FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Module 5:
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Overview

In general, the liquids and gases are the states of a matter that comes under the same
category as “fluids”. The incompressible flows are mainly deals with the cases of
constant density. Also, when the variation of density in the flow domain is negligible,
then the flow can be treated as incompressible. Invariably, it is true for liquids
because the density of liquid decreases slightly with temperature and moderately with
pressure over a broad range of operating conditions. Hence, the liquids are considered
as incompressible. On the contrary, the compressible flows are routinely defined as
“variable density flows”. Thus, it is applicable only for gases where they may be
considered as incompressible/compressible, depending on the conditions of operation.
During the flow of gases under certain conditions, the density changes are so small
that the assumption of constant density can be made with reasonable accuracy and in
few other cases the density changes of the gases are very much significant (e.g. high

VTUPulse.com
speed flows). Due to the dual nature of gases, they need special attention and the
broad area of in the study of motion of compressible flows is dealt separately in the
subject of “gas dynamics”. Many engineering tasks require the compressible flow
applications typically in the design of a building/tower to withstand winds, high speed
flow of air over cars/trains/airplanes etc. Thus, gas dynamics is the study of fluid
flows where the compressibility and the temperature changes become important.
Here, the entire flow field is dominated by Mach waves and shock waves when the
flow speed becomes supersonic. Most of the flow properties change across these
waves from one state to other. In addition to the basic fluid dynamics, the knowledge
of thermodynamics and chemical kinetics is also essential to the study of gas
dynamics.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 1

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Thermodynamic Aspects of Gases

In high speed flows, the kinetic energy per unit mass V 2 2 is very large which is

substantial enough to strongly interact with the other properties of the flow. Since the
science of energy and entropy is the thermodynamics, it is essential to study the
thermodynamic aspects of gases under the conditions compressible high speed flows.

Perfect gas: A gas is considered as a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions,

electrons etc.) that are in random motion under certain intermolecular forces. These
forces vary with distances and thus influence the microscopic behavior of the gases.
However, the thermodynamic aspect mainly deals with the global nature of the gases.
Over wide ranges of pressures and temperatures in the compressible flow fields, it is
seen that the average distance between the molecules is more than the molecular
diameters (about 10-times). So, all the flow properties may be treated as macroscopic
in nature. A perfect gas follows the relation of pressure, density and temperature in
the form of the fundamental equation.

VTUPulse.com p   RT ; R 
R
M

Here, M is the molecular weight of the gas, R is the gas constant that varies from gas
(4.1.1)

to gas and R   8314 J kg.K is the universal gas constant. In a calorically perfect

gas, the other important thermodynamic properties relations are written as follows;

 h   e 
cp   ; cv  ; cp  cv  R
  p   v (4.1.2)
 R R c
c T ;c  T ;   p
p
 1 v  1 cv

In Eq. (4.1.2), the parameters are specific heat at constant pressure  c p  , specific heat

at constant volume  cv  , specific heat ratio    , specific enthalpy  h  and specific

internal energy e .

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 2

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
First law of thermodynamics: A system is a fixed mass of gas separated from the
surroundings by a flexible boundary. The heat added q  and work done  w on the

system can cause change in energy. Since, the system is stationary, the change in
internal energy. By definition of first law, we write,

 q   w  de (4.1.3)

For a given de , there are infinite number of different ways by which heat can be
added and work done on the system. Primarily, the three common types of processes
are, adiabatic (no addition of heat), reversible (no dissipative phenomena) and
isentropic (i.e. reversible and adiabatic).

Second law of thermodynamics: In order to ascertain the direction of a

thermodynamic process, a new state variable is defined as ‘entropy  s  ’. The change

in entropy during any incremental process  ds  is equal to the actual heat added

divided by the temperature dq T  , plus a contribution from the irreversible

VTUPulse.com
dissipative phenomena  dsirrev  occurring within the system.

ds 
q
T
 ds
irrev
(4.1.4)

Since, the dissipative phenomena always increases the entropy, it follows that

q 
ds  ; ds  0 Adiabatic process (4.1.5)
T

Eqs. (4.1.4 & 4.1.5) are the different forms of second law of thermodynamics. In order
to calculate the change in entropy of a thermodynamic process, two fundamental
relations are used for a calorically perfect gas by combining both the laws of
thermodynamics;

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 3

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

VTUPulse.com

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 4

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Compressibility  : It is defined as the fractional change in the density of the fluid

element per unit change in pressure. One can write the expression for  as follows;

1  d  
  d    dp
 
(4.1.12)


dp
In order to be more precise, the compression process for a gas involves increase in
temperature depending on the amount of heat added or taken away from the gas. If the
temperature of the gas remains constant, the definition is refined as isothermal
compressibility T  . On the other hand, when no heat is added/taken away from the
gases and in the absence of any dissipative mechanisms, the compression takes place
isentropically. It is then, called as isentropic compressibility s  .

