2019 07 24 As1170 190729022645

Determining Wind Loads Using
AS1170.2-2011
Determining wind speed, resulting pressures, and
the actual loads on a beam
Brooks H. Smith, CPEng, PE, MIEAust, NER, RPEQ

[email protected]
Outline
• Introduction
• AS1170.2 vs AS4055
• Determining Wind Loads
• Calculation Strategy
• Wind Speed
• Internal Pressures
• External Pressures
• Final Wind Load
• Example Wind Calculations
• Conclusion & Questions
23 July 2019 ClearCalcs.com | FEA Structural Design in the Cloud 2

Introduction – About the Presenter
Brooks H. Smith
• Chartered Professional Engineer
• MCivE, MIEAust, NER, RPEQ, P.E. (USA)
• Currently the lead engineering developer for ClearCalcs
• Recently released an AS1170.2 wind load calculator
• 8 years of previous experience in:
• Structural engineering R&D consulting, specialising in cold-formed steel
• Research fellowship in system behaviour of thin-walled steel
• Forensic structural engineering, specialising in reinforced and PT concrete

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Intro Video Hyperlink
ClearCalcs.com | FEA Structural Design in the Cloud 4

Introduction – Today’s Goals
• To determine the wind loads on a beam using AS1170.2
• Ultimate or service load cases
• Omni-directional or direction-specific calculations
• Assumption: Enclosed “rectangular” building that is dynamically insensitive
• We’ll distribute this slide deck and video after the webinar
• Please ask quick questions as I go – best to answer while on the topic
• Please ask using the “Q&A” feature, NOT the chat/messaging feature
• I’ll save involved questions until the end
• Note: Everything today is based on the standards
• We are not on the AS1170 committee, are not communicating any special
knowledge

Outline
• Introduction
• AS1170.2 vs AS4055
• Wind Speed
• Final Wind Load

AS1170.2 vs AS4055 – Restrictions
• AS4055 is intended only for residential houses:
• Class 1 & 10 structures, with geometry restrictions:
• AS1170.2 is intended for most onshore structures:
• ≤ 200m high, ≤ 100m free spans
• Many simplifying assumptions (generally conservative) AS4055, Fig1.1(a)
are taken in AS4055:

• Discrete classes (N1-N6, C1-C4) combine topographic and regional factors
• Assumes average roof height of 6.5m
• Applying worst-case wind in all directions
• 5% added conservativism
• Fewer zones for pressure coefficient calculations (AS4055-2012, Cl A3)

AS1170.2 vs AS4055 – Wind Speeds
• AS4055:
• Omni-directional topographic (T0-T5),
shielding (FS-NS), and terrain category (TC1-TC3)
factors combined with wind region in one table
• To get one Wind Classification: N1-N6, C1-C4
• AS1170.2:
• 8 directions considered independently
• Wind regions are similar, but additional probability of exceedance factor
• Topographic and shielding factors calculated by continuous formulas
• Design Wind Speed calculated separately for ultimate and service conditions

AS1170.2 vs AS4055 – Pressure Coefficients
• AS4055:
• 4 Pressure Zones: general G, roof edge RE,
roof corner RC, wall corner SC
• 𝐾" 𝐶$,& is looked up in one of a few tables
• AS1170.2:
• Numerous zones, dependent on
& determined for each wind direction
• Three 𝐾 factors, 𝐶$,' , and 𝐶$,( each calculated
independently then combined

AS1170.2 vs AS4055 – Uplift & Racking
• AS4055:
• Completely separate sections for uplift and
for racking, each with large lookup tables for
overall pressures
• Based upon numerous simplifications and
assumptions of worst-case ratios, 2.7m stories
• AS1170.2:
• Uplift or racking force = simple sum of all the external pressures calculated
• With one exception in that 𝑀* = 0.95 instead of 1.0 for structures in region B, C, or D

