote Station.
(Sulzer) 344
CHAPTER 12
(164) Crank Case relief doors 353

(165) Oil mist detector (Comparator type) 354
(166) Oil mist detecfbr (Level type) 355
(167) Crank case Inspection door with
relief valve 358
CHAPTER 13
(168) Full size diagram ofRND Engine 362

(169) Full size diagram ofRND Engine 363
(170) Layout of Engine structure 364
(171) Cross head guide construction 365
(172) Tensioning of Tie bolt 366
(173) Tensioning of Tie bolt 367
(174) Charging system 369
(175) Breakdown of Turbochargers 371
(176) Combustion Chamber components RND 372
(177) Combustion Chamber components RND-M 373
(178) Fuel Injection Valve 374
(179) Cylinder relief valve 375
(180) Cylinder liner 376
(181) Piston & Piston Cooling 377
(182) Crosshead lubrication, RND-M 378
(183) Cam Shaft 380
(184) Running direction interlock 381
(185) Bore & Piston RLA 382
(186) Bore cooled Piston 384
Fig. No. Title PageNo:
CHAPTER 9
(134) Air Starting Master Valve 282

(135) Cylinder Air Starting Valve 284
(136) Air Starting Valve MAN 285
(137) Starting Air Distribution System 287
(138) Reversing Servomotor for Cam Shaft 288
(139) Reversing Servomotor with Engine Control
from remote station. 289
(140) MAN Starting Control System 291
(141) Starting Control System SulzerRND 295
(142) (a) Air LineSafety Valve 298
(b) Safety Bursting Cap 298
(143) Starting Line Diagram Showing Location of
Relief Valves 299
(144) Air bottle for Starting air. 300
(145) Starting and A uxiliary Air System (Sulzer) 302
CHAPTER 10
(146) Indicator Instrument 308

(147) Indicator Power and Draw Diagram 311
(148) Indicator and Light Spring Diagram 313
(149) Indicator Diagram from Supercharged Engine. 316
(150) Detection of Fault, a, b, c, d. 317
(151) Detection of Fault. e,f, g. 318
(152) Engine Cooling System MAN 322
(153) Nozzle Cooling System MAN 324
(154) Engine Cooling System {Sulzer) 325
CHAPTER 11
(155) Viscosity Controller (EVR-CONTROL) 328

(156) Viscosity Control (EUR-CONTROL) 329
(157) EVR-CONTROL Temperature Controller 331
(158) Cooling Water Temperature Control 333
(159) Condition Check Measurement Points. 335
Rg.No Title Page No.
(187) Typical exhaust arrangement 384

(188) Opposed piston principle 385
(189) Full Size view ofDoxford J engine 387
(190) Doxford Engine 388
(191) Crankshaft & Bedplate 389
(192) Cylinder liner J engine 391
(193) One piece box cooled liner 392
(194) Cylinder lubrication System 393
(195) Upper and Lower Pistons 395
(196) Centre connecting rod top-end bearings 397
(197) Lubrication o/Crosshead bearing 398
(198) Cross-sectional view of K.GF engine 399
(199) Cylinder cover 402
(200) Cylinder block with liner 403
(201) Starting system B&W 404
(202) B&WPiston 405
(203) Piston rod Stuffing box and backing 406
(204) Cross-sectional view ofMANKSZB 408
(205) Cylinder Liner 409
(206) Withdrawl of Cylinder liner 411
(207) Man Piston 412
(208) Piston rod stuffing box 413
(209) Fuel Pump 414
(210) Adjustment of fuel cam 415
(211) Air starting master valve 416
(212) Crosshead bearing 417
(213) Lubricator for Crosshead bearing 418
(214) Removal of Crank bearing 419
(215) Removal of connecting rod 420
(216) Removal of Crosshead bearing 421
(217) Exhaust manifold 423
CHAPTER 14
(218) Cross-sectional view of MAN. W 40/54 engine 429

(219) Main bearing 430
(220) Engine Frame 431
(221) Cylinder Liner 432
Fig.No Title Page No.
(222) Cylinder head 432

(223) Exhaust Valve 433
(224) Connecting rod with rod end bearing 434
(225) Piston 436
(226) Cross sectional view through main
bearing and cylinder 438
(227) Main Bearing 441
(228) Cylinder Liner with Jacket 443
(229) Cylinder Cover 444
(230) Inlet and exhaust valve 445
(231) Rocker Arm & Valve with Push Rod 447
(232) Reversing system with automatic Clutch Control 448
(233) Lubricating oil System 451
(234) Pump drive 452
(235) Engine Connected to Propeller Shaft through
clutch and gearing 453
(236) Connection of Engine to Propeller Shaft 454
(237) Geislinger Coupling 456
(238) Clutch Shoe 457
CHAPTER 15
(239) Gas turbine Cycle 458

(240) (A) Simple open cycle gas turbine
(fi) With regenerator 459
(241) Marine application of Gas Turbine 461
(242) Marine Gas Turbine 464
(243) Basic cycle of the free piston turbine 466
IV
•\{
Second Edition
June.1981.
Reprint Aug. 1990
Price Rs.
gjHANDARKAR
© all rights reserved
Published by V.K. ^nanclarkar °f Bhandarkar Publications D-46,

JyotiSadan ST.' ffad- B'bay and Printed by Samarth Process,
109. Alankar I n d u s t r i a l Estate,Bombay - 63.
CHAPTER 3
Air and Exhaust Systems
A two stroke engine, invented little later than the four-stroke

engine proved to be more attractive from the very beginning.
From straightforward thermodynamic standpoint the output was
doubled but the engine details were not complicated. In fact the
employment of a two-stroke cycle simplified the engine by elimina-
tion of the intake and exhaust valves and its running gear. How-
ever, the two-stroke engine was not wihout any problem, for it
was soon realised that the fundamental requirement of replacing
the air charge in the cylinder must be satisfactorily met. In a two
stroke engine no separate inlet and exhaust strokes exist^The time
available for these processes is shorter being about one third or
one fourth as mmnared to that of an engine operating on four-
stroke cycle..The process of exchanging the g,ases present in the
cylinder after completion of expansion with a charge of unconta'-
minated fresh air is termed as scavenging.
The performance of a two-stroke diesel engine depends to a large
measure on the efficiency of scavenging. A satisfactory scaveng-
ing/system must function to fulfil the following requirements :
/i(1) The exhaust ports are to be opened earlier by providing
a lead to exhaust. The exhaust lead is the period in crank
degrees by which the exhaust ports are opened in advance
of the air ports. During this period the gas pressure in
the cylinder falls below the scavenge pressure.
(2) Scavenge ports should be closed after the process of gas
exchange is completed.
'(3) Loss of fresh air charge escaping through the exhaust ports
should be minimised.
52 AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
ooomooo- 48'
OoooiooOO
60 4O 2O 20 4O 6O
Fig. 17 Pressure variation in the cylinder during exhausting and scavenging
Exhaust ports open 65° before D. C.
Inlet ports open 48° before D. C.
1. — Scavenging manifold pressure
2. —• Gas pressure in the cylinder
3. — Exhaust manifold pressure.
A scavenging process may be considered to take place in a num-
ber of stages.
< (a) First period or the Blow down period—-The period begins
at the moment the exhaust ports are uncovered. The sudden
opening of the cylinder to exhaust accelerates the gas mass. The
exhaust gases are blown down in the exhaust manifold where
a lower pressure exists. The gas is compressed at ihe vicinity of
exhaust ports inside the cylinder leaving a rarefied area immediately
behjnd it. The pressure drops below the scavenge air box pressure.
*\b) Second period or the scavenging period proper — The
period begins after the scavenge ports are opened. Scavenge
AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS 53
air enters the main cylinder, sweeps the residual combustion gases
out of the cylinder and charges the cylinder with fresh air. The
mass of air drawn in the cylinder depends on the difference in
pressure between scavenge trunk and exhaust sysiem.
<^(c) Third period — A further period may be added in which
an effort is made to contain the air taken in the cylinder already.
The process of charging the cylindr of a two-stroke engine is
associated with a degree of inter-mixing with exhaust gases which
affects the purity of charge and increases the charge temperature.
Types of Scavenging
The methods of charging have differed from one engine design
to another in slow speed diesel engines. The systems employed
may be generally divided into two main groups:
(a) Uniflow and
(b) Reverse flow.
Uniflow scavenging — In the uniflow system the scavenging
air enters the cylinder from one end and leaves through the other:
Air flows in streams with slight induced rotational motion. The
charge is not allowed to change direction and hence intermixing is
minimum. The scavenge efficiency is the highest The system is
particularly suitable in slow speed engines with long stroke and
large area of escape for exhaust gases. Uniflow scavenging is
achieved —
(i) by two pistons working in one cylinder as in opposed
piston engine. In this system the top piston controls
the exhaust ports and the bottom piston controls the
inlet ports.
(ii) by a poppet valve arranged at the cylinder cover which
provides a large instantaneous opening for exhaust gases
to escape with sufficient rapidity so that the desired pressure
drop in the cylinder is created without turbulence at ex-
haust.
(iii) by an exhaust piston controlling the exhaust ports, while
the air inlet ports are covered and uncovered by the power
piston.
Reversed Flow scavenging — The engines employing a reversed
flow system of scavenging are structurally simpler. Depending
donofti
fig. 18 Uniflow Scavenging

on the relative positions of exhaust and air ports, the reversed

flow systems are again divided into :
(i) Full loop scavenging with exhaust on top of air ports at
the same side of engine,
(ii) Cross scavenging with scavenge ports facing the exhaust
ports.
The principal advantage of a reversed flow scavenge system
lies in its simplicity. There are however a number of disadvan-
tages which are listed below :
(a) There is a greater possibility of intermixing between the
charge air with the exhaust gases. As a result, the purity of
charge is less and the charge temperature is higher.
(b) A sharp difference of temperature exists within a small
area around the scavenge and exhaust ports. Consequently
the possibility of thermal cracks appearing at the bars and
the chance of thermal distortion of the liner are greater.
(c) The exhaust back pressure may rise due to narrowing of
exhaust passage by deposit of unburnt carbon. The sca-
venging of the cylinder will be adversely affected.
(d) The piston rings will wear out unevenly resulting in their
being leaky earlier.
Supercharging
The power developed in a diesel engine cylinder is limited by
the capacity of air it can breathe in. By supercharging an air
quantity, larger than the engine can naturally aspirate, is admitted
in the cylinder at a pressure above atmospheric. Though super-
charging implies higher pressure at intake, it is the larger mass
of air that is required to obtain more powef within a given dimen-
sion of cylinder. Consequently it has become a common practice to
equip the marine diesel engines with this method of boosting of
power in the engine cylinder. Supercharging is primarily meant
for an increase in output by burning more fuel, it has no relation
with thermal efficiency. However, a slight gain in thermal efficiency
may result because of better combustion of fuel. The power is
alfunction ot average pressure but the engine dimensions are
ascertained on the basis of maximum pressure. Supercharging
increases the average power without appreciably increasing the
maximum pressure. Thus it is a means of obtaining more power
Fig. \'i Loop .Scavenging Cross Scavenging

without increasing correspondingly the weight of the engine. As

a result supercharging improves the power to weight ratio of the
engine. It has so far proved to be the most successful method of
reducing the cost, space requirement and weight of diesel engine
for a given output. The present generation of marine diesel
engines have been uprated to about 300% by supercharging. The
mass of fuel required to be injected for generation of a large power
has to be considerably more than that compared to a non-super-
charged engine. From the point of view of best thermal efficiency
the injection cannot be carried longer in the expansion stroke.
In order that all these requirements are satisfactorily met the
supercharged engines must have a faster rate of heat release with-
in almost the same period of injection. Supercharging is therefore
associated with a high maximum pressure as well.
Supercharging may be accomplished
— by an engine driven rotary blower
— by an exhaust gas turbine driven rotary compressor.
The latter method of supercharging has received wide accep-
tance by manufacturers of diesel engines so much so that it has
almost become an integral part of the present day diesel engine.
The thermodynamic principle involved in the system lies in the
utilisation of a part of heat from the exhaust gases which would
otherwise go as waste.
Exhaust Gas Turbocharging [Poise System]