1    1   
T   ; s   (4.1.13)
  T   s
 
p p
Being the property of a fluid, the gases have high values of compressibility

VTUPulse.com
  10
T
5
m2 N for air at 1atm

much less than that of gases 

 while liquids have low values of compressibility
T 
 51010 m2 N for water at 1atm . From the basic

definition (Eq. 4.1.12), it is seen that whenever a fluid experiences a change in

pressure dp , there will be a corresponding change in d  . Normally, high speed
flows involve large pressure gradient. For a given change in dp , the resulting change
in density will be small for liquids (low values of  ) and more for gases (high values
of  ). Therefore, for the flow of liquids, the relative large pressure gradients can
create much high velocities without much change in densities. Thus, the liquids are
treated to be incompressible. On the other hand, for the flow of gases, the moderate to
strong pressure gradient leads to substantial changes in the density (Eq.4.1.12) and at
the same time, it can create large velocity changes. Such flows are defined as
compressible flows where the density is a variable property and the fractional change
in density d    is too large to be ignored.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 5

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Fundamental Equations for Compressible Flow

Consider a compressible flow passing through a rectangular control volume as shown

in Fig. 4.1.1. The flow is one-dimensional and the properties change as a function of
x, from the region ‘1’ to ‘2’ and they are velocity u  , pressure  p  , temperature T  ,

density    and internal energy  e . The following assumptions are made to derive

the fundamental equations;

 Flow is uniform over left and right side of control volume.

 Both sides have equal area  A , perpendicular to the flow.

 Flow is inviscid, steady and nobody forces are present.

 No heat and work interaction takes place to/from the control volume.

Let us apply mass, momentum and energy equations for the one dimensional flow as
shown in Fig. 4.1.1.

VTUPulse.com
Conservation of Mass:

1u1 A  2u2 A  0  1u1  2u2 (4.1.14)

Conservation of Momentum:

 (u A)u   (u A)u  ( p A  p A)  p   u 2  p   u2 (4.1.15)

1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2

Steady Flow Energy Conservation:

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 6

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
 p
Here, the enthalpy h  e  is defined as another thermodynamic property of the
  
 
gas.

Fig. 4.1.1: Schematic representation of one-dimensional flow.

VTUPulse.com

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 7

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Wave Propagation in a Compressible Media

Consider a gas confined in a long tube with piston as shown in Fig. 4.2.1(a). The gas
may be assumed to have infinite number of layers and initially, the system is in
equilibrium. In other words, the last layer does not feel the presence of piston. Now,
the piston is given a very small ‘push’ to the right. So, the layer of gas adjacent to the
piston piles up and is compressed while the reminder of the gas remains unaffected.
With due course of time, the compression wave moves downstream and the
information is propagated. Eventually, all the gas layers feel the piston movement. If
the pressure pulse applied to the gas is small, the wave is called as sound wave and
the resultant compression wave moves at the “speed of sound”. However, if the fluid
is treated as incompressible, the change in density is not allowed. So, there will be no
piling of fluid due to instantaneous change and the disturbance is felt at all other
locations at the same time. So, the speed of sound depends on the fluid property i.e.
‘compressibility’. The lower is its value; more will be the speed of sound. In an ideal
incompressible medium of fluid, the speed of sound is infinite. For instance, sound
travels about 4.3-times faster in water (1484 m/s) and 15-times as fast in iron (5120

VTUPulse.com
m/s) than air at 20ºC.

Let us analyze the piston dynamics as shown in Fig. 4.2.1(a). If the piston moves
at steady velocity dV , the compression wave moves at speed of sound a into the
stationary gas. This infinitesimal disturbance creates increase in pressure and density
next to the piston and in front of the wave. The same effect can be observed by
keeping the wave stationary through dynamic transformation as shown in Fig. 4.2.1
(b). Now all basic one dimensional compressible flow equations can be applied for a
very small control enclosing the stationary wave.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 8

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Continuity equation: Mass flow rate  m  is conserved across the stationary wave.

a 
m   a A     d   a  dV  A  dV   d  (4.2.1)
  

Momentum equation: As long as the compression wave is thin, the shear forces on
the control volume are negligibly small compared to the pressure force. The
momentum balance across the control volume leads to the following equation;

 1 
 p  dp  A  pA  m a  m  a  dV   dV    dp (4.2.2)
 a 

VTUPulse.com

Fig. 4.2.1: Propagation of pressure wave in a compressible medium: (a) Moving wave; (b) Stationary wave.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 9

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Energy equation: Since the compression wave is thin, and the motion is very rapid,
the heat transfer between the control volume and the surroundings may be neglected
and the thermodynamic process can be treated as adiabatic. Steady flow energy
equation can be used for energy balance across the wave.

1 
h  a   h  dh   a  dV 
2 2
 dV  dh
  (4.2.3)
2 2  a 

Entropy equation: In order to decide the direction of thermodynamic process, one can
apply T  ds relation along with Eqs (4.2.2 & 4.2.3) across the compression wave.

dp
T ds  dh   0  ds  0 (4.2.4)


Thus, the flow is isentropic across the compression wave and this compression wave
can now be called as sound wave. The speed of the sound wave can be computed by
equating Eqs.(4.2.1 & 4.2.2).

VTUPulse.com
Further simplification of Eq. (4.2.5) is possible by evaluating the differential with the
use of isenropic equation.

p
 constant  ln p   ln   constant (4.2.6)
 

Differentiate Eq. (4.2.6) and apply perfect gas equation  p   RT  to obtain the

expression for speed of sound. is obtained as below;

 p   p p 
   a   RT (4.2.7)
 s  

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 10

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Mach number

It may be seen that the speed of sound is the thermodynamic property that varies from
point to point. When there is a large relative speed between a body and the
compressible fluid surrounds it, then the compressibility of the fluid greatly influences
the flow properties. Ratio of the local speed V  of the gas to the speed of sound a 

is called as local Mach number M  .