Outline
• Introduction
• AS1170.2 vs AS4055
• Wind Speed
• Final Wind Load

Calc Strategy – Calculation Heights
• Some calculations always based upon ℎ = average roof height
• Other calculations vary based upon 𝑧 = reference height
• In large structures, calculate windward wall loads at every floor 𝑧 individually
• In 1-2 story structures, might only calculate at 𝑧 = ℎ

Calc Strategy - Directions
• Site wind speed at 8 cardinal directions 𝛽
• N=0°, NE=45°, E=90°, … NW=315°
• Design wind speed at 4 building directions 𝜃
• front=0°, right=90°, back=180°, left=270°
• Some calculations are easier if “front” is taken as:
• Hip roofs: perpendicular to a long side of building
• Gable/monoslope roofs: perpendicular to ridge
• Cardinal direction of front of structure written as:
𝛽567 =?
• Also, done for both ultimate & serviceability

Calc Strategy – Overall
• There are two equations that really govern this process:
1. Site wind speed:
• The directional wind speed, including topographic and geographic considerations
• This gets converted into a “design wind speed” = 𝑉*(:,5 , based on building orientation
2. Design wind pressure:
• The actual pressure to be applied to the structure
• 𝐶;'< is usually the only value you need to worry about – but it’s a huge one
• Top of each slide will highlight the factor being considered

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Probability of Exceedance

• Only place where you have to refer to NCC 2019 (if you’re using it):
• Where:

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed - Regions

• Select your wind region
based upon location:
• Note that region “A” is
subdivided
• Also a similar map for
New Zealand

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Regional Wind Speed

• This is the non-directional base wind speed = 𝑉?
• Based upon probability of exceedance = 1/𝑅
• Cyclonic regions have a factor to account for a major cyclone hitting

• For R ≥ 50 years, 𝐹F = 1.05, 𝐹G = 1.1
• So usually, these values are used in ultimate, but not serviceability calculations

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Direction Multiplier

• Regions A or W:
• Based upon 8 cardinal directions:
• Regions B, C, or D:
• Based upon type of member, NOT direction:
• 𝑀* = 0.95 for actions on complete structures or major structural elements
• 𝑀* = 1.0 for all other actions (inc. cladding or “immediately supporting members”)

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed - Terrain / Height Multiplier

• Interpolated from terrain category in each direction & calc height
• TC1 = Very exposed open terrain (usually deserts and lakes)
• TC1.5 = Open water surfaces with waves (usually oceanfronts)
• TC2 = Open terrain with scattered obstructions (usually farmland)
• TC2.5 = Isolated trees or obstructions (usually outer suburbs)
• TC3 = Numerous closely-spaced obstructions (usually suburbs)
• TC4 = Numerous large obstructions (usually CBDs)
• May be averaged if it varies outward

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Shielding Factor

• Definition of shielding structure very important:
• Only buildings, within a distance of 20ℎ, with height ≥ reference height
• Determined independently for each 45° arc from structure
• Shielding “parameter”:
• 𝑏: = average breadth of shielding buildings

• ℎ: = average roof height
• 𝑙: = average spacing
• But “average spacing” doesn’t exactly mean the … average spacing:

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Hill Parameters

• Generally only consider features within min 500𝑚, 40ℎ
• 𝐻 = height of feature crest
• 𝐿R = horizontal distance upwind from crest to level half the height below crest
• 𝑥 = distance from structure to crest
• 𝐿T = max 0.36𝐿R , 0.4𝐻
• 𝐿Y = 8𝐿T for hills or ridges; 𝐿Y = 14𝐿T for escarpments

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Hill-Shape Multiplier

• Three possible equations, based upon ratio 𝐻⁄2𝐿R
• For 𝐻 ⁄2𝐿R < 0.05 – essentially flat:
• 𝑀] = 1.0
• For 0.05 ≤ 𝐻 ⁄2𝐿R ≤ 0.45:
• For 𝐻 ⁄2𝐿R > 0.45:

• As above equation 4.4(2)
• … except in separation zone, where:

