— UNIT 1: Crystal Properties and Charge Carriers in Semiconductors Elemental and compound semiconductor materials, crystal lattice structure, bonding forces and bands in solids, charge carriers in semiconductors, carrier concentrations, drift of carriers in el magnetic fields. UNIT 2: Excess Carriers in Semiconductors Optical absorption, luminescence, carrier life time and photo conductivity, diffusion of carriers. UNIT 3: Junction Properties Equilibrium conditions, biased junctions, steady state conditions, reverse bias break down, transi AC conditions. Metal semiconductor junctions. UNIT 4: Transistors Metal-semiconductor-field-effect-transistors (MESFET), — Metal-insulator-semiconductor-fiek transistors (MISFET), Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET): Coi operation and characteristics of above devices. Bipolar junction transistors: Fundamentals operation, amplification with BJTs, UNIT 5: Some Special Devices Photodiodes, photo detectors, solar cell, light emitting diodes, semiconductor lasers, light matérials. Tunnel diode: degenerate semiconductors, IMPATT diode; The transferred electron ‘The GUNN diode. P-N-P-N diode, semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR), bilateral devices: TRIAC, IGBT.Show by a sketch that the BCC lattice can be represented by two interpenetrating SC lattice. To simplify the sketch show a <100> view of the lattice (Semester I, 2011-12, 2 Marks) Find the maximum fractions of the unit cell volume that can be filled by hard spheres in the SC, BCC and diamond lattices. (Semester III, 2011-12, 2 Marks) Explain why holes are found at the top of the valence band whereas electrons are found at the bottom of the conduction band. (Semester III, 2011-12, 2 Marks) Sketch of BCC lattice represented by two interpenetrating SC lattice <100> a (P+ +P)? hi, = a don Prose Simple Cubic: There is one lattice point at each of eight corners of the unit cell. Moreover each lattice point forming the simple cubic lattice is a member of eight surrounding cells. Therefore, the share of each lattice point to the cubic lattice = 1/8 Shaded planes are (100) planes in the SC lattice No. of lattice point in unit cell = i x8=1 There is only one lattice point per unit cell Face Centered Cubic Lattice: Each unit cell consist of eight corner lattice points each being a member of eight surrounding cells. Moreover there exists six lattice points each being a member of two cells, “Total no. of comer lattice point concerned with unit cell = 8 x ; =1 Total no. of face centered lattice points concerned with unit cell = 6 « ; =3 Total no. of lattice points concerned with unit cell = 1 +3 = 4.44 (©) Q.2. (a) (b) Sol. (a) (b) Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Body Centered Cubic Lattice: In a unit cell there are eight lattice points at comers and each of them is a member of 8 surrounding cells. Also there is one lati at the center of body. Therefore Total no. of body centered lattice poinv/unit cell = | Total no. of comer lattice point attached to unit cell = 8 « : Total no. of lattice points concerned with unit cell = 1 + 1 = 2 Holes are found at the top of the valence band because the valence band elec rearrange themselves so that they occupy the lowest energy states, leaving only the energy level vacant. Electrons in conduction band will similarly rearrange themsel that they occupy the lowest energy states. What do you mean by mobility ofa carrier’? How does it depend on temperature and. concentrations? (Semester IIT, 2011-12, 6 Obtain the volume density of Si atoms with its lattice constants of 5.3 A. (Semester IIL, 2011-12, 6 Mobility of Carrier: It is the average particle drift velocity per unit electric field. VQ) © €@) Dependence of Mobility on Temperature: The mobility decreases when the s heated or its temperature is increased under lattice scattering, per? For impurity scattering mobility decreases with decrease in temperature pop? Dependence of Mobility on Doping Concentration: As the concentration of the increases the electron mobility decreases due to increase in number of impurity se centers. My ———> Impurity concentration Given: Lattice constant = 5.3 A Find volume density of Si atomsCrystal Properties and Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 4.5 : r nlume density ~ No-of atomspercube (Lattice constant)* For Si atoms per cube (sg+4%6) x2=8 ince Si have 8 comer lattice point, 6 face centered points and 2 atoms. pias Semel (53x10) =5.37* 10 cm? Ans. With a suitable sketch describe briefly the lattice structure of GaAs. (Semester III, 2010-11, 5 Marks) folume density = =5.37= 10" cm? : (Semester IV, 2009-10, 5 Marks) tat are Miller indices? Show the (643) plane and the (643) direction in a cubic crystal E (Semester III, 2010-11, 5 Marks) fy semiconductors according to band structure. Explain with of examples. (Semester III, 2010-11, 5 Marks) at do you mean by effective mass of carriers? How does it depend to energy bands? (Semester III, 2010-11, 5 Marks) plain briefly why the temperature coefficient of the resistivity of a doped semiconductor egative at low and high temperature but positive at intermediate temperature. (Semester HII, 2010-11, 5 Marks) ttice Structure of GaAS: GaAs is a compound concertina, of the elements gallium arsenic’ It is III/V semiconductor and is used in the manufacture of devices such as nictowave frequency, laser diode, solar cells and optical windows. As has equal number of gallium and arsenic ions distributed on a diamond lattice so each has four of the opposite kind as the nearest neighbours. Lattice