A certain mass of a gas at a pressure and temperature higher
than the surrounding atmosphere can be made to work by expand-
ing to a lower pressure and temperature. The pressure and tempe-
rature that prevails in a diesel cylinder at the poi"* "f ar h f l l l g t «"
the neighbourhood of 3 *f " 4 h a r ™A s n n ° r •"
The first phase of exhausting is a blowdown process of gases from
a high pressure in the cylinder to a low pressure in the exhaust
pipe. The exhaust ports act as nozzle which pwriiiras a high velo-
city stream of gas down to the exhaust pipe. The pipe constructed
in small diameter, is ouicklv pressurised to form a pressure pulse..
The pulsating pressure wave reaches up to the nozzle of the tur-
bine where further expansion of the gas takes place. The expan-
sion that takes place in the diesel cylinder is limited. Complete ex-
pansion of the combustion gases from the ignition pressure down
So AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
to the atmospheric pressure cannot be achieved. The pulse system
therefore aims at further expansion of the gas beyond that had
taken place in the engine cylinder. The loss of work in the cylinder
due to incomplete expansion appears as work in the turbine and
thus input to the compressor shaft. The pulsating pressure in the
narrow exhaust duct can reach the pressure of cylinder at exhaust.
When the turbine works in this manner by expanding the unutilis-
ed part of the expansion taking place in the nozzles and blades of
the turbine it is called pulse system of turbo-supercharging.
The pressure in the exhaust pipe before the turbine shows a cyclic
variation as is evident from the pressure crank angle diagram.
a Pulse charging Crank angle
4 —.-
b Constant-pressure charging Crank angle
Fig. 20 Cyclic Variation of pressure in exhaust pipe
The speed of the compressor adjusts itself according to the

exhaust temperature and pressure and the demand of the engine.
It supplies air to engine cylinder in perfect matching relationship
automatically starting from part load to full load operation. It also
responds remarkably to quick load fluctuation and yet it is no way
mechanically connected with the engine. That is why the turbine

with the compressor is called a "free running turbocharger".
One of the necessary requirement for multicylinder two or four-
stroke diesel engines employing pulse system would be to arrange
the exhaust pipes in divided ducts upto the free running turbo-
charger. The turbocharger may have gas inlet at two to four points,
each point supplying one segment containing a number of nozzles.
The design of exhaust ducting should meet the following require-
ments.
i) to preserve the kinetic energy of blow down by intersposing
resistance in the line as the gas is taken through narrow,
short and straight pipe lines up to the entry of the turbine.
ii) to prevent interference in the scavenging of one by the
exhausting of the other.
iii) to distribute energy of exhaust gas equally amongst the
number of turbochargers.
iv) to tune the exhaust system so lhat the manifold pressure
pulsation is not reflected back to the engine. Such
positive reflection may cause formation of a standing wave
in the exhaust system causing the engine back pressure to
rise beyond the pressure at which it can be adequately
scavenged.
Exhaust Grouping
One of the difficulties experienced in a multi-cylinder engine
employing pulse system of turbocharging and discharging to a
common exhaust manifold is to subject the manifold to a fluctuating
gas pressure. If the exhaust period of one cylinder overlaps with
the scavenge of the other, the exhaust pressure from the cylinder
which is exhausting interferes with the proper scavenging of the
other cylinder. Scavenging depends on the difference in pressure
between exhaust and the air box. Immediately after the exhaust
ports are opened the exhaust gas is blown down in the exhaust
pipe. The first phase of exhaust is the high velocity high pressure
phase of the total exhaust period. If this part of the exhaust over-
laps with the scavenging period of the other cylinder, there is
a possibility of an exhaust pressure wave reaching that cylinder
which is undergoing scavenging. This interferes with the charging

of the cylinder. In order to avoid occurance of such combinations in
multicylinder two or four stroke cycle engines the cylinders are
selectively grouped with connections to two or more exhaust pipes.
The pipes are arranged in smaller diameters to preserve the pres-
sure pulse due to blow down and in short straight lengths to pre-
vent any loss of energy.
Exhaust arrangement
Theoretically, in a four stroke engine 180 degrees of crank

travel is required for exhausting the cylinder. But by consideration
of smooth operation of exhaust valve and giving a period of overlap
between exhaust and inlet valve opening, the exhaust valve will
have to remain open for a longer period of not less than 240°.
A four cylinder four-stroke engine is required to have the firing
7"7fl
sequence displaced by —j— = 180° crank degrees. By similar
reasoning a three cylinder engine will have the firing sequence
separated by = 240°.
From the foregoing it will be evident that four stroke turbo-
charged engines having number of cylinders 4 and above will
require exhaust grounin^- A timing diagram of a two stroke
turbo-charged engine shows an exhaust period of 130° and sca-
venge period of 96°. For a six cylinder arrangement the cranks
are displaced by 60 degrees. For the firing order shown the
exhaust grouping will be arranged as shown below:
AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS **1
Exhaust Gas Torbocharging (Constant Pressure system)

Here the pulsating flow of gas admitted partially in turbine
bladesjs replaced by admission at constant velocity distributed
uniformly over the entire blade area. All the cylinders exhaust
into a pipe of large diameter which is common to all cylinders. The*
pressure pulses are first damped out by expanding the gas in this
chamber which is then maintained at a constant pressure. The
exhaust manifold acts as a reservoir and supply the turbocharger
at a steady pressure through one entry point.
In the constant pressure sytem no attempt is made to recover
work due to unutilised expansion in the cylinder. The work that
can be recovered by expanding the gas further is comparatively
a small portion of the total energy content of exhaust gas. The
exhaust is allowed to throttle from the cylinder through the
exhaust valve (or port) without doing any work into an exhaust
manifold of large diameter, pie work transfer takes place solely by
virtue of enthalpy drop as the exhaust gases expand through the
nozzles and over the blades of the turbine. The turbine operation is
more efficient. The idea of constant pressure turbocharging is not
new. It was first introduced by Dr. A. T. Bnchi in 1920. At that
time however the system was not very successful. -
The working of the pulse system depends on the pressure
difference that can be safely ereated in the exhaust system. It is by
and large independent of the m.e.p. generated in the diesel cylin-
der or the energy of exhaust gas. As the diesel cylinder is uprated,
the m.e.p. is increased. The enthalpy content of the exhaust gas is
considerably more but it fails to boost up the turbine to supply the
additional air now required. Higher rating of the cylinder can only
be made possible by increasing the capacity of the charging sys-
tem. As an improvement over the pulse system the constant pres-
sure turbocharging has been developed and successfully employed
in many recent two-stroke and four-stroke marine diesel engines.
In order that the constant pressure system operates successfully
there must always be a higher pressure in the compressor outlet
than the exhaust pipe after the cylinder. This condition is difficult
to achieve particularly at the part load range of operation or during
acceleration period.
The constant pressure turbo-supercharging provides a number

of advantages :
a) better and more rational utilisation of exhaust heat.
b) a steady pressure before the turbine and consequently an
efficient turbine operation.
c) the work transfer at the turbine wheel is smooth.
d) the compressor capacity can be increased as more energy
is available for utilisation to power.
e) no exhaust pressure pulses are required, hence expansion
in the cylinder can be carried longer in the stroke to a lower
temperature and pressure. This amounts to lengthening
of the effective stroke and consequently a gain in output.
f) a reduction in specific fuel consumption may be an indirect
gain as the cylinders are better scavenged now.
g) as the exhaust disturbance is much less and an exhaust
grouping is not necessary the exhaust pipe line system is
made simpler.
Though the constant pressure system has commendable advan-
tages in engines with m.e.p. ratings of 8 kg/cm2 and above, the
system is not without difficulty. One of the principal disadvantage
lies in the inability of the system to operate at part load or during
acceleration periods when the energy level in the exhaust gas
through put to the turbine is low.
This problem has been solved in variable speed diesel engines
by providing auxiliary electrical blowers.
Tnrbochargiiig Two-Stroke Engines:
The charging system used in two-stroke engines built to-day

employ a compressor pressure ratio of 1.4 : 1 to 3 : 1 with or
without reciprocating scavenge pumps. The specific air flow to the
engine should be increased to reduce the thermal strain on the
engine. In practice the specific air flow is not to be less than
9.4 kg/KWh (or 7 kg/hph) with exhaust temperature at turbine
inlet in the range 400 — 450°C. Modern day engines with m.e.p.
rating in the neighbourhood of 12 bars may have a pressure ratio
of 3 : 1. For starting and running at low output all two-stroke
engines with constant pressure charging system require an auxi-
liary blower in addition to turbocharger, unless reciprocating sca-
venge pumps are fitted.
The intake system of a diesel engine should have a lay out

that would ensure flow of air with minimum of friction and shock.
Friction arises from streams of air rubbing along the confining
walls. The shock losses are due to air stream impinging upon one
another or upon the containing wall. Abrupt change in dimensions
of duct, direction of flow, a parallel entry to the system should be
avoided to minimise losses.
The intake system of a diesel engine consists of an intake filter,
silencer, compressor, cooler and the ducting. The discharge from
the compressure is guided smoothly to the engine cylinder after
cooling in a cooler.
The underside of the piston is utilised as an air pump in a two-
stroke engine. It supplies air to the engine under normal working
condition as well as during a turbine break down. Under piston
scavenge pumps can be worked in series or in parallel with the
turbo compressor.
The series system:(Fig. 22)