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Topographic Factor

• Lee effect multiple 𝑀`(( = 1.0, except in New Zealand lee zones
• For Tasmania or NZ sites at elevation 𝐸 > 500𝑚:
• Everywhere else:
𝑀= = max 𝑀] , 𝑀`((
• Should always mean 𝑀= = 𝑀] ≥ 1.0

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed - Design Wind Speed

• 8 site wind speeds
→ 4 design wind speeds
• 𝛽 = cardinal direction
• 𝜃 = building direction
• 𝑉*(:,5 = max 𝑉:'=,>c±ef
• In words: design wind speed is
the maximum site wind speed
within ±45° of the direction of a
face of the building

𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
Wind Speed – Design Wind Speed

• Remember, repeat in 8 cardinal directions → 4 building directions!
• And for both ultimate & service limit states!

Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Internal Pressures - Permeability

• Two separate tracks, depending on if building is permeable or not:
• Impermeable = All surfaces’ openings are 𝐴h ≤ 0.5% of each surface
• Permeable = Any surface’s openings 𝐴h > 0.5% of a surface
• “Opening” defined in great detail in Cl 5.3.2
• But generally includes anything that can be opened, such as doors, windows,
ventilators, etc – unless specially-designed for resistance
• Structures in cyclonic regions should generally never be designed as
impermeable (as debris impacts may permeate the structure)

Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Internal Pressures - Impermeable Structure

• Values of 𝐶$,' are looked up in table
• Table itself uses a different definition
of “permeable”, where here:
• “Permeable” means 0.1% ≤ 𝐴h ≤ 0.5%
• “Impermeable” means 𝐴h < 0.1%
• Note some cells have two values
• These are two different load cases
• This also refers to wind direction
• Must still be considered separately
for all four building directions!

Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Internal Pressures – Permeable Structure

• Vital parameter is the “ratio of area of openings on one surface to the
sum of the total open area (including permeability) of other wall and
roof surfaces”
• Includes your roof! (skylights)
• Essentially, measuring how balanced your openings are between surfaces
• For example, if you have 1m2 of openings on three walls, but 3m2 of openings
on one wall, and no openings in the roof, then this maximum ratio would be
equal to 1.0, because 3⁄ 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.0

Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Internal Pressures – Permeable Structure

• Also looked up in table, but table
is more complex
• Enter and stay at the row for the
previously-calculated ratio
• Read the appropriate column based
upon your windward direction
• 𝐶$,( is the external pressure
coefficient for the given direction
(windward, leeward, side)
• For roof, there are different 𝐶$,(
values depending upon windward,
leeward, or side face of the roof

Y
𝑝( = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,( = 𝐶$,( 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$ m 𝐶*n&
External Pressures
Facing Wind Away from Wind Sides
Walls: Windward Leeward Side
Roofs: Upwind Downwind Crosswind
• For leeward walls, side walls, and roofs:

• 𝑧 = ℎ always (pressures always from avg roof height)
• For windward walls ONLY:
• May calculate at multiple 𝑧 values
• Note: “wall” pressure is also applied to
underside of adjacent eaves
• “roof” loads only mean top of roof

Y
External Pressures – Walls: Windward

• Simple table lookup:
• Basically 0.8, unless ≤ 25m building
where you don’t calculate windward
pressure at multiple 𝑧 values
• Elevated buildings have additional underside wind pressures:

]
• For 𝑧(`(p ≥
q
• 𝐶$,( = 0.8, −0.6
]
• For 𝑧(`(p < , linearly interpolate to zero:
q
• 𝐶$,( = swtutv
⁄x
m 0.8, stutv
w⁄x
m (−0.6)

Y
External Pressures - Walls: Leeward

• Be careful of 𝑑 vs 𝑏 values!
• Definition changes depending
on wind direction (0, 90, 180, or 270)
• 𝑑 is parallel to wind direction

Y
External Pressures – Walls: Side

• Side walls have multiple pressure “zones”, depending on distance
from windward edge
• But remember that wind can come from 4 directions, so within 1ℎ of either
end will have highest coefficient for matching design wind speed