V
M  V (4.2.8)
a  RT

There are few physical meanings for Mach number;

(a) It shows the compressibility effect for a fluid i.e. M  0.3 implies that fluid is
incompressible.

(b) It can be shown that Mach number is proportional to the ratio of kinetic to internal
energy.

VTUPulse.com V 2  V
2

e
2  V 22
2

cvT RT    
 1 a
 2 V 2   1 2
  
2
 1

2
M (4.2.9)

(c) It is a measure of directed motion of a gas compared to the random thermal motion
of the molecules.

2 directed kineticenergy
M2 V  (4.2.10)
a2 random kineticenergy

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 11

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Compressible Flow Regimes

In order to illustrate the flow regimes in a compressible medium, let us consider the
flow over an aerodynamic body (Fig. 4.2.2). The flow is uniform far away from the
body with free stream velocity V  while the speed of sound in the uniform stream is

a . Then, the free stream Mach number becomes M    V a  . The streamlines can

be drawn as the flow passes over the body and the local Mach number can also vary
along the streamlines. Let us consider the following distinct flow regimes commonly
dealt with in compressible medium.

Subsonic flow: It is a case in which an airfoil is placed in a free stream flow and the
local Mach number is less than unity everywhere in the flow field (Fig. 4.2.2-a). The
flow is characterized by smooth streamlines with continuous varying properties.
Initially, the streamlines are straight in the free stream, but begin to deflect as they
approach the body. The flow expands as it passed over the airfoil and the local Mach
number on the top surface of the body is more than the free stream value. Moreover,

VTUPulse.com
the local Mach number M  in the surface of the airfoil remains always less than 1,

when the free stream Mach number M   is sufficiently less than 1. This regime is

defined as subsonic flow which falls in the range of free stream Mach number less
than 0.8 i.e. M   0.8 .

Transonic flow: If the free stream Mach number increases but remains in the
subsonic range close to 1, then the flow expansion over the air foil leads to supersonic
region locally on its surface. Thus, the entire regions on the surface are considered as
mixed flow in which the local Mach number is either less or more than 1 and thus
called as sonic pockets (Fig. 4.2.2-b). The phenomena of sonic pocket is initiated as
soon as the local Mach number reaches 1 and subsequently terminates in the
downstream with a shock wave across which there is discontinuous and sudden
change in flow properties. If the free stream Mach number is slightly above unity
(Fig. 4.2.2-c), the shock pattern will move towards the trailing edge and a second
shock wave appears in the leading edge which is called as bow shock. In front of this
bow shock, the streamlines are straight and parallel with a uniform supersonic free
stream Mach number. After passing through the bow shock, the flow becomes
subsonic close to the free stream value. Eventually, it further expands over the airfoil

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 12

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
surface to supersonic values and finally terminates with trailing edge shock in the
downstream. The mixed flow patterns sketched in Figs. 4.2.2 (b & c), is defined as the
transonic regime.

Fig. 4.2.2: Illustration of compressible flow regime: (a) subsonic flow; (b & c) transonic flow; (d) supersonic flow; (d)
hypersonic flow.

Supersonic flow: In a flow field, if the Mach number is more than 1 everywhere in

VTUPulse.com
the domain, then it defined as supersonic flow. In order to minimize the drag, all
aerodynamic bodies in a supersonic flow, are generally considered to be sharp edged
tip. Here, the flow field is characterized by straight, oblique shock as shown in Fig.
4.2.2(d). The stream lines ahead of the shock the streamlines are straight, parallel and
horizontal. Behind the oblique shock, the streamlines remain straight and parallel but
take the direction of wedge surface. The flow is supersonic both upstream and
downstream of the oblique shock. However, in some exceptional strong oblique
shocks, the flow in the downstream may be subsonic.

Hypersonic flow: When the free stream Mach number is increased to higher
supersonic speeds, the oblique shock moves closer to the body surface (Fig. 4.2.2-e).
At the same time, the pressure, temperature and density across the shock increase
explosively. So, the flow field between the shock and body becomes hot enough to
ionize the gas. These effects of thin shock layer, hot and chemically reacting gases
and many other complicated flow features are the characteristics of hypersonic flow.
In reality, these special characteristics associated with hypersonic flows appear
gradually as the free stream Mach numbers is increased beyond 5.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 13

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
As a rule of thumb, the compressible flow regimes are classified as below;

M  0.3 incompressibleflow
M  1 subsonic flow
0.8  M  1.2 transonicflow
M  1 supersonic flow
M  5 and above hypersonic flow


Rarefied and Free Molecular Flow: In general, a gas is composed of large number of
discrete atoms and molecules and all move in a random fashion with frequent
collisions. However, all the fundamental equations are based on overall macroscopic
behavior where the continuum assumption is valid. If the mean distance between
atoms/molecules between the collisions is large enough to be comparable in same
order of magnitude as that of characteristics dimension of the flow, then it is said to
be low density/rarefied flow. Under extreme situations, the mean free path is much
larger than the characteristic dimension of the flow. Such flows are defined as free
molecular flows. These are the special cases occurring in flight at very high altitudes

VTUPulse.com
(beyond 100 km) and some laboratory devices such as electron beams.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 14

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Isentropic and Characteristics States
An isentropic process provides the useful standard for comparing various types of
flow with that of an idealized one. Essentially, it is the process where all types of
frictional effects are neglected and no heat addition takes place. Thus, the process is
considered as reversible and adiabatic. With this useful assumption, many
fundamental relations are obtained and some of them are discussed here.