Air is drawn by the turbo compressor at ambient temperature
through an intake filter and silencer. It is compressed to a pressure
ratio 1.6 : 1 and delivered to a cooler. The heat generated due to
compression is removed in the cooler. Cooled and dense air is
admitted via the space A of the scavenge air box to the space B
through a set of non-return plate valves. The space B is individual
to a cylinder. The space is filled up during the upward movement
of the piston. During the next downward stroke the pressure in
the space B adjoining the underside of piston is compressed till
the inlet ports are uncovered. The exhaust ports being already
opened, the pressure inside the cylinder drops. The first phase of
scavenging is at higher pressure and velocity. As the pressure
drops air is supplied at charge pressure to the cylinder from the
turbocompressor after lifting the valves fitted between the spaces
A and B. The air sweeps through the cylinder space and fills up
with a fresh charge. The cylinder is cross-scavenged.
The exhaust gas is blown in the exhaust pipe as soon as the
parts are uncovered. The exhaust gas flows in pulsating form into
the pipes leading to the turbine. The small diameter pipes are
quickly pressed and the corresponding nozzle ring segments of the
expansion turbine are fed with exhaust gas. The number of cylin-
64 AIR At>iD EXHAUST SYSTEMS
ders connected to one pipe is however limited. Thus the power to

turbine for compression of air is supplied by the energy of exhaust
gas.
COOLING
WATER
Fig. 22 Charging System Sulzer R.D. Engine
In the Doxford charging system shown in diagram (23) the

engine is trubocharged by the turboblowers connected directly to
the exhaust pipe. The exhaust gas turbines work by virtue of im-
pulses from cylinder exhaust. The blower of each turboblower
draws its air through a silencer — filter and delivers at a pressure
of 1.4 to 1.6 kg/cm 2 through intercoolers in a large receiver. The
receiver is a rectangular box situated around the lower part of the
liner and coupled to the engine entablature. When the lower piston
uncovers the air ports, air is smoothly directed through the cylin-
der from the lower end of the cylinder to the exhaust end in a spiral
swirl induced at the intake. With the above arrangement it has
been possible to charge the cylinder and obtain satisfactory opera-
tion at all load and speed. Depending on the number of cylinders
65
Fig. 2 3 Schematic arrangement of the Doxford Oirbocharging and scavenging

system.
2 to 3 turbochargers can be employed. If one turbocharger of the

system becomes inoperative, the engine can generate half power.
The exhaust from the exhaust gas turbines are connected into a
large manifold which leads the gas out through an exhaust gas
boiler and a silencer. Girds are provided before all turbines in
~rder to arrest pieces of broken piston rings and other metal
pieces.
In the B & W system no valve is fitted, there is momentary pres-
sure rise at the vicinity as the piston performs its downward travel.
Compression takes place locally till the inlet ports are uncovered.
The first phase of scavenging is at a higher pressure and then the
pressure drops to the scavenge air box pressure. By this time the
exhaust pressure is also sufficiently lowered. A good scavenging
system should have the scavenge pressure above the exhaust pres-
sure at all time during the scavenge period.
rHi AIR INTAKE.
Fig. 24 Charging System, (a) B & W.

Parallel and Series/Parallel Systems:
Using the underside of the piston as an additional source of
charging the cylinder, the parallel and series/parallel systems
have been developed working in conjunction with an exhaust gas
turboblower. In the series parallel system of MAN, a limited num-
ber of piston underside have been arranged for charging by draw-
ing directly from atmosphere while the others work in series with
the turbocharger. Both pulse system and constant pressure system
can be used in the exhaust-gas turbine side. A further develop-
ment in the system is the introduction of an injector with change
over valve. The turbo-blower delivers air after cooling it in a cooler
into the duct supplying air under pressure to the engine. The un-
der piston pumps also deliver to the same duct through a separate
cooler. Sufficient air flows through the engine while the engine is
operating at its normal rated speed. However, the turbocharger
tends to be unstable at partial load or during acceleration. The
injector process has been developed to minimise surging of turbo-
charger. When the load on the engine is halved or even less, air
from the piston undersides is diverted to the injector by the change
over valve 'g' into the blower outlet. The injector, delivering air at
high velocity, counters any tendency for flow reversal in the air
stream which should flow ahead of the blower and upto the cylin-
der intake.
Fig. 25 (•) Principle of injector process in exhaust turbo-

charging, a = blower; b = exhaust gas turbine;
c = intercooler; d = piston underside pump
in parallel; e = piston underside pump in series;
g = injector/parallel operation change-over
valve.
Fig- 25 (b) Principle of exhaust turbocharging, constant

pressure, in series/parallel operation a, b, c, d,
as in Fig. 8. e = piston underside pumps, in
series; f = bypass valve;
Two Stage Turbocharging:

The system followed in GMT two stroke engines employs double
stage air compression and cooling. The first compression stage is
carried out with exhaust gas operated trubo-blowers and the se-
cond stage with reciprocating scavenge pumps, the two compres-
sors being connected in series. The reciprocating pump is lever
operated from the engine crank gear. Fitting of air pumps in this
manner as a separate equipment have eliminated closed spaces
below main cylinders where oily sludges and unburnt products
couid accumulate and cause fire. Thus the G.M.T. engine is appa-
rently free from scavenge fire.
Fig. 25 (c) Two Stmge Turbo Charging

TO AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Ttabo-dMrgmg four-stroke engines:
The system of turbocharging in four-stroke engines is somewhat

more complicated because of higher speed of revolution and more
number of cylinders. It is still debatable whether pulse turbocharg-
ing or constant pressure charging is preferable. Obviously none of
these systems combine all the advantages. Pulse system using
exhaust gas energy in the form of exhaust pulses in narrow and
subdivided exhaust duct is more attractive at low charging pres-
sure. The system can adopt itself to any load on the engine. It
needs no control for quick load fluctuation (change in electrical
load or change in propeller pitch) and hence is a fully automatic
system. On the otherhand constant pressure system of turbo
supercharging is more suitable for high output engines with high
charge pressure.
Fig. 26 Diagram of the exhaust manifoU of an 18 cylinder V engine
a: Conventional pulse-charging with groups of three cylinders. Two

lurbochargers each with three separate turbine inlets are required.
b: Multi-pulse system. As for pulse-charging, every three cylinders
are connected to a common exhaust duct. One turbocharger with
two separate turbine inlets can be used.
TL Turbocharger
Three poke charging

A successful method of turbo charging of four-stroke engine is
three pulse charging i.e. pulse system of turbocharging with
groups of three cylinders. The system can be employed in all
engines whose number of cylinders is divisible by 3 i.e. 3, 6, 9, 12,
18 etc. Each entry to the turbine supply a segment containing a
number of nozzles and the segment can be uniformly distributed
over the blade area. The system can generate a high turbo-charg-
ing pressure maintaining a high rate of flow through the engine
and thus reducing thermal straining on liner, piston crown,
exhaust valves and seat. It also adjusts itself to rapid load changes.
Fig. 27 Auxiliary air drive for VTR turbockarger

1 = Inlet
2 = Impeller of the turbocharger
3 = Vaned diffuser compressor
4 = Volute
5 = Annular duct with nozzles
6 — Supply duct J of the auxiliary air drive
In certain application the system is distinctly superior to all other

methods. However, the arrangement of turbo-charging with large
number of cylinders tend to be complicated. The division of ex-
haust duck make a demand for space and easy maintainability.
Employment of constant pressure system simplifies the exhaust
pipes and allow a free arrangement of turbo-charger.
For the high output engines working at full load and employing
high charge air pressure the constant pressure system is more effi-
cient both in terms of operation and system lay out. However the
problem remains for adjustment at part load and during rapid load
changes. A method of injecting compressed air for accelerating
the rotor-have been employed in the system. The auxiliary air drive
for the turbo-charger is in use in the compressors to aid starting in
four-stroke cycle engines. (Fig. 27)
Compressor
In turbo-supercharging a centrifugal air compressor is employed.
It is a simple and light rotary compressor capable of handling a
large mass of air. Its large capacity to handle air for a given size
and its simplicity in construction makes it an obvious choice for
use on such duties where a very high mass flow with low delivery
pressure is demanded. It consists of a rotor or impeller containing
radial vanes mounted on a shaft and. enclosed in a casing with
fine clearances. A simple one-stage centrifugal compressor will
have the following main divisions. Each division is distinguishable
by the function it is called upon to perform:
i) an intake system consisting of an intake silencer, guideways
and impeller intake guide vanes or inducers. The function
of the system is to admit air to the hub of the impeller with-
out shock and friction.
ii) the impeller channel, begining from the centre of the hub
and exiending radially outwards to the tip. Air is given a
centrifugal force so that it leaves the impeller vane at a
high velocity. The displacement of air creates a suction
inducting more air through the inducer.
iii) a diffusion system comprising of a stationary vaned diffuser
and a vaneless space of gradually increasing area.
Impeller
The impeller of the centrifugal compressor is made by forging,
of light alloy (aluminium-silicon) material. The physical properties
for such a material are lightness, strength together with toughness
and its capacity for a smooth surface finish. The vanes are mostly
straight radial type for the reason that the dynamic bending stresses
on curved vanes would be considerable. The process of diffusion is
started towards the tip of the impeller vanes and is carried forward
on to the diffuser.
Diffuser
The diffuser is the name given to the fixed guide vanes surround-
ing the impeller. The high velocity of the air leaving the impeller
tip enters the fixed diverging vanes of the diffuser. The air stream is
slowed down in the diffusion process where some of the kinetic
energy is converted to a pressure head. A pressure head can easily
be transformed into velocity but the reverse process is associated
with losses. By the diffusion process air is slowed down to intake
velocity with a consequent rise in pressure ratio. The process
involves compression and consequently a rise in temperature.
Fig. 28 Turbo charger.
Turbo Charger
The horizontal rotor (Fig. 28) has been constructed in parts and
made hollow out of high alloy nickel chromium steel. The shaft
carries a single stage axial gas turbine wheel at one end and a radial
single stage compressor at the other end. The shaft rests on slide
sleeve bearings. At the compressor end there is a thrust bearing
for keeping the rotor assembly in its true axial allignment while
it is free to expand at the other end. The rotor shaft is provided
with shrunk on bushes for bearings, & shrunk on labyrinth seal.
The labyrinth seals are built into that part of the bushing which
is screwed with the casing. The rotor shaft portion is plain,
thus no special care need be taken with the seals when the shafts
are removed from the casings at overhauls. In case of damage
these can be changed on board without re-balancing. The
labyrinth seals are supplied with sealing air taken from the scroll
Hg. 39 Twrbockarger rotor shaft with shntnk-on bushes both at plain

bearings and labyrinth seals.
housing through outside tubes, which are easy to inspect and elean.
The casing is divided to form the turbine and the compressor
housings at two ends. The subdivision wall is provided with water
cooling arrangement. Air is admitted axially through the impeller
and passes radially outwards to the tips. The blower side is equipped
with a silencer.
The turbine end housing contains one or two gas inlets. A grid is
provided before the inlet to arrest any large piece of metal—for
instance broken piston ring ends—from entering the turbine and
causing damage to the blades.
The turbine bearings are lubricated from an overhead tank
with a constant static pressure head above the bearings. The arrange-
ment ensures constant lubricating oil pressure while running.
In the event of lubricating oil pump failure! the lubrication it
continued unaffected for such time as precautionary measures are
taken. The overflow sight glass provides means for inspection of the
oil quantity and flow at all times.
Operation of Compressor
A compressor exhibits certain definite relationship between speed
of rotation N, mass flow Q and pressure ratio H. This relationship
is termed as compressor characteristics.
A typical characteristic curve for one particular speed is shown in
the diagram Pig. 23 (a) Let the mass flow be varied by increasing or
WlOt CNN
VOLUMC now
Fig. 30 Compnssiom Curve
decreasing resistance to flow by a discharge valve fitted in the
delivery pipe situated upstream. At the point C the valve is fully
open, evidently there is no obstruction at the end of the duct for
the flow to move ahead. The static pressure developed is negligible
but die velocity is maximum and the shait power is high. As the
resistance to flow is gradually intersposed by operating the valve,
the mass flow is reduced causing the pressure to rise. If the test
is carried from the full open position of the valve to the fully closed
position and the pressure ratio plotted for each position of valve
opening, a characteristic curve is obtained. It will be observed that
the pressure ratio rises and attains a maximum value at B. if the

flow is still reduced the pressure suddenly drops below the delivery
pressure initiating surging or pumping of air back to the compressor.
Surging can be denned as excessive aerodynamic pulsation in the
air stream. It can be explained by stating that if there is drop in
pressure ratio in the compressor, air will flow back or 'Surge' to
the compressor due to higher pressure downstream. The next
moment the compressor regains its pressure ratio and delivers. A
pulsation in the air column is set in to and from the compressor
which is transmitted throughout the machine and ducting. The
delivery of air in engine cylinders is interrupted.
As the mass flow through the compressor falls, say due to a sudden
dropped in speed, there is a simultaneous fall of air pressure at the
36
34
3'2
O 3
2 2-8
w
tr.
3 2 6
22-4
a
1-6
1-4
I 2.3 A 5 6 7 a S IO li 12 13
INDUCTION VOLUME rd'/o
Fig. 31 Compressor Characteristics.