Y
External Pressures – Roofs: Upwind Slope

• Low-slope (𝛼 < 10°), like side walls,
varies by distance from windward edge
• Again, 𝑑 depends on the wind direction!
• Parenthesised values are because it’s not
physically possible for ℎ⁄𝑑 ≥ 1 at given
distance from edge of roof
• Steeper roofs have a single pair of

coefficients
• Again, two load cases

Y
External Pressures – Roofs: Downwind Slope

• Low-slope (𝛼 < 10°) has same table as
for upwind
• Steeper roofs have a single coefficient

• And lots of linear interpolation

Y
External Pressures – Roofs: Crosswind Slope

• All gable roofs use same table
• For hip roofs with 𝛼 ≥ 10°

• While very rare in practice, it is not clear
in the standard what you would do for
the crosswind slope of a hip roof having
𝛼 < 10°

Final Wind Loads – Constants for Building
• Up to now, all calculations only have to be done once per building
~<
• 𝜌A'l = 1.2 •x
• Additionally, 𝐶*n& = 1.0 by our assumptions
• And will usually be 1.0 – as long as the first-mode natural frequency ≥ 1.0 Hz
• Various 𝐾 factors depend on the element for which load is calculated
𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5

Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Y

Final Wind Loads – Wind Directions
• Rearranging formulas:
Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 𝐶$,' 𝐶*n& m 𝐾",'
Y
𝑝( = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 𝐶$,( 𝐶*n& m 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$
• There are 4 wind directions, 4 sides, 2 pressure coefficients per side

• Take worst-case of all four wind directions
• So 8 values of 𝑝' and 16 values of 𝑝( (8 for walls + 8 for roof)

Y
Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
Final Wind Loads – Combination Factors

• All of the wind loads calculated are worst-case, and it’s not always
reasonably possible for the worst to occur on every surface at once
• So, for designing a system, such as a portal frame, effected by multiple
surfaces, there are combination factors that can be used to reduce loads
• Table 5.5 has many examples, but this is the governing clause:
• With two caveats:

1. an internal surface only counts if 𝐶$' > 0.2 (i.e. tiny internal
pressures can’t be used to reduce combinations)
2. “roof” is one surface

Y
Final Wind Loads – Area Reduction Factor

• Accounts for locally high wind loads somewhat averaging out over a
surface
• Depends upon tributary area of element being considered
• Only applicable to elements on sidewall and roof

Y
Final Wind Loads – Permeable Cladding Fact.

• Accounts for permeability reducing external pressure somewhat
• For when surface both:
1. Consists of permeable cladding
2. Open areas are relatively small: 0.1% < 𝐴h < 1.0%
• Only applicable to elements on sidewall and roof

Y
Final Wind Loads – Local Pressure Factor

• Accounts for the leading edge having much higher pressures
• Only applicable to loads on cladding and members that directly support
cladding (and relevant connections)
• 𝑎 = min 0.2𝑏, 0.2𝑑, ℎ
• Additional reduction factor for parapets
• See Table 5.7

Y
𝑓 = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'< = 𝐶; m 𝐶*n&
Final Wind Loads – Frictional Drag

• Up to now, every load has been perpendicular to its surface
• If the building is relatively long (compared to either breadth or
height), a frictional force is also applied parallel to the surface
* *
• If > 4 or >4
] •
• Applied evenly to entire area of roof and sidewall after 4ℎ or 4𝑏

Final Wind Loads - 𝑾𝒖 and 𝑾𝒔
• Can now finally calculate your 𝑊R and 𝑊: values
• Multiply pressures by tributary areas in appropriate load combinations

• Still usually 2 values for 𝑊R and 2 values for 𝑊: for a given member on a given
side of the building
• Usually, 𝐴' = 𝐴( for a given member, but not always
𝑊RT = 𝑝',•'& 𝐾",' 𝐴' + 𝑝(,•A‡ 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$ 𝐴(