Stagnation/Total Conditions

When a moving fluid is decelerated isentropically to reach zero speed, then the
thermodynamic state is referred to as stagnation/total condition/state. For example, a
gas contained in a high pressure cylinder has no velocity and the thermodynamic state
is known as stagnation/total condition (Fig. 4.3.1-a). In a real flow field, if the actual

conditions of pressure  p  , temperature T  , density    , enthalpyh , internal

energy  e  , entropy  s  etc. are referred to as static conditions while the associated

stagnation parameters are denoted as p0 ,T0 , 0 , h0 , e0 and s0 , respectively. The

VTUPulse.com
stagnation state is fixed by using second law of thermodynamics where
represented in enthalpy-entropy diagram called as the Mollier diagram (Fig. 4.3.1-b).
s  s0 as

Fig 4.3.1: (a) Schematic representation of stagnation condition; (b) Mollier diagram.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 15

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

VTUPulse.com

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 16

 FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Characteristics Conditions

Consider an arbitrary flow field, in which a fluid element is travelling at some Mach
number  M  and velocity V  at a given point ‘A’. The static pressure, temperature

and density are p,T and  , respectively. Now, imagine that the fluid element is

adiabatically slowed down if M  1 or speeded up if M  1 until the Mach

number at ‘A’ reaches the sonic state as shown in Fig. 4.3.2. Thus, the temperature
will change in this process. This imaginary situation of the flow field when a real state
in the flow is brought to sonic state is known as the characteristics conditions. The
associated parameters are denoted as p ,T  ,   , a etc.

VTUPulse.com Fig. 4.3.2: Illustration of characteristics states of a gas.

Now, revisit Eq. (4.3.2) and use the relations for a calorically perfect gas, by
R
replacing, c p and a   RT . Another form of energy equation is obtained as
 1
below;

a12 u1 2 2 a22 u2
   (4.3.7)
 1 2  1 2

At the imagined condition (point 2) of Mach 1, the flow velocity is sonic and u 2 a .
Then the Eq. (4.3.7) becomes,

a2 u2  a2 a2


  
 1 2  1 2


(4.3.8)
a2 u2  1 2
or,   a
 1 2 2( 1)

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 17

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Like stagnation properties, these imagined conditions are associated properties of any
fluid element which is actually moving with velocity u . If an actual flow field is non-

adiabatic from A  B , then a  aA .OnB the other hand if the general flow field is

adiabatic throughout, then a is a constant value at every point in the flow. Dividing
u2 both sides for Eq. (4.3.8) leads to,

u   1  1   a 
2

 a 1
2
2 2( 1) u 
 
 2
(4.3.9)
or, M 2 
  1 / M 2     1

This equation provides the relation between actual Mach number M  and

characteristics Mach number M 

 . It may be shown that when M approaches

infinity, M  reaches a finite value. From Eq. (4.3.9), it may be seen that

VTUPulse.com
M  1  M  1
M  1  M  1
M  1  M  1 (4.3.10)
 1
M    M  
  1

Relations between stagnation and characteristics state

The stagnation speed and characteristics speed of sound may be written as,

a0   R T0 ; a   RT  (4.3.11)

Rewrite Eq. (4.3.7) for stagnation conditions as given below;

a2 u2 a2
  o (4.3.12)
 1 2  1

Equate Eqs. (4.3.8) and (4.3.12),

 2
 1  0a2 2  a  T 
a       2 (4.3.13)
2  1  1  a 0  T0  1

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 18

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Critical speed and Maximum speed

The critical speed of the gas  u   is same as that speed of sound  a  at sonic state i.e.

u  a at M  1 . A gas can attain the maximum speed umax  when it is

hypothetically expanded to zero pressure. The static temperature corresponding to this

VTUPulse.com
state is also zero. The maximum speed of the gas represents the speed corresponding
to the complete transformation of kinetic energy associated with the random motion
of gas molecules into the directed kinetic energy. Rearranging Eq. (4.3.3), one can
obtain the following equation;

  1  2 
T0  T   u ; At T  0; u  umax  2 RT0
 2   1
 u R (4.3.16)
2
2
or,   
max 
 a0   1

Now, the Eqs (4.3.13) & (4.3.16) can be simplified to obtain the following relation;

umax   1
 (4.3.17)
a  1

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 19

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43




VTUPulse.com







Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 20

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43




Fig. 4.3.3: Steady flow adiabatic ellipse.

Thus, the change of slope from point to point on the ellipse indicates the change in
Mach number and hence the speed of sound and velocity. So, it gives the direct
comparison of the relative magnitudes of thermal and kinetic energies. Different
compressible flow regimes can be obtained with the knowledge of slope in Fig. 4.3.2.