diffuser. If the fall of pressure is below the pressure ahead in the
ducting, a flow separation takes place with a tendency (or a flow
reversal. Because of this characteristics of compressor at low mass

flow rate, i* cannot be worked at point left of maximum pressure
ratio i.e. at positive slope of the characteristic curve. A compressor
is most efficient within a narrow range on the right of the operating
point B. So far, the discussion is confined to only one speed of
operation. At any other speed the compressor will have a different
characteristic curve. A family of such curves will demonstrate the
characteristic of the compressor over a certain operating speed
range Fig. 31. That portion of the curve which remains on the
left of the maximum pressure line is inoperable due to surge and the
line A joining these points is called the surge limit.
Brown Boveri Turbocharger:
BBC have developed turbochargers of VTR series suitable for

high output engines. The machines are constructed in various
sizes but they are all geometrically similar.
The turbocharger essentially consists of an axial flow single
wheel turbine driving a radial flow compressor. The turbine and
the compressor are assembled as a single unit. The turbine disc
and shaft are forged in one piece. The solid design has been pre-
ferred to avoid discontinuities in way of bolted joints. The impeller
and the inducer (H) are mounted on the other end of the shaft and
secured. The turbine blades (A) are firmly fitted in the wheel on
fir-tree roots. This method of fixture provides a sound connection
in view of high centrifugal stress occuring at the root, a lace wire
passing round and embracing all the blades near the free and fur-
ther adds to the flextural rigidity of the blades against vibration.
The rotor runs in roller contact bearings. Flexibility is intro-
duced between the moving rotor and the stationary casing by inter-
sposing leaf springs at the back of bearings. If the rotor is un-
balanced the spring will act as vibration damper and isolator. The
bearing at the compressor end is a combined radial and axial
thrust rolling contact bearing and that at the turbine end is a radial
rolling contact bearing. The turbine end of the rotor is free to slide
to take up thermal expansion. For each bearing there is a gear or
centrifugal pump driven by the rotor shaft which draws oil from its
own sump and lubricates the bearings. Sleeve bearings on both
ends of the shaft are available as an option. An external lubricating
system is then required.
The turbine casing with the gas inlet and outlet passages is
7g AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
jacketed for circulation of cooling water. The rotor spindle is

sealed at both ends. The seal at the compressor end consists of a
sealing bush and in the turbine end two sets of labyrinth packing
and a sealing bush. The labyrinth seals are packed. Air is supplied
through passage X.
The clearance spaces Y and Z at the back of the bearings allow
the pressures to be balanced and prevent carry over of oil in side
the turbine or compressor.
Exhaust gases enter through the inlet casing, expand in the
nozzles and over the blades. In doing so some of the energy of
exhaust gases is transferred as mechanical work at the turbine
shaft. The gases exhaust into the outlet space. Air is drawn from
the engine room via a filter and silencer to the intake of the impel-
ler. It flows radially through the impeller canal and is thrown out-
ward at the tip with high velocity. It is then passed through the
vaned diffuser surrounding the impeller and then to the volute
casing where the pressure ratio is raised. It is usual to cool down
the air before delivering to the intake of the engine.
R. R. Turbochargers:
The R. R. turbochargers have been introduced by the BBC since
1968 mainly for engines with power rating approximately from
300 and 2000 h.p. It is suitably matched for auxiliary engines gene-
rating electricity or four-stroke engines on propeller drive.
It consists of a rotor with radial blades at one end while the other
end is fitted with compressor. The turbine housing can be either
air cooled or water cooled. When the turbine pressure ratio is
small it is possible to arrange an inward flow radial turbine for
extracting work from exhaust gases. The gas enters the turbine
via a radial inflow casing and flows through a row of vaned nozzles
situated around the periphery of the rotor. The passage is so de-
signed that the flow finally exhausts in an axial direction. The rotor
is mounted on two bush bearings. The bearings are seperated from
turbine with a stream of sealing air in an equalising space. Lubri-
cation oil to the bearings is supplied from the engine system.
Title of parts for Fig. 32
A Turbine blades F Gas outlet casing
B Damping wire G Nozzle ring/nozzle blades
C Bearings at compressor end H Inducer and compressor impeller
D Bearings at turbine end I Diffuser
E Gas inlet casing
fig. 32 B.B.C. Turbocharger

80 AIR A N D EXHAUST SYSTEMS
•=£>
Fig. 33B.B.C. R.R. Turbockargen

Service Problems:
Problem during service may appear in the following areas:
Turbine blading
Nozzle plating
Bearings
Turbine casing
Fouling of compressor and diffuser surfaces.
Turbine blading :
Blade vibration cannot be eliminated altogether particularly
with turbines employing pulse system. The flow through the
nozzles and the pulsating flow of exhaust gases admitted partially
are regarded as the cause of vibration of blades. Unbalance of
the rotor due to deposits or fouling can also cause vibration.
Fatigue failures may occur at the blade root and on the binding
wire. Deposits on the blade surface occur due to carry over of
impurities of fuel and air with the exhaust gas. if heavy fuel is
used. Unburnt carbon. Sodium, vanadium, sulphur and silicious
matters are contained in the oil ash which are deposited on the
blade surface in molten state. A sample of deposit from blade
surface on being analysed may have the following approximate
quantitative composition.
Carbon — 80%
Vanadium — 2%
Sulphuric Acid — 5%
Iron — 4%
Sodium
Silicon traces.
Calcium
Nozzle Ring:
• The nozzles may be partially clogged due to deposits from
engine exhaust. The problem is more acute with turbochargers of
four stroke engines using residue oil or selected blend as fuel.
While the nozzles of large turbochargers in two-stroke engines are
generously pitched, the nozzle with small turbochargers with four-
stroke engines are narrow. Further narrowing of the nozzles will
affect the performance of the engine causing high back pressure,
loss of power, increase in thermal loading, frequent turbocharger
surging etc.
Bearings t
Errosion of the bearing balls or rollers caused by impurities

present in lubricating oil may reduce their service life. Other fac-
tors which would damage the bearings are heavy momentary load-
ing by vibrationary forces, bearing running dry or by contaminated
oil, over heating etc. Even if the balls run under perfect working
condition there will be a general deteroriation due to metal fatigue.
Preventive maintenance has been accepted as a practice by chang-
ing the bearings after a regular interval.
Turbine Casing:
Defects in the turbine casing are more wide-spread and may be
attributed to any of the faults occuring singly or in combination.
— Thinning of the wall due to corrosion in the exhaust side.
— Loss of metal due to errosion at high temperature by particle
of impurities in the gas.
— Appearance of thermal crack due to rapid load changes or a
cooling system working incorrectly.
— Thinning of wall due to corrosion in the cooling water space.
Fouling of compressor and diffuser surfaces —
The compressor and diffuser surfaces become coated with
deposits which are mainly compound of
dust particles from air
oily deposit from engine room atmosphere
soot from atmospheric contamination.
Deposits on the blade surfaces affect the balance of rotor and
reduce the efficiency of the compressor. If the deposits are allowed
to accumulate, it will thicken and ultimately reduce the flow area
over the blades. Deposits on the compressor and diffuser surfaces
increase friction, temperature and decrease the pressure ratio.
The onward delivery of air to the engine will be affected. Besides
the position of the operating point in the characteristics curve is
shifted and thus tending to bring instability in compressor opera-
tion.
Afafntonai
— Regular checking of oil level in the bearing sump and chang-

ing of oil after 500 to 1000 running hours.
— Cleaning of air filter after 1000 hours.
AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEM 83
— Water washing of compressor—

Dirt deposits should be dislodged by injection of water during
operation. Injection of about 1 litre of water should be repeated
at intervals of 250 working hours. (The quantity of the water to
be injected depends on the frame size of the turbocharger.
The intervals between the washing procedures depend on
on the contamination of the indrawn air.)
— Water washing of turbine side. Water washing is nothing but
mechanical cleaning of the surface as the high velocity water
particles impinge on the surface. Only clean water free from
any dissolved impurities should be used (Fresh water contains
Calcium). To be effective water should be injected by pressure
5 to 1 bar. Water should be injected while the turbocharger is
running at intervals ranging from 48 to 150 hrs., depending on
the rate of conamination build-up.
— The bearings should be renewed after 8000 to 16000 working
hours depending on speed and thrust and the gear pumps
renewed or reconditioned after 16000 working hours. .
— The cooling water chamber should be desludged after 8000
working hours if necessary.
The routine maintenance schedule should keep the turbocharger
in efficient working condition and prolong time interval for tho-
rough inspection. However the rotor must be withdrawn for ins-
pection and physical cleaning of compressor and blade surfaces at
an interval between 8000 and 16000 working hours, depending on
working conditions.
Washing of the Turbine Sides
The dirt deposits on the turbine side can be reduced by periodic

cleaning (washing) during operation. Dirty turbines lead^to higher
temperatures of the exhaust gas and higher stresses of the bearing
due to imbalances. Usually, washing devices on the turbine side
are necessary only on exhaust gas turbochargers driven from
heavy oil engines.
The water must be injected into the exhaust system ahead of the
protecting grids with the engine running at low power. The dis-
advantage of shortly reducing the power is not significant compar-
ed with the advantages of cleaning.
The necessary water flow per unit time is basically dependent
upon the volume of gas and its temperature. The flow should be
BBC intercooler
1 Charge-air pipe 10 Ring
2 Outlet connection case 11 Seal
3 Measuring socket 12 Connection (turbocharger)
4 Seal 13 Bottom cover
5 Fin tube 14 Cooling water discharge
6 Intercooler 15 Cooling water admission
7 Cover 16 Ring half
8 Venting screw 17 Seal
9 Inlet connection case 18 Connecting pipe
adjusted such that approx. 50% to 70% of the water is evaporated