𝑊RY = 𝑝',•A‡ 𝐾",' 𝐴' + 𝑝(,•'& 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$ 𝐴(
𝑊:T = 𝑝',:,•'& 𝐾",' 𝐴' + 𝑝(,:,•A‡ 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$ 𝐴(
𝑊:Y = 𝑝',:,•A‡ 𝐾",' 𝐴' + 𝑝(,:,•'& 𝐾A 𝐾",( 𝐾` 𝐾$ 𝐴(

Outline
• Introduction
• AS1170.2 vs AS4055
• Wind Speed
• Final Wind Load

Example #1 – Omni-Directional Simple
𝑏 = 14
𝑚
ℎ = 6𝑚
𝛼 = 30
°
𝑑 = 10
𝑚
• 1-story rectangular house

• “Front” oriented 10° (= NNE)
• Openings ratio = 0.5, largest on front
• 21 Ercildoune Street, Caulfield North, VIC 3161
• Melbourne SE
• Flat terrain, surrounded by numerous houses

Example #2 – Directional Complex Site
𝑏=2
2𝑚
ℎ=9
𝛼=1 𝑚
5°
𝑑=1
7𝑚
• 2-story polygonal-shaped house

• “Front” oriented 15° (= NNE)
• Openings ratio = 2.0, largest on front
• 63 Ellsworth Drive, Mount Louisa, QLD 4814
• Townsville
• Immediately south of Mount Louisa (185m)
• 2-story houses North, East, South
• Open terrain to West
Outline
• Introduction
• AS1170.2 vs AS4055
• Wind Speed
• Final Wind Load

Summing It Up
• Compared to AS4055, AS1170.2 is:
Widely Applicable • Fewer Simplifications • Directional • One Procedure
• AS1170.2 Wind Design includes:
• Wind Speed: Regional Speed → Direction & Topo Factors → Building Orient
𝑉:'=,> = 𝑉? 𝑀* 𝑀@,"A= 𝑀: 𝑀= → 𝑉*(:,5
• Internal Pressures: Permeability → (Openings Ratio →) Table Lookup
Y
𝑝' = 0.5𝜌A'l 𝑉*(:,5 m 𝐶;'<,' = 𝐶$,' 𝐾",' m 𝐶*n&
• External Pressures: 3 Wall Face Lookups + 3 Roof Slope Lookups
Y
• Final Wind Loads: Combine Wind Dir’s → 𝐾 Factors → 𝑊RT, 𝑊RY, 𝑊:T, 𝑊:Y
• We performed omni-directional and direction-specific examples

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Appendix
About ClearCalcs
22 July 2019 ClearCalcs Pty Ltd 52

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Determining Wind Loads Using

Brooks H. Smith, CPEng, PE, MIEAust, NER, RPEQ

23 July 2019 ClearCalcs.com | FEA Structural Design in the Cloud 2

22 July 2019 ClearCalcs.com | FEA Structural Design in the Cloud 3

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are taken in AS4055:

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• Top of each slide will highlight the factor being considered

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Wind Speed – Probability of Exceedance

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Wind Speed - Regions

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Wind Speed – Regional Wind Speed

• Cyclonic regions have a factor to account for a major cyclone hitting

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Wind Speed – Direction Multiplier

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Wind Speed - Terrain / Height Multiplier

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Wind Speed – Shielding Factor

• 𝑏: = average breadth of shielding buildings

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Wind Speed – Hill Parameters

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Wind Speed – Hill-Shape Multiplier

• For 𝐻 ⁄2𝐿R > 0.45:

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Wind Speed – Topographic Factor

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Wind Speed - Design Wind Speed

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Wind Speed – Design Wind Speed

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Internal Pressures - Permeability

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Internal Pressures - Impermeable Structure

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Internal Pressures – Permeable Structure

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Internal Pressures – Permeable Structure

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• For leeward walls, side walls, and roofs:

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External Pressures – Walls: Windward

• Elevated buildings have additional underside wind pressures:

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External Pressures - Walls: Leeward

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External Pressures – Walls: Side

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