VTUPulse.com
The following important inferences may be drawn;

- In high Mach numbers flows, the changes in Mach number are mainly due to
the changes in speed of sound.
- At low Mach numbers flows, the changes in Mach number are mainly due to
the changes in the velocity.
- When the flow Mach number is below 0.3, the changes in speed of sound is
negligible small and the flow is treated as incompressible.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 21

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
One-Dimensional Analysis
Mach Waves 

Consider an aerodynamic body moving with certain velocity V  in a still air. When

the pressure at the surface of the body is greater than that of the surrounding air, it
results an infinitesimal compression wave that moves at speed of sound  a  . These

disturbances in the medium spread out from the body and become progressively
weaker away from the body. If the air has to pass smoothly over the surface of the
body, the disturbances must ‘warn’ the still air, about the approach of the body. Now,
let us analyze two situations: (a) the body is moving at subsonic speed V  a; M  1 ;

(b) the body is moving at supersonic speed V  a; M  1 .

Case I: During the motion of the body, the sound waves are generated at different
time intervals t  as shown in Fig. 4.4.1. The distance covered by the sound waves

can be represented by the circle of radius at, 2at, 3at.......so on . During same time

VTUPulse.com
intervals t  , the body will cover distances represented by, Vt, 2Vt, 3Vt so on . At

subsonic speeds V  a; M  1 , the body will always remains inside the family of

circular sound waves. In other words, the information is propagated through the sound
wave in all directions. Thus, the surrounding still air becomes aware of the presence
of the body due to the disturbances induced in the medium. Hence, the flow adjusts
itself very much before it approaches the body.

Case II: Consider the case, when the body is moving at supersonic speed

V  a; M  1 . With a similar manner, the sound waves are represented by circle of

radius at, 2at, 3at.......so on after different time t  intervals. By this time, the body
would have moved to a different location much faster from its initial position. At any
point of time, the location of the body is always outside the family of circles of sound
waves. The pressure disturbances created by the body always lags behind the body
that created the disturbances. In other words, the information reaches the surrounding

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 22

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
air much later because the disturbances cannot overtake the body. Hence, the flow
cannot adjust itself when it approaches the body. The nature induces a wave across
which the flow properties have to change and this line of disturbance is known as
“Mach wave”. These mach waves are initiated when the speed of the body approaches

the speed of sound V  a; M  1 . They become progressively stronger with increase

in the Mach number.

VTUPulse.com Fig. 4.4.1: Spread of disturbances at subsonic and supersonic speeds.

Some silent features of a Mach wave are listed below;

- The series of wave fronts form a disturbance envelope given by a straight line
which is tangent to the family of circles. It will be seen that all the disturbance
waves lie within a cone (Fig. 4.4.1), having a vertex/apex at the body at time
considered. The locus of all the leading surfaces of the waves of this cone is
known as Mach cone.
- All disturbances confine inside the Mach cone extending downstream of the
moving body is called as zone of action. The region outside the Mach cone
and extending upstream is known as zone of silence. The pressure disturbances
are largely concentrated in the neighborhood of the Mach cone that forms the
outer limit of the zone of action (Fig. 4.4.2).

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 23

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

- The half angle of the Mach cone is called as the Mach angle   m  that can be

easily calculated from the geometry of the Fig. 4.4.1.


  M 




Fig. 4.4.2: Illustration of a Mach wave.

Shock Waves

Let us consider a subsonic and supersonic flow past a body as shown in Fig. 4.3.3. In
both the cases, the body acts as an obstruction to the flow and thus there is a change in
energy and momentum of the flow. The changes in flow properties are communicated

VTUPulse.com
through pressure waves moving at speed of sound everywhere in the flow field (i.e.
both upstream and downstream). As shown in Fig. 4.3.3(a), if the incoming stream is
subsonic i.e. M   1; V  a , the sound waves propagate faster than the flow speed
and warn the medium about the presence of the body. So, the streamlines approaching
the body begin to adjust themselves far upstream and the flow properties change the
pattern gradually in the vicinity of the body. In contrast, when the flow is supersonic,
(Fig. 4.3.3-b) i.e. M   1; V  a , the sound waves overtake the speed of the body
and these weak pressure waves merge themselves ahead of the body leading to
compression in the vicinity of the body. In other words, the flow medium gets
compressed at a very short distance ahead of the body in a very thin region that may
be comparable to the mean free path of the molecules in the medium. Since, these
compression waves propagate upstream, so they tend to merge as shock wave. Ahead
of the shock wave, the flow has no idea of presence of the body and immediately
behind the shock; the flow is subsonic as shown in Fig. 4.3.3(b).

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 24

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
The thermodynamic definition of a shock wave may be written as “the
instantaneous compression of the gas”. The energy for compressing the medium,
through a shock wave is obtained from the kinetic energy of the flow upstream the
shock wave. The reduction in kinetic energy is accounted as heating of the gas to a
static temperature above that corresponding to the isentropic compression value.
Consequently, in flowing through the shock wave, the gas experiences a decrease in
its available energy and accordingly, an increase in entropy. So, the compression
through a shock wave is considered as an irreversible process.

VTUPulse.com
Normal Shock Waves
Fig. 4.4.3: Illustration of shock wave phenomena.

A normal shock wave is one of the situations where the flow properties change
drastically in one direction. The shock wave stands perpendicular to the flow as
shown in Fig. 4.4.4. The quantitative analysis of the changes across a normal shock
wave involves the determination of flow properties. All conditions of are known
ahead of the shock and the unknown flow properties are to be determined after the
shock. There is no heat added or taken away as the flow traverses across the normal

shock. Hence, the flow across the shock wave is adiabatic  q  0  .