and escapes through the exhaust, while the remaining water
drains through the tap in the exhaust casing. It is important
not to vaporize all of the water, since the cleaning effect is based
upon the water solubility of the deposits, as well as on the mecha-
lical effect of the striking water drops. It is not necessary to
ncorporate any additive such as detergents or solvents to the
leaning water. The use of salt water is out of question. Only fresh
vater may be used.
— For casings having several gas inlets, one diaphragm per
exhaust pipe is,needed; in cases of only one gas inlet there
should be at least two diaphragms on opposite sides of the
exhaust pipe. They must consist of some corrosion proof
material (e.g. St 18/8) and because the small size ones
often are likely to clog, they should be easily removable.
The cutoff valve must ensure that no water can possibly
leak into the exhaust pipes except during the clearing
periods. As an additional safety measure a removable
hose can be installed, which is connected only when required.
—During the cleaning the exhaust casing has to be drained.
The drainage must be controllable, and the drain pipe adja-
cent to the exhaust casing must be easy to clean.
— In order to obtain the necessary water flow at a pressure of
0.5 kg/cm 3 use the diaphragm sizes specified. It is recom-
mended to measure the water flow before the first cleaning
and to check the water pressure.
86
Cleaning Procedure
1. Reduce power until the turbocharger runs at the required speed.
2. The temperature of the gas entering the turbine should be
less than 300°C/573K.
3. Open valve of the drain pipe and check whether the pipe is
clogged.
4. Open the tap slowly until the desired water flow is obtained
(check pressure-gauge).
5. Check if the water drains through the drain pipe. The cleaning
is terminated when the water becomes clear, (approx. after
10 minutes).
6. After the injection of water the charger must be operated at
the same power rate during 3 minutes until all parts are dry.
7. Cleaning should take place periodically every 250 to 1000
operating hours. Depending on the results obtained, the inter-
val between two washes may be increased or reduced.
Removable connecting
hose
Protecting ?rids
Fig. 34(a) Drainage with inspection fmciBty.
The Intercooler
When air is compressed by the turbo compressor heat is gener-
ated. The heat must be carried away before the air is charged in the
cylinder. The fig. (34) shows the construction of a BBC air cooler.
The cooler consists of a boxshaped frame with top and bottom end
covers. The cooling surface consists of two banks of rolled-in
aluminium-brass finned tubes which are expanded in tube plates.
The top tube plate is firmly held whereeas the bottom tube plate can
slide to take up expansion of tubes. It is a surface type of heat
exchanger where air is passed over the fins and cooled down.
Cooling water is circulated through the tubes in two straight passes.
While it is necessary to cool air before it is admitted in the cylinder,
it should be borne in mind that cooling too far i.e., below the dew
point of the vapour at the condition of pressure, temperature and
humidity existing in the charge air pipe, will cause condensation.
The volume of condensate produced will be considerable if the
charge air humidity and temperature are high at intake.
This is demonstrated by the following example:
Engine output — 12,400 kW.
Specific air flow raxe — 7.1 kg/Kwh.
Ambient air condition —
Temperature 45°C
Relative Humidity 90 %
Charge air after cooler — 50°C
Charge air press — 2.2 above atm.
Precipitated condensate due to compression and subsequent cooling.
= .034 kg water/kg of air (obtained from P. chart)
Air per hour = 12,400 x 7.1 kg.
Precipitated condensate per hour,
= 12,400 x 7.1 X .034
= 3000 kg. of water per hour
The figure demonstrates that the amount of condensation can be
considerable which will adversely affect the engine's internal parts by
promoting corrosion. Care therefore should be taken that at higher
intake temperature and humidity, the air after the turbo compressure
should not be cooled too much, under no circumstances below 40*C.
It is equally important to operate the leakage water drain pipes
regularly so that the precipitated condensate escapes freely.
CHAPTER IS
The Gas Turbine

The Gas Turbine:
A simple, basic, open cycle gas turbine consists of an air com-
pressor which draws the ambient air and delivers to a combustion
chamber after compression. Fuel is admitted and ignited in the com-
bustion chamber. The hot gases are then expanded through a turbine
to obtain mechanical power. The working medium after expan-
sion is rejected and hence it must be continually replaced. The
theoretical cycle based on which the gas turbjas operates is called
the Brayton or Joule Cycle.
Fig. 239 Gas turbine Cycle.

THB GAS TURBINB 459
Neglecting the pressure loss in the combustion chamber,
the cycle may be close to an adiabatic compression from 1 to 2,
constant pressure heat addition in the combustion chamber from
2 to 3, . The adiabatic expansion in the turbine follows after*
wards representing the line 3 to 4. At 4 the working substance
is rejected.
The fig. 149 shows diagrammatically the scheme of operation
of an open cycle gas turbine. First the compressor C is accelerated
cc
Rg. 240(p) Simple open cyclegas turbine, (ft) With rege\

GAS
450 THB
to 25 % of its rated speed with a starting device (motor). Air is
taken into the compressor at 1 and delivered from the compressor
at 2 at a pressure ratio. It then passes through the combustion
chamber (CC) where air is mixed with fuel and ignited. The
mixture of hot gases at 3 is expanded in the turbine which drives
a load. The compressor must be worked continuously to supply
air to combustion chamber. The compressor work is
derived from the turbine, in which case a part of the power deve-
loped by the turbine must be absorbed in providing work input to
compressor shaft. The remaining power is available at the output
shaft for external load.
In gas turbine a continuous combustion process occurs in
the combustion chamber. An air quantity much in excess of that
theoretically required is supplied to control temperature rise of
the gas at the intake of turbine. A gas turbine working on this
basic principle has a low work ratio and low thermal efficiency.
The use of a heat exchanger improves the thermal efficiency. Air,
before admitting in the combustion chamber, is heated up in
heat exchanger by the waste exhaust heat from the gas turbine.
This means that a reduced quantity of fuel is to be burned in the
combustion chamber. An increase in thermal efficiency will result
but the output remains unaffected. The thermal efficiency of a
gas turbine without heat exchanger is low, being in the range of
15 to 20% The efficiency can be increased to 20 to 30% with the
addition of a heat exchanger. A good design should have a
high thermal efficiency, low air flow rate and a high work
ratio. The work ratio is an useful guide in determining the net or
useful work after considering the compressor work and com-
pressor and turbine efficiencies. A gas turbine plant with a
work ratio of 40% will develop 40 kw. power at the output shaft
of turbine for 100 kw. total output i.e. 60 kw. will be expended
in compressor work. The work ratio is dependent on following:
(a) The work ratio is increased as compressor inlet temperature
is decreased.
(b) A slight change in the adiabatic efficiencies of compressor and
turbine affects the work ratio adversely.
(c) Work ratio is decreased as the pressure ratio is increased.
(d) Work ratio is increased as the turbine inlet temp, is increased.
THE OAS TURBINE 461
This however is limited by metallurgical consideration of
turbine and blade materials.
(e) Inter-cooler and regenerative reheater increase the work ratio
and thermal efficiency.
Gas turbines are capable of many other arrangements to
improve its performance and suitability. One such arrangement
is splitting the turbine as a free running turbine delivering power
to load and another turbine to perform its primary duty i.e. to
supply power to compressor. When the duties are separated in
the aforesaid manner the primary turbine with the compressor
and combustion chamber is called the gas generator. The marine
application of gas turbine has been mostly the utilisation of one or
more of aircraft jet engine as gas generators coupled to drive the
free running gas turbine delivering power to output shaft. The
gas generators used for this purpose are the famous Pratt and
Whitney Aircraft gas turbine, Bristo1 Siddeley Olympus engine,
POWER TURBINE
GAS GENERATOR
FLAMFV-TUBE
FREE RUNNING
POWER TORHNl
lit & Ui STAGE

TURBINE
Fig. 241. Marine application of Gas Turbine.

OAS
462 TO* TUXBINB
Rolls Royce engine, Boeing air craft engine etc. Besides some of
the special marine gas turbines are also under development, notable
amongst them are the type 7 and S7, manufactured by the Sulzar
Bros. Ltd.
Marine Application of Gas Turbine:

Interest in the use of gas turbine as a means of propulsive
power has been evidenced because of a number of reasons. In
the light of the experience gained so far the following points
merit consideration.
(a) The machinery is simple containing a smaller number of

components. The plant requires a less number of auxiliaries.
From these considerations the first cost of machinery is likely
to be less.
(b) The gas turbine plant requires a very high mass flow. For this
reason the plant has to handle a large quantity of air and
exhaust gases. The air and exhaust pipe ducting tends to be
substantial. Use of special material for this ducting com-
pensates some of the economic advantages derived because
of its simplicity.
(c) It is difficult to obtain salt free air even though filters are
installed.
(d) Easy maintenance. The concept of complete turbine change
over by a spare engine for shop floor overhaul can be applied
to special purpose ships operating between fixed terminal
ports and having to provide a maximum ship availability.
(c) Not efficient at part load as the work ratio drops.
(f) Suitable for unidirectional operation, reversing gear or C.P.
propeller is necessary.
(g) High obnoxious low pitch irritating noise level
fh) Thermal efficiency is low in comparison with diesel engine
cycle. Efficiency can be increased by increasing the tempe-
rature of a gas at intake. Considering metallurgy, the tempe-
rature at present is limited between 650 to 730°C.
(i) High fuel cost AS it burns a distillate, good quality fuel which
should burn completely leaving no residue and molten ash.
(j) Compact in size, the engine room length can be shortened.
The gain in the ship earning space can be offset because of
THB GAS TURBINB
high fuel cost. The saving in engine room height can be

provided for a continuous twin deck,
(k) The saving in weight for a certain power is considerable.
Marine Gas Tnrbine :

An aircraft jet engine version of marine gas turbine of the
Bristol Siddeley Olympus make is described. The engine consists
of (a) the gas generator, (b) the specially designed free running gas
turbine and (c) the reduction gearing system.
The gas generator employs a simple open cycle gas turbine
two stage compression driven by two stage gas turbines. The
gas generator supplies hot gas to a specially designed free running
gas turbine . The ratio of compression is 10:1 with a maximum
mas flow of 10S kg/sec.
Air Intake casing:

Air is drawn at a high point on the ship through a bank
of filter meshing to minimise induction of salt m the system.
Though the engine itself occupies a small space, a considerable
space is occupied by the inlet and exhaust ducting. Air is guided
to the low pressure compressor by guide vanes. Intake can be
heated up as an anti-icing measure.
L. P . Compressor ;
It is a five stage axial flow unit having split aluminium casing
cast in two halves. The rotor is disc type, made of stainless,
steel in which five rows of stainless steel blades are dovetailed.
Intermediate Casing :
It is fitted between the low pressure and high pressure com-
pressor. A bleed point is taken from this place for cooling the
power turbine casing. The gas generator accessories are driven
through gear from the shaft. The high pressure compressor is a
seven stage axial flow machine made entirely of stainless steel.
The low pressure (UP) and high pressure (HP) compressors are
arranged in tandem with the LP compressor driven by the second
stage turbine and the HP compressor driven by the first stage
iurbine.
is is
1a
O
M /
rig. 242. Marine Gas Turbine.