Fig. 4.4.4: Schematic diagram of a standing normal shock wave.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 25

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Two-Dimensional Analysis
Oblique Shock Wave

The normal shock waves are straight in which the flow before and after the wave is
normal to the shock. It is considered as a special case in the general family of oblique
shock waves that occur in supersonic flow. In general, oblique shock waves are
straight but inclined at an angle to the upstream flow and produce a change in flow
direction as shown in Fig. 4.5.1(a). An infinitely weak oblique shock may be defined
as a Mach wave (Fig. 4.5.1-b). By definition, an oblique shock generally occurs, when
a supersonic flow is ‘turned into itself” as shown in Fig. 4.5.1(c). Here, a supersonic
flow is allowed to pass over a surface, which is inclined at an angle   to the

horizontal. The flow streamlines are deflected upwards and aligned along the surface.
Since, the upstream flow is supersonic; the streamlines are adjusted in the
downstream an oblique shock wave angle   with the horizontal such that they are

parallel to the surface in the downstream. All the streamlines experience same

VTUPulse.com
deflection angle across the oblique shock.

Fig. 4.5.1: Schematic representation of an oblique shock.

(a) Attached shock; (b) Detached shock; (c) Strong and weak shock.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 26

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Oblique Expansion Waves

Another class of two dimensional waves occurring in supersonic flow shows the
opposite effects of oblique shock. Such types of waves are known as expansion
waves. When the supersonic flow is “turned away from itself”, an expansion wave is
formed as shown in Fig. 4.5.5(a). Here, the flow is allowed to pass over a surface
which is inclined at an angle   to the horizontal and all the flow streamlines are
deflected downwards. The change in flow direction takes place across an expansion
fan centered at point ‘A’. The flow streamlines are smoothly curved till the
downstream flow becomes parallel to the wall surface behind the point ‘A’. Here, the
flow properties change smoothly through the expansion fan except at point ‘A’. An
infinitely strong oblique expansion wave may be called as a Mach wave. An
expansion wave emanating from a sharp convex corner is known as a centered
expansion which is commonly known as Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave. Few
features of PM expansion waves are as follows;

VTUPulse.com
- Streamlines through the expansion wave are smooth curved lines.
- The expansion of the flow takes place though an infinite number of Mach
waves emitting from the center ‘A’. It is bounded by forward and rearward
Mach lines as shown in Fig. 4.5.5(b). These Mach lines are defined by Mach
angles i.e.
Forward Mach angle:  m1  sin1 1 M1  (4.5.11)
Rearward Mach angle:  m2  sin 1
1 M 2

- The expansion takes place through a continuous succession of Mach waves
such that there is no change in entropy for each Mach wave. Thus, the
expansion process is treated as isentropic.
- The Mach number increases while the static properties such as pressure,
temperature and density decrease during the expansion process.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 27

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Fig. 4.5.5: Schematic representation of an expansion fan.

The quantitative analysis of expansion fan involves the determination of

M 2 , p2 ,T2 and 2 for the given upstream conditions of M1 , p1 ,T1 , 1 and  2 . Consider

the infinitesimal changes across a very weak wave (Mach wave) as shown in Fig.
4.5.6.

VTUPulse.com
Fig. 4.5.6: Infinitesimal change across a Mach wave.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 28

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Use trigonometric identities and Taylor series expansion, Eq. (4.5.12) can be
simplified as below;

d 
dV V  (4.5.13)
tan m

1 1
Since, sin m   tan m  , so the Eq. (4.5.13) can be simplified and
M M 2 1
integrated further from region ‘1’ to ‘2’,

2 M2
d  M 2 1 dV   d   dV
M 2 1 V (4.5.14)
V  M
1 1

From the definition of Mach number,

V  Ma  dV  dM  da (4.5.15)
V M a
For a calorically perfect gas, the energy equation can be written as,
 1 2   1    1 2 1
2
a da

VTUPulse.com
o   1   
  M   M 1 M  dM (4.5.16)
 a 2 a  2   2 
Use Eqs (4.5.15 & 4.5.16) in Eq. (4.5.14) and integrate from   0 to 2 ,
2 M2


M 1 dM
2


1
d    2  0 
M1 1
 1 2 M
M
(4.5.17)

2
The integral in the Eq. (4.5.18) is known as Prandtl-Meyer function,  M  .

  1  1  1 2 1   tan1
  M    M11 dM  
2
M  tan  1 M M 2 1 (4.5.18)
1 M2  1  
2
Finally, Eq. (4.5.17) reduces to, 

 2    M 2    M 1  (4.5.19)

Thus, for a given upstream Mach number M 1 , one can obtain   M 1  , subsequently

calculate using given   M 2  and 2 . Since, the expansion process is isentropic, the

flow properties can be calculated from isentropic relations.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 29