1 Air intake casing High-pressure compresor rear bearing No. 4
2 Low-pressure compressor front bearing No. 1 Inter-shaft bearing No. S
3 Low-pressure compressor Flame tube
4 Low-pressure compressor rear bearing No. 2 First stage turbine bearing No. 6
5 Intermediate casing First stage turbine
6 High-pressure compressor front bearing No. 3 Second stage turbine
3 High-pressure compressor
Delivery casing
Second stage turbine bearing No. 7
Exhaust annulus
^Zl&ji •*—'—
THB GAS TURBINE
Combnstion Chamber:
Eight flame tubes are arranged around the annulus between
the combustion chamber outer casing and the inner drum. The
flame tubes can be replaced without removing the gas generator.
Each flame tube is fitted with a swirler and a burner. The problem
associated with gas turbine combustion chambers is the passage of
air at a high velocity and to deal with a high air to fuel ratio. This
keeps the temperature at turbine inlet down to permissible limit.
Turbine;
Two turbine wheels are mounted on two shafts one telescoping
with the other. All turbine blades are impulse-reaction type,
shrouded at the tips. The root of each blade is of Sr-tree form.
The disc and blades are made of special heat resisting material.
The Power Turbine;

Designed specially for marine propulsion, it consists of a
single stage gas turbine. The turbine stator casing is a stainless
steel casting, split on the horizontal centre line. The stator casing
is fitted with 56 forged Ni 80 stator blades. The single stage rotor
consists of one row of 71 Ni 80 A forged blades attached to a
forged disc.
After leaving the power turbine the exhaust gas is difiused
and led away to exhaust ducting. There is an expansion below
to take up thermal expansion and proper support so that no part
of the weight of exhaust ducting comes on turbine casing.
Free Piston Gas Generator

The continuous and constant pressure combustion in the
combustion chamber of a gas turbine is associated with very high
temperature rise. If the temperature is controlled by admission
of a large amount of air, the efficiency drops. An attempt has
been made to utilise the hot exhaust gas from a disesel engine to
drive a turbine. The engine for this purpose is modified as shown
in the diagram (fig. 152). Such a system employing the high
efficiency diesel engine as gas generator and its expansion later to
a gas turbine down to the atmospheric pressure is called Free
piston gas turbine.
466 THE GAS TURBINE
Air in the cushion cylinders

(B) forces the pistons to-
gether. The compressor
pistons force air into the
engine case (C); a fresh
charge of air is being com-
pressed in the combustion
cylinder (D).
Combustion forces the pistons

apart. Air is being com-
pressed (B) and the air
pumps (A) are taking in a
fresh charge of air.
The air pumps (A) are full.

The ports in the combustion
cylinder are uncovered and
scavenge air forces the ex-
haust gases into the gas
collector (E) and through the
turbine. Air in the cushion
cylinders is fully compressed
to "bounce" the pistons back
for a fresh cycle.
Fig. 243.—Basic cycle of the free-piston turbine

THB GAS TURBINE 467
The figure shows schematically a free-piston gas generator
turbine system. It consists of two horizontally placed opposed
piston diesel engines working at a high degree of supercharging
on two stroke cycle principle. Each of the piston is made integral
with another piston which acts as air compressor on its inner face.
Fuel is injected between two pistons at its inward stroke. As
the fuel burns, the two pistons move outward performing the
expansion stroke. Air is compressed at the other end in a specially
designed chamber called Bounce chamber. The pistons are driven
inward by the energy of the air compressed in the Bounce chamber.
Air at a pressure of 5 to 7 bar is admitted at the air chamber and
from there in the engine cylinder. A mixture of air and gas enter
the turbine where useful work is done at the output shaft. The
two pistons are connected by a light mechanical linkage to syn-
chronise the two piston movements and for injection of fuel.
The free piston gas generator takes the place of combustion
chamber and compressor of the gas turbine cycle. The tempe-
rature level in both the power units is moderate. The work for
compression is reduced. The engine itself is more efficient since
the pistons work under perfect balance condition and there is
minimum of friction. The turbine size for the same output is
reduced as it is not required to supply compressor work.
Air flow rate is much less, for that smaller intake and exhaust
ducts are needed. Due to smaller size and lower temperature
in the system the material requirement need not be critical.
Inspite of many advantages the system has some inherent
difficulties. The mechanical problem of reciprocating pistons in
the engine and compressor remains. There is some problem of
starting and control of output. The fuel injection and synchro-
nisation with variable load remain other areas of difficulty which
need to be tackled.
It will be apparent that the gas generator is mechanically
balanced and thermodynamically symmetrical. It is not subjected
to any unbalanced forces of the type encountered in diesel engines.
The entire output of compressor is delivered to the diesel engine at
a comparatively high pressure. The products of combustion are
discharged at a pressure lower than that of the incoming air. The
free piston gas turbine is actually a highly supercharge diesel
engine compounded with an expansion turbine. The turbine is
468 THB GAS TURBINE
arranged for total admission with no throttle valve fitted before the
turbine.
Inspite of many advantages the system has same inherent
difficulties. The speed of reciprocation of a free piston engine
is not an independent variable as it is in a crankshaft engine. It is
dependent on gas pressure in the various cylinders. The range of
speed from no load to full load is limited. The stroke of the piston
changes and the permissible minimum stroke being determined by
uncovering of the scavenge ports. The power output is controlled
by controlling the quantity of fuel admission in the combustion
chamber, which has the effect of varying the stroke and hence
mass flow through the turbine. The power output of the turbine is
proportional to the mass of gas generated. Increase in gas flow
increases delivery pressure and at the same time the gas temper-
ature. The mechanical problem of reciprocating pistons in the
engine and compressor remains. There is some problem of starting
and control of output. The fuel injection and synchronisation with
variable load remain other areas of difficulty which need to be
tackled.
Miscellaneous Questions
1. Compare the Otto, Dual and Diesel cycles on Ts and Pv diagrams
under conditions of same maximum temperature and heat input.
Prove by reasoning which cycle is the most efficient.
2. In what manner does the actual C I engine cycle differ from the theore-
tical air cycle?
3. With respect to four stroke cycle supercharged engine draw a valve
timing diagram in relation to indicator diagram and discuss the signi-
ficance of
(a) Period of overlap.
(b) Exhaust valve opening early or late.
(c) Inlet valve opening early or late.
(d) Fuel injection early or late.
4. With respect to a two stroke supercharged engine cycle draw the timing
diagram in relation to the indicator diagram and explain the signi-
ficance of
(a) Exhaust port or valve opening early or late.
(b) Air port opening early or late.
(c) Fuel, injection early or late.
5. Why high compression pressure is economical in a diesel engine?
What are the considerations for determining the maximum and mini-
mum compression ratios ? What is the result of loss of compression ?
6. State and explain different Power ratings used to distinguish diesel
engines.
How is the Brake Power determined in the test bed shop trial of diesel
engines?
7. Define specific fuel consumption and explain its significance. Give
typical values for large two-stroke engines and medium speed four
stroke engines on I P and B P basis.
8. Explain the various losses that take place in a diesel engine. State
approximate normal values. How the losses can be minimised?
9. How can the power density increase in a diesel engine cylinder?
Discuss the parameters which can be manipulated and state the limi-
tations in each.
470 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
10. Explain the mean piston speed and state how does it effect —
(a) the power generation,
(b) "working of the engine.
What are the values of m. p. s. in slow speed, medium speed
and highspeed engines? What considerations limit its value?
11. What should be the basic properties of a fuel suitable for combustion
in diesel engine? Explain how does it affect the engine type.
12 What is heavy fuel oil? What are the difficulties encountered in
burning such oil in diesel cylinder and how they are overcome?
13. Define viscosity of oil and state how it is measured and expressed?
Explain the importance of viscosity-
(a) in effecting fuel injection
(b) in lubrication
(c) in the storage and handling.
14. With reference to combustion of fuel in the diesel engine cylinder,
discuss the factors i n the design which promote a smokeless combustion.
Sketch an example of a combustion chamber and justify how those
requirements have been satisfactorily met.
How the efficiency of combustion can be lowered?
IS. Discuss the factors in the design and in service subsequently which
influence perfect combustion of fuel in the diesei cylinder. What are
the undesirable effects of faulty or imperfect combustion?
16. With reference to comubustion of liquid fuel in a diesel cylinder explain
the significance and limitations of the following :
(a) Water content in fuel.
(b) Combustion carbon value check in ms
(c) Sulphur Content
(d) Injection pressure
(e) Delivery timing.
( 0 Ignition quality.
17. Sketch the fuel system of a large diesel engine and comment specifi-
cally on the importance of the following :
(i) Heating arrangement with control of over and under
temperature.
(ii) Prevention of gas lock in the system,
(iii) Cleanliness of fuel.
18. Explain the necessity of maintaining a steady value of viscosity.
Describe the action of an automatic device for control of viscosity.
19. With reference to two stroke cycle engine operation explain the seque-
nce of events that follow during the process of scavenging. Comment
on the relative merits of Uniflow and Reversed flow systems. Select
one example of each type from actual applications and justify their
adaptation.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS 471
20. With reference to supercharging comment on —
(i) the objectives and the real gain
(ii) the injection timing and pressure
(iii) maximum cylinder pressure
(iv) compression pressure
(v) point of exhaust release
(vi) the system of turbo-supercharging.
21. Discuss supercharging of a diesel engine employing constant pressure
and pressure pulse systems. Comment on relative advantages and
disadvantages. Mention m. e. p. rating, exhaust temperature, pressure
and air pressure and justify their adoptation in each case.
22. Describe the principal constructional features of a turbocompressure
rotor which are distinguishable according to its function. Explain
the process of diffusion and state how does it take place
23. With reference to the construction of a turbocharger, sketch and
describe
(a) the rotor bearing and its method of lubrication
(b) rotor gland seal
(c) rotor blades and its fixture
(d) impeller and its fixture.
Mention material of construction and state the probable faults likely
to appear in each case and the periodic maintenance required.
24. Explain the phenomen of 'Surging' in the turbo compressor. What are
its harmful effects? Select any two engine systems and state the
measures adopted in the design and operation to obviate the possibility
of surging.
25. What reference to an air cooler
(a) show the method of construction.
(b) explain the necessity of controlling the temperature
before the engine.
(c) • the degree of cooling in relation to atmospheric humidity
and temperature.
26. With reference to an exhaust system explain —
(a) Exhaust interference
(b) Exhaust tuning.
Howdo these affect the performance of an engine? Sketch and exhaust
system from an engine and describe how these are avoided.
27. Discuss generally the various types of fuel injection systems employed
with diesel engines mentioning advantages in each case.
28. Sketch and describe the common rail system of the Doxford engine
and comment on the following :
(a) how the system adopts itself to quick fluctuation in
demand?
(b) how fuel is controlled quantitatively with variation of
load?
29. Compare the common rail system of injection as exemplified in Doxford
engine with that of the 'jerk type'. State and explain with at least two
reasons to justify its adoption.
30. Sketch and describe the Doxford timing valve and detail the procedure
of its setting.
31. Discuss the types of basic fuel pumps employed in diesel engine injec-
tion systems stating methods of quantity control. Comment on the
suitability or otherwise in pump control with
(a) constant beginning and variable end
(b) variable beginning and constant end
(c) two end control.
32. Sketch and describe any type of port controlled fuel pump. Explain
the meaning of 'effective stroke', 'idle stroke'. How to ascertain
commencement of delivery and termination of delivery? Does it
vary with control position?
33. It is said that 'the zero admission is the basic pump setting' in port
controlled pump. Explain the statement. How is the zero admission
of an individual pump set and then matched in the engine hand and
governor control.
34. What is a cam? Explain its function. With reference to the appli-
cation in a diesel engine discuss the requirements and the type of cam
used in.
(a) fuel pump.
(b) exhaust valve.
(c) inlet valve
(d) indicator drive
(e) starting air distributor.
35. Sketch and describe a camshaft chain drive arrangement. Discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of chain drive over the gear drive
of camshafts.
What arrangement is provided for retensioning the chain? How to
rectify faults arising out of a snapped chain and advanced timing of
fuel cams.
36. Detail the procedure for fitting a replacement fuel pump and its synchro-
nisation with the engine injection system. Enumerate the faults which
may lead to such a necessity. What measures may be taken to enhance
the service life of a fuel pump.
37. Sketch and describe the construction of essential features of a hydrau-
lically operated fuel injection valve.
Enumerate the faults which may arise in course of its service and
explain in each case the effects of such faults on engine operation.
State how and at what intervals a fuel injection valve needs to be set.
3«. With reference to a fuel valve, comment on the following :
(a) the location.
(b) number, size and angle of orifice holes
(c) cooling and the cooling media
(d) quantity control.
39. Analyse the stress system in a diesel engine and mention the type of
loading on
(a) bed blate
(b) engine frame
(c) tie bolts.
(d) foundation bolts.
Discuss the materials of construction and methods of manufacture.
40. What causes vibration in the engine system? What is a critical vibra-
tion? Mow one would come to know the existence of a dangerous
critical?
41. What is damping in a vibratory system? Explain the function and
the method of construction of
(a) vibration dampers
(b) vibration isolators
State where each of them can be fitted.
42. Discuss generally the types of vibration an engine system is subjected
to and comment on the measures taken in the design and in operation
to reduce the peak amplitude.
43. Sketch and describe the construction of —
(a) a cylinder cover stud,
(b) a bottom end bolt.
Discuss the principal properties of material required and mention the
material.
Analyse the conditions under which these may fail in service. State
features in the construction which are aimed to prevent failure.
Discuss the necessity of hydraulic tightening and describe the method.
44. Sketch the construction of a tie rod showing —
(a) method of fitting.
(b) securing to prevent vibration.
Discuss the necessity of providing tie rods and stresses to which these
are subjected to.
How the tensioning of tie-rods are to be checked?
45. In a diesel engine system bolt failure has caused serious damages to
the engine.
Discuss why these components seem more vulnerable to service failure.
What features in the design and in service are paitcularly directed to
prevent such failures. Is there any difference in the working condi-
tion between two-stroke and four-stroke engine?
46. Bolts with parallel fitted surfaces are used to secure different members
in the engine system.
Select two such example and comment on the necessity of such fittings.
Sketch and describe the construction of one such bolt and detail the
attention it requires to prevent a service failure.
47. Discuss generally the lubrication of a diesel engine and hence state
the properties of lubricating oil which figure promiently in the matter
of its choice.
48. Discuss lubrication of a journal bearing under the following heading:
(a) The condition of contact surfaces while stationery.
(b) The process of wear.
(c) The action of lubricant in effecting hydrodynamic condi-
tion.
(d) The effectiveness of lubricating oil properties under
boundary conditions.
49. Discuss the problems associated with the lubrication of top end bearing
of a diesel engine connecting rod. Give details of the various methods
adopted in the design to prevent overloading and ensure lubrication-
Elaborate your answer by drawing a top end bearing of any engine as
an example.
50. Discuss the problems associated with lubrication of the cylinder liner.
In this respect comment on the following :
(a) properties of lubricating oil
(b) working condition
(c) timing the injection of oil
(d) location of the oil feed points.
(e) quantity of oil feed.
State approximate values of oil feed per b h p/hour for two stroke and
four stroke engines.
51. Sketch and describe the lubrication system of a large marine diesel
engine. Make reference to tests for determining the quality of lubri-
cating oil.
52. Enumerate the various contaminants that tend to deteriorate the pro"
perties of lubricating oil. Mention the periodical tests with the off
limit unacceptable values. State the effects of contaminants in each
case and mention how oil can be recovered for use again.
53. With reference to cylinder lubrication, explain how it is performed?
Sketch and describe the operation of a cylinder lubricator mentioning
in particular how the quantity of feed is regulated? What are the bad
effects of feeding (a) more oil, (b) less oil.
54. Discuss suitability of material for construction of "bed plate.
Discribe the construction and show how it is secured with tank top.
What defects these members are subjected to ?
55. Analyse the major stresses which arise in the crankshaft of a diesel
engine. Discuss the properties of material required. Mention special
treatment which helps to improve the service life.
56. Describe the method of construction of large diesel engine crankshaft.
Explain the factors considered in establishing the position of the cranks
and the firing sequence.
57. Describe the method of checking the wear down of main bearings by
means of deflection gauge. Give a set of values and interpret the
result to ascertain the condition of main bearings.
58. With reference to a large diesel engine crankshaft, state:-
(a) the factors in the design
(b) the factors in the operation.
Which would influence its alignment. Give possible bad effect of
misalignment.
59. Discuss the various factors affecting the failures of crankshafts in
marine diesel engines.
Mention the characteristic types and probable places of failure.
60. Sketch and describe a two stroke engine piston with dimensions.
Comment on
(a) variation in diameter
(b) the necessity for long or short skirt
(c) fitting of rubbing and scraper rings.
61. Discuss the development of a modern piston with reference to
(a) material of construction
(b) thermal deformation
(c) cooling medium
(d) combustion of fuel.
62. With reference to piston ring,
(a) analyse the working condition
(b) outline method of manufacture
(c) considerations that specify number and location of
piston rings.
What are the causes for ring failure?
63. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of fresh unevaporated
water, evaporated water and lubricating oil for cooling of main engine
pistons.
What selective treatment the cooling media has to undergo in each
case and for what reason?
64. With reference to the liner of a large two stroke engine :
(a) discuss material of construction
(b) method of manufacture.
How the sealing of cooling water space is achieved?
65. What examinations are carried out on pistons and liners and at what
intervals?
(a) without dismantling the piston
(b) after dismantling the piston.
How could the piston crown be burnt and with what consequence?
66. Discuss the indications and causes of the following :
(a) an overheated piston.
(b) a leaky or broken piston ring.
(c) crack in the cylinder head or piston crown.
What immediate measures should be adopted following the detection?
67. Explain in detail the effects on diesel engine cylinder liners consequent
upon
(a) the use of low grade fuel oil
(b) increase in m. e. p. rating.
What methods have been adopted in the design and in operation to
minimise these effects ?
68. Detail the procedure of calibrating a cylinder liner. How the results
should be presented for future reference? State the normal rate of
wear —
(a) when burning low grade fuel
(b) when burning clean distillate fuel.
69. Sketch and describe the construction of a cylinder cover. Comment
on the following :
(a) advantages of composite construction
(b) difficulty in cooling
(c) nature of deposits and their removal.
(d) defects to which these are subjected to.
70. Discuss generally the evolution of cylinder heads from earlier C. I.
construction to present day solid type commenting on —
(a) the ideal requirements to be satisfied
(b) selection of material of construction
(c) ammeanability to processing techniques
(d) method of cooling.
71. State the approximate composition of a bearing material suitable for a
diesel engine and mention its physical properties. Describe a process
of lining a bearing shell and comment on
(a) methods of bonding
(b) methods of inspection.
72. Enumerate the reasons for which a bearing may be overheated. What
are the indications for an overheated bearing. What damage may be
caused if the engine is allowed to run in that condition?
73. With reference to an engine bearing write short notes on —
(a) galling and its effect
(b) wear and its effect
(c) cracks
(d) formation of hard surface.
74. Discuss the requirements of a diesel engine bearing metal and the
general trend towards its development. Comment on the merits and
limitationof
(a) directly lined bearing
(b) tri-metal bearing
(c) insert type thin-shell bearings.
75. Describe the procedure for the removal and examination of main
engine bearings top and bottom shell. What defects are looked for?
76. Describe, in detail, an arrangement which permits the main propul-
sion diesel engine to be manoeuvred from the bridge. Illustrate your
answer with diagramatic sketches showing all the necessary instrumen-
tation and safety devices.
77. Describe a comprehensive alarm system suitable for an automated
machinery space and comment on
(a) its effectiveness
(b) action to take following an alarm condition.
78. Discuss the limitations and advantages of gas turbines for marine
propulsion and express opinions as to their future role.
Give an outline description of a marine gas turbine plant.
79. Explosions in starting air lines and crankcase have caused hazard in
the engine room. Discuss the factors which influence such hazards.
Explain the (a) protective and (b) preventive devices that have been
developed.
80. Sketch and describe the operation of a governor suitable for diesel
generator.
81. What is meant by the term'droop'in governor characteristics? What
is the advantage or otherwise of droop. Describe the action of a
governor which limits droop.
82. Sketch and describe the action of a starting system mentioning parti-
cularly.
(a) an interlock device which prevents the control being
placed in a wrong direction.
(b) an interlock device which prevents wrong direction of
rotation.
83. Sketch and describe an air starting valve and explain its action.
How an explosion may be propagated in the starting air line.
Describe the protective devices.
84. Explain the operation of a crankcase mist detector. What maintenance
does this instrument require for efficient performance.
85. Describe by simple sketches the function of a Distributor in the starting
system of a diesel engine.
86. Sketch and describe a reversing servomotor used in the Sulzer engine.
How does the camshaft set for astern running?
87. Describe the procedure to be adopted in the event of failure of one
turbo-charger out of a two-charger installation. How is the engine
affected and what precautions to be taken (a) to run the engine (b)
to the defective charger.
88. Discuss the effects of the following on engine—
(a) late injection
(b) early injection
(c) chocked inlet
(d) leaky piston ring.
Show how these defects affect the indicator card.
89. Discuss the problems of safety which arise in the unmanned auto-
mated machinery space.
90. Describe how the amount of fuel is controlled in modem day diesel
engines? Explain the effect of advancing the fuel cam on —
(a) exhaust temperature
(b) cylinder pressure
(c) specific fuel consumption.
91. Describe with the aid of sketches the construction of an all welded
starting air bottle.
Give details of construction of welded joints and subsequent treatment.
What are the mountings and what maintenance does it require?
92. Sketch and describe the construction of a piston for a medium speed
engine. Comment on
(a) use of aluminium alloy for piston
(b) working clearness
(c) reasons for overheating
(d) method of lubrication and cooling.
93. Describe the safety measures that are built in the main engine system
of a motor ship whose machinery space is left periodically unmanned.
94. With reference to the construction of main engine turbochargers
explain how
(a) axial thrust is balanced.
(b) shock loading is eliminated
(c) noise level reduced
(d) air pressure raised.
95. Give reasons which govern the clearance of the following bearings —
(a) crosshead guides
(b) connecting rod top end
(c) bottom end
(d) thrust.
96. Define each of the following terms and explain its relevance to combu-
stion —
(a) cetane number
(b) after burning.
(c) ignition delay
(d) detonation
(e) turbulance.
97. Explain why the performance of camshaft chains fall off in service.
Describe, with the aid of an indicator diagram, the effect of 'fall off'
has on engine performance.
Describe how the fall off is corrected.
98. State with reasons, two places in a crankcase that should be examined
for cracks.
Describe a test if cracking is suspected.
Describe a repair if crack is found.
99. Describe the instruments and equipments necessary for the automatic
control of the temperature of cooling water at inlet to the engine.
100. Give reasons for the occurrence of scavenge fires. Explain how
scavenge fires constitute a hazard.
Suggest ways of combating scavenge fire.
480 INDEX
Combustion chamber . . 44,463