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Hypersonic Flow

VTUPulse.com

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 30

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
The study/research on hypersonic flows revels many exciting and unknown flow
features of aerospace vehicles in the twenty-first century. The presence of special
features in a hypersonic flow is highly dependent on type of trajectory, configuration
of the vehicle design, mission requirement that are decided by the nature of
hypersonic atmosphere encountered by the flight vehicle. Therefore, the hypersonic
flight vehicles are classified in four different types, based on the design constraints
imposed from mission specifications.
- Reentry vehicles (uses the rocket propulsion system)
- Cruise and acceleration vehicle (air-breathing propulsion such as
ramjet/scramjet)
- Reentry vehicles (uses both air-breathing and rocket propulsion)
- Aero-assisted orbit transfer vehicle (presence of ions and plasma in the
vicinity of spacecraft)

Characteristics Features of Hypersonic Flow

VTUPulse.com
There are certain physical phenomena that essentially differentiate the hypersonic
flows as compared to the supersonic flows. Even though, the flow is treated as
supersonic, there are certain special features that appear when the speed of the flow is
more than the speed of sound typically beyond the Mach number of 5. Some of these
characteristics features are listed here;
Thin shock layer: It is known from oblique shock relation     M  that the shock

wave angle   decreases with increase in the Mach number M  for weak shock

solution. With progressive increase in the Mach number, the shock wave angle

reaches closer to the flow deflection angle   . Again, due to increase in temperature

rise across the shock wave, if chemical reaction effects are included, the shock wave
angle will still be smaller. Since, the distance between the body and the shock wave is
small, the increase in the density across the shock wave results in very high mass
fluxes squeezing through small areas. The flow region between the shock wave and
the body is known as thin shock layer as shown in Fig. 4.6.1(a). It is the basic
characteristics of hypersonic flows that shock waves lie closer to the body and shock
layer is thin. Further, the shock wave merges with the thick viscous boundary layer
growing from the body surface. The complexity of flow field increases due to thin

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 31

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
shock layer where the boundary layer thickness and shock layer thickness become
comparable.

VTUPulse.com
Fig. 4.6.1: Few important phenomena in a hypersonic flow: (a) Thin shock layer; (b) Entropy layer; (c) Temperature
profile in a boundary layer; (d) High temperature shock layer; (e) Low density effects.

Entropy layer: The aerodynamic body configuration used in hypersonic flow

environment is typically blunt to avoid thin shock layers to be closer to the body. So,
there will be a detached bow shock standing at certain distance from the nose of the
body and this shock wave is highly curved (Fig. 4.6.1-b). Since, the flow process
across the shock is a non-isentropic phenomena, an entropy gradient is developed that
varies along the distance of the body. At the nose portion of the blunt body, the bow
shock resembles normal to the streamline and the centerline of the flow will
experience a larger entropy gradient while all other neighboring streamlines undergo
the entropy changes in the weaker portion of the shock. It results in an entropy layer
that persists all along the body. Using the classical Crocco’s theorem, the entropy
layer may be related to vorticity. Hence, the entropy layer in high Mach number
flows, exhibits strong gradient of entropy which leads to higher vorticity at higher
magnitudes. Due to the presence of entropy layer, it becomes difficult to predict the
boundary layer properties. This phenomenon in the hypersonic flow is called as
vortcity generation. In addition to thin shock layer, the entropy layer also interacts

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 32

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
with viscous boundary layer that leads to very complicated and unknown flow
features.
Viscous-Inviscid interaction: When a high velocity, hypersonic flow is slowed down
in the vicinity of the aerodynamic body due to viscous effects within the boundary
layer, the major portion of the kinetic energy is transformed into the internal energy of
the gas known as viscous dissipation leading to increase in temperature. For a cold
wall, the typical temperature profile in a boundary layer is shown in Fig. 4.6.1(c).
Since, the pressure is constant in the normal direction through the boundary layer, the
increase in temperature results decrease in density. In order to pass through a given
mass flux at reduced density, the thickness of the boundary layer must be larger.
Thus, the displacement thickness increases, causing the body shape to appear much
thicker and displacing outer inviscid flow. Hence, the free stream flow encounters an
inflated object which changes the shock shape and in turn boundary layer parameters
such as surface pressure, wall heat flux, skin friction etc. Again, when the boundary
layer becomes thick, it essentially merges with the thin shock layer. Thus, there are

VTUPulse.com
major interactions of viscous boundary layer, thin shock layer and outer inviscid
flows. This phenomenon is known as viscous-inviscid interaction and has important
effect on the surface pressures and the stability of hypersonic vehicles.
High temperature effects: The kinetic energy of the high speed, hypersonic flow is
dissipated by the effect of friction within the boundary layer (Fig. 4.6.1-d). The
extreme viscous dissipation can result in substantial increase in temperature (~10000
K) exciting the vibration within the molecules and can cause dissociation, ionization
in the gas. Typically, in the range of 2000K-4000K, the oxygen molecules start
dissociating and with increase in temperature, dissociation of nitrogen molecules
takes place. Further increase in temperature (> 9000 K), ionization of both oxygen
and nitrogen can start. This leads to chemical reaction within the boundary layer. As a
result, the gases within the boundary layer will have variable specific heat ratio and
gas constant which are functions of both temperature and pressure. Therefore
treatment of air or any fluid flowing with hypersonic speed over any configuration
should be done properly by incorporating all the microscopic changes which
essentially leads to change in thermodynamic properties with temperature. If the
vibrational excitation and chemical reactions takes place very rapidly in comparison
to time taken by the fluid element to move in the flow field, then it is called as
equilibrium flow. When there is sufficient time lag, then it is treated as non-

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 33

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
equilibrium flow. All these phenomena are called as high temperature real gas effects.
The presence of high temperature reacting plasma in the vicinity of the flight vehicle
influence the aerodynamic parameters, aerodynamic heating and subsequently,
communication is blocked. Flight parameters like pitch, roll, drag, lift, defection of
control surfaces get largely deviated from their usual estimate of calorically perfect
gas. The presence of hot fluid in the vicinity of vehicle surface induces heat transfer
not only through convection but also through radiation. Communication waves which
are necessarily radio waves get absorbed by free electrons formed from ionization of
atmospheric fluid. This phenomenon is called as communication blackout where on
board flight parameters and ground communication is lost.