Combustion curve 313
Air Bottles 301 liquid fuel 42
Air Exhaust series system 66 space components 371
Starting system .. 303,405 Common rail system .. 88
Air starting valve 285 Compressor 72
Alarm system .. .. 336,339 operation of . . 75
Ash content 40 Compressor presence 312
Automation 327 Compression ratio 12
Auxiliary air 303 connecting rod 253
connecting rod for
B 4 stroke engine 256
Bearing Crosshead .. 165,379, Contaminated oil 41
407,416 Controller 333
Bearing 82,244 & 441 Coolant 321
Cooling system 323
Bearing, crank 418
Corrosion 49
Bearing defects in 249
Crank case explosion 350
Diesel engines 244
Inspection door 358
Diesel engine, main 250
relief doors 352
Bearing Metal . . 246
Crank shaft 190,440
Bed Plate .. 389,400
Casting process 194,198
Bolts & Studs .. 158,259
Construction 191
Bore cooling 382
deflection 201
Brake Power 25
deflection curve 207
Bridge control 342 failure 208
Brittle fracture . . 137
Tension of Chain 107
Brown Boveri Turbo <:harger 77
alignment of .. 196
C Charging system 368
Cycle 8
Calorific value . . 38 Constant volume 3
Cam, fuel 100 Constant pressure 4
technology 101 Comparison of 7
fuel valve 131 Dual combustion 5
Cam shaft .. 103,380 actual 8
adjustment 107 Selection of 16
reversing 288 Crosshead bearing 398,416
Shaft drive for 103 Crosshead guide 365
Carbon residue . . 40 Crosshead lubrication 378
Casing 463
Clutch shoe 457 Cylinder air starting valve 283
Chemical inhibitors 326 Cylinder cover .. .. 373,401
Chocking 319 MAN .. .. 241
Cleaning procedure 86 Cylinder head .. .. 432
481
Cylinder liner, examination 237 F

Cylinder liner 229,401 &4O9 Fault detection .. 317
MAN 234
393 Fatigue .. .. 138
Cylinder Lubrication
Cylinder Lubricator 143 Fatique crack .. .. 141
Fatique corrosion .. 140
D Firing sequence .. 150
Dampers vibration 156 Fire detection .. .. 349
Damping 153 Fire in scavence space 425
Dial deflection gauge 198 Flashpoint .. .. 34
Diesel cycle 4 Friction of wear .. 50
Diesel engines maintenance 305 Fuel cam .. .. 100
Diesel engines piston 217 Fuel consumption .. 21
Diesel fuels 28 Fuel Pump .. .. 93
Diffuser 73 Fuel injection systems 375
Distributor (Air) 286 Fuel pump Setting .. 115,123
Doxford Engine 384 governor connection 127
Droop 265 Fuel pump .. .. 96,414
Dynamometer 21 Fuel pump Sulzer RND 110
Draw diagrams 311 valve controlled .. 112
Dual combustion cycle 5 Fuel MAN .. .. 117
Fuel Oil system .. 113
Fuel pump, peilstick .. 121
E Fuel Pump B & W .. 125
Emergency devices 347 Fuel pump setting . . 115,123
Engine Balance 386 Fuel setting of .. 91,116 & 118
Efficiency (engine) 17 Starting .. .. 297
Efficiency mechanical .. 21 Fuel valve .. .. 131,135
Engine control • 345
Engine structure 364
Engine dimension 14
dynamical system 148
Engine two stroke 137
Engine frame 431 Gas compression system 129
Engine medium speed 488 Gas turbine .. .. 458
Engine weight 19 Gauging piston ring . . 224
Engines, starting & Gauges dial reflection 198
reversing 297 Gear train .. .. 104
Engines testing 24 Governing .. .. 31
Exhaust grouping 59 Governors .. .. 261
Exhaust manifold 423 Governors Overspeed type 270
Exhaust valve 243,433 & 437 Governors, principles 273
Expansion curve 314 Governors woodward .. 272
Explosion doors 357 Governors S. G. . . 27s
fpJ^v^N^tr**
482
H N
Heat Balance . . 27 Nozzle ring . . . . 81
Heavy oil burning 40
Hot spot 351 O
I Oil properties . . .. 134
Oil evaluation after use 183
Ignition phases of 38
Impellor 72 Oil mist ditector .. 353
Indicator diagrams Level type .. .. 355
308
Injection advances 120 Oil, treatment of .. 182
Oiliness .. .. 163
Injection Pump .. .. 93,415
Oil, overall intervals . . 307
Injectors setting 133
Oilput compatibility of
Inhibitors 256
Engine .. .. 19
Intercooler 85
Oil measurement .. 31
Inertia 147
Opposed piston principle 385
Inertia forces 145
Oxidation .. .. 225
J Otto Cycle . . . . 2
journal bearing 164
Peilstick engine .. .. 437

Liner cylinder . . .. 229,234
fuel pump .. .. 121
installing new .. 410
Performance criterion 20
Liquid fuel, combustion 42
Piston .. .. 209,413
Load (torque) limit . . 279,277
Disel engine . . .. 217
Lubricants 181.298&318
Cooling .. .. 219
Lubricator Cylinder . . 172,177
Piston materials for .. 212
Lubrication .. .. 164
Piston, connecting rod 435
Lubrication, Diesel eng. 167,
173 & 164 Piston, oil & Water cooled 211
Lubrication, cylinder 168.172& Piston Overhauling 224
177 Piston Ring .. . . 220,222
Lubrication Oil cooler 185 Piston ring clearances .. 227
Lubrication oil filter 187 Cooling .. .. 377
Lubrication oil system 449 Piston speed Mean .. 17
Lubrication properties 170 Piston water cooled 215
Lubrication Oil amp. 180 Piston, upper and lower 394
Ports .. .. 43
M Ports Power Brake .. 25
MAN engine . . .. 429 Power Balancing .. 315
Materials for construction of 146 Power, indicated .. 23,25
Main Bearings . . .. 250,442 Power ratings .. .. 21
Mist Detector .. 328 Power tramissions .. 453
Mean Piston speed .. 17 Power turbine . . .. 465
483
Pressure, mean effective 21 Test code 25

variation 52 Test result, presentation of 24
Pressure compression 312 Tie Bolt 367
Pulse system 57 Tie rod .. . . 107,287
Pump 71 Timing valve Doxford engine 90
Pump drive 452 Timing valve shaft 104
Transducer 259
R Trials, kind of 25
Redwood sees. 32 Turbine blading.. 81
Relay governor 269 Turbing wasing of , 83
Reasonance 152 Turbing 342
Reversing .. .. 293,450 Turbo chargess RR 78
RND Engine 362 Tubro charger, four stroke 70,73
Running direction interlock 381 Brown Boveri 77
Turbo charging constant 292
S Turbo charging two stroke
Safety devices .. . . 297,298 engine 62
33
Turbo charging, exhaust
Scavenging, types of .. gas 57,61
Scavenge fire 348 Tubo charging series
Scavenging servomechanism 267 system 63,66
Servomotor for reversing 289 Turbo charging two stage 68
Setting direction 296 four stroke eng. . . 70
Specific gravity 35 Turbo charging 424
Speed, medium engine 427 operation of 370
Speed governing 31 Turning moment 150
Stress & Strain 136 Two-stroke engine 111
Stress distribution 143 V
T
Strting system 281
Valve 285 Vibration 152
Culinder air 283 Vibration torsional ., 155
MAN 291 Vibration transverse 154
Sulzer 293 Vibration damping . . 1156,332
Stroke 10 Vibration Fractional .. 118
Exhaust 11 Viscosity measurment of 37
Sulphur, presence in oil 36 Viscosity controller 46.328&330
Sump, lubricating oil .. 180
Supercharging 13,15
w
Washing, turbine 83
T Wear, cylinder liner 238
TDC lift 119 Working cycle 19
Tempreature controller 331 Working stress 192
for cooling water 334 Seres parallel system .. 66
Tensioning hydraulic tie bolts 368 Seres system
\
PUWJCATfONS
CumntSwirt
2. ^ ••.
3. Rule of the Road w*h latest amentlmente
:v 4. Rule of the Road Models (235 Carfc) .'
J 8. Maritime Law of India . . . ^-^2. . .
^.M«cfwrSh1pplng^*t«58^^^^
7. Lie Saving AppHanca* Butee t978/
13. Marine Pdl • •/ • * * • • * * * * * • • • • . - • A.
f4. MAMSN
. .
1
£>•/ i ^4B> ftatata^bMk antaââJ'^?Mâa4a%a>A I M J ( ^ aî AaM^kâ^ '
-'C'-.- *#*--#^ iMBiiP V M H I uiynioi uyjf.rv. ovmysi * • ..
M.V.Hbd«htePrx*«em«byCaptT.KJo«ph
.L
20. by capt^Rirs»iBt ^
P.M.aarma . . I . >r Ra.
,^-
I.I
^*!&k. *Si. 'f*
295
• I T
Fig. 141 Starting Control System SulzerRND

1 DVS Prinsiples & Practice of Marine Diesel Engines 85 (Turbo)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 DVS Prinsiples & Practice of Marine Diesel Engines 85 (Turbo)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 DVS Prinsiples & Practice of Marine Diesel Engines 85 (Turbo)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

PRINCIPLES 8.

The book is intended for use as a text book in basic courses

The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution by

Sulzer Brothers Ltd.

Reprint Aug. 1990

Copyright © all rights reserved

Published by V.K. Bhandarkar of Bhandarkar Publications D-46,

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. K.S.

This edition has been enlarged by new additions Changes are

The author acknowledges with flianks the B.B.C. Brown

The author acknowledges the following as source of illust-

Sulzer Bros. Ltd. RD, RND, RNM, RLA &

MAN KZE.KZB and VV 40/45

B&W K-GF engine

FUELS & COMBUSTION

AIR AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS

FUEL INJECTION EQUIPMENTS

Common rail system 88

ANALYSIS OF DIESEL ENGINE STRESSES

Stress & strain 136

LUBSICAHON IN DIESEL ENGINES

DIESEL ENGINE COMPONENTS

STARTING AND REVERSING

Master air starting valve 283

MAINTENANCE OF DIESEL ENGINES

Overhaul Intervals 306

AUTOMATION IN DIESEL ENGINE

Viscosity Controller 330

THE GAS TURBINE

The Gas Turbine 459

THE GAS TURBINE

The Gas Turbine 459

(49) Sulzer RND Fuel Pump 111

(63) Transition Temperature of M.S. from

(104) Diesel engine Piston (Pielstick) in

(122) Simple Sheet action governor 262

(77) (a) Cylinder cover stud 159

(89) Main Engine Bed Plate 189

(160) A Simple Alarm System 336

(164) Crank Case relief doors 353

(168) Full size diagram ofRND Engine 362

(134) Air Starting Master Valve 282

(146) Indicator Instrument 308

(155) Viscosity Controller (EVR-CONTROL) 328

(187) Typical exhaust arrangement 384

(218) Cross-sectional view of MAN. W 40/54 engine 429

(222) Cylinder head 432

(239) Gas turbine Cycle 458

Reprint Aug. 1990

© all rights reserved

Published by V.K. ^nanclarkar °f Bhandarkar Publications D-46,

Air and Exhaust Systems

A two stroke engine, invented little later than the four-stroke

fig. 18 Uniflow Scavenging

on the relative positions of exhaust and air ports, the reversed