Low density flow: At standard sea level conditions, all the fluids are treated as
continuum so that the global behavior is same as that of average fluid properties. In
these conditions, the fluid contains certain desired number of molecules and the
average distance between two successive collisions of the molecules is specified by its

mean free path   7 10 m

9
. Since, the hypersonic flows are encountered at very

VTUPulse.com
high altitude (~100 km), the density of the medium is very less and the mean free path
may be in the order of 0.3m. So, the air is no longer a continuous substance, rather
treated as individual and widely spaced particles in the matter. Under these
conditions, all the fundamental equations based on continuum assumption break down
and they are dealt with the concepts of kinetic theory. This regime of the
aerodynamics is known as low-density flows. Further increase in altitude (~ 150 km),
the air density becomes so low that only a few molecules impact on the surface per
unit time. This regime of flow is known as free molecular flow. Thus, a hypersonic
vehicle moves in different flow regimes during the course of its flight i.e. from a
dense atmosphere to a rarefied atmosphere. The similarity parameter that governs
different regimes of the flow for certain characteristic dimension L , is then defined as
Knudsen number Kn  .

Kn   (4.6.4)
L

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 34

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43

Large value of Kn implies free molecular flow Kn   while small value of Kn is

the regime of continuum flowKn  0.2 as shown in Fig. 4.6.1(e). In the inviscid

limit, the value of Kn approaches to zero while the free molecular flow regime begins
with Kn  1 . In the low density regimes, the Boltzmann equation is used to deal with
the fundamental laws.

VTUPulse.com
Fig. 4.6.2: Characteristics features of hypersonic flow.

From these characteristics of hypersonic flows, it is clear that Mach number to be

greater than 5 is the most formal definition of hypersonic flow rather it is desired to
have some of the characteristics features summarized in Fig. 4.6.2. It is more
important that one of these characteristics features should appear in the flow
phenomena so that the definition becomes more appropriate. There are many
challenges for experimental simulation of hypersonic flow in the laboratory.
Understanding the challenges faced by hypersonic flight and driving solutions these
problems on case to case basic are the most research themes on hypersonic flows.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 35

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
Hypersonic Flow
Inviscid Hypersonic Flow Relations

In general, the hypersonic flows are characterized with viscous boundary layers
interacting the thin shock layers and entropy layers. The analysis of such flow fields is
very complex flows and there are no standard solutions. In order to get some
quantitative estimates, the flow field at very high Mach numbers is generally analyzed
with inviscid assumption so that the mathematical complications are simplified. In
conventional supersonic flows, the shock waves are usually treated as mathematical
and physical discontinuities. At hypersonic speeds, some approximate forms of shock
and expansion relations are obtained in the limit of high Mach numbers.

Hypersonic shock relations

Consider the flow through a straight oblique shock as shown in Fig. 4.7.1(a). The
notations have their usual meaning and upstream and downstream conditions are
denoted by subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’, respectively. Let us revisit the exact oblique shock

VTUPulse.com
relations and simplify them in the limit of high Mach numbers.

Fig. 4.7.1: Geometry of shock and expansion wave: (a) oblique shock; (b) centered expansion wave.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 36

FLUID MECHANICS 18ME43
What is fluid flow?

Fluid flows encountered in everyday life include

meteorological phenomena (rain, wind, hurricanes, floods, fires)

environmental hazards (air pollution, transport of contaminants)
heating, ventilation and air conditioning of buildings, cars etc.
combustion in automobile engines and other propulsion systems
interaction of various objects with the surrounding air/water
complex flows in furnaces, heat exchangers, chemical reactors etc.
processes in human body (blood flow, breathing, drinking . . . )
and so on and so forth

What is CFD?
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) provides a qualitative (and

VTUPulse.com
sometimes even quantitative) prediction of fluid flows by means of

• mathematical modeling (partial differential equations)

• numerical methods (discretization and solution techniques)

• software tools (solvers, pre- and postprocessing utilities)

CFD enables scientists and engineers to perform ‘numerical experiments’

(i.e. computer simulations) in a ‘virtual flow laboratory’

Why use CFD?

Numerical simulations of fluid flow (will) enable
Architects to design comfortable and safe living environments
designers of vehicles to improve the aerodynamic characteristics
chemical engineers to maximize the yield from their equipment
petroleum engineers to devise optimal oil recovery strategies
surgeons to cure arterial diseases (computational hemodynamics)
meteorologists to forecast the weather and warn of natural disasters
safety experts to reduce health risks from radiation and other hazards

Dept of Mechanical Engg, GMIT, Bharathinagara. Page 37