structure of GaAsFundamentals of Electronic Devices (6) Miller Indices: Miller indices are set of integers (, k,) which are used to in a crystal, The interplanar distance d,,, in a crystal is given by LO Why Sa) Xb) ‘\e i : (2, 3, 4) thus the plane has (x, y, z) intercepts as (2, 3, 4) (6, 4, 3) plane reciprocals ( + 5) converting them to the smallest set of i (c) Classification of Semiconductor According to Band Structure: Energy Conduction band Conduction band + level in E, Ey E, Slightly higher Fermi level band Energy band for N-type Intrinsic semiconductor é semiconductor (extrinsic) ‘Conduction band Energy level ‘Slightly lower Eb Fermi Jevel Be EF Eb ~ ¥ Acceptor energy level P0108 ev for si ‘Valance band a 0.01 eV for Ge Energy band for P-type semiconductor (extrinsic)Crystal Properties and Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 47 Effective Mass of Carrier: The electrons in a crystal are not completely free but instead interact with the periodic potential of the lattice. As a result, ‘wave particle’ motion cannot be expected to be the same as for electrons in free space. Thus, in applying the ‘usual equations of electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid, electrons and holes can be treated as ‘almost free’ carriers in most computations. The calculation of effective mass must take into account the shape of the energy bands in three-dimensional k-space, taking appropriate averages over the various energy bands. The effective mass of an electron in a band with a given (£, K) relationship rd @E/ dk? E - Energy of electron K ~ Wave vector Effective mass m = With increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) increases. As more charger carriers are made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases, i.e. resistivity of a pure semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature, i.e. semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance. What do you understand by Miller indices? How is this obtained that describes a plane in acrystal? (Semester IV, 2009-10, 5 Marks) What do you mean by effective mass of carriers? How does it depend on energy bands? What is the kinetic energy of an hole at the top of the valence band? (Semester IV, 2009-10, 5 Marks) Miller Indices: Miller indices are a set of integers (h, k, J) which are used to describe a plane in a crystal. The interplanar distance dj, in a crystal is given by £0) -0)-0 G, \2) *\b) “ke = Effective Mass: The calculation of effective mass must take into account the shape of the energy bands in three-dimensional &-space taking appropriate average over the various energy bands. The effective mass of an electron in a band with a given (E, K) relationship is eh | dk? Thus, the curvature of band determines the electron effective mass. How simple cubic, centered cubic and face-centered cubic structures differ from one another? (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks) ‘What are advantages and disadvantages of impurities in semiconductor solids? Explain with suitable examples. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks) in the lattice constant and radius of the atom having simple cubic lattice and volume ity of 3 « 10°/em? assuming that the atoms are hard spheres with each atom touching nearest neighbour. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks)Sol. (d) © wf (a) Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Calculate the surface density of atom in face-centered cubie structure with lattice of 4.75 A for 111 plane (Semester IV, 2007-08, What is Fermi level? How does it depend on temperature? (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Obtain the inherent RC time constant of sample of thickness f and area 4 in conductivity 0 and the permittivity . (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Maximum Fraction of Unit Cell Simple Cubie: No. of atoms in L unit cell = £x8=1 atom Radius of each atom = F where ais the lattice constant 3 Volume of 1 atom (sphere) = fa 3 44() =20 Total volume taken up by atom in 1 unit cell = No. of atoms in | unit cell x 1 atom 3 zB xpa 6 Volume of unit cell = a* Fraction of unit cell filled = Total volume taken up by atom in 1 unit cell/voh cell £3) 43 =Ixt@/a 6 = 6 =0.52 Body Centered Cubic No. of atoms in | unit cell = 28-41 =2atoms Radius of each atom = V3 a/4 (a= lattice 4 Volume of 1 atom = dar 42 (V3a/4) = Bra /i6 Total volume taken up by atoms in 1 unit cell = No. of atoms in 1 unit cell * 1 atom = IxV3ra°/l6 Volume of unit cell = a° Fraction of unit cell filled = Total volume taken up by atoms in 1 unit cell/voh cellCrystal Properties and Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 49 = Q2xv3r0°/16)/a° = ¥3.2/8=0.68 Diamond Lattice No. of atoms in I unit cell = Lx8-+4<6+4=8 atoms _ Radius of each atom = V3 a/8 3 =V3ra /\28 Volume of 1 atom = far ~44{ ‘Total volume taken up by atom in I unit cell = 8x J32 4° /128 Volume of unit cell = a? Fraction of unit cell filled = (8»V/3ra°/128)/a° = 3 2/16 =0.34 ‘Impurities in Semiconductors: In addition to the intrinsic carriers generated thermally, ‘itis possible to create carriers in semiconductor by purposely introducing impurities into ‘the erystal. This process is called doping. An impurity from column V of the periodic table (P, As and Sb) introduces an energy level -yery near the conduction band in Ge or Si. This level is filled with electrons at 0 K, and ‘very little thermal energy is required to excite these electrons to the conduction band. Such impurity level is called donor level. joms from column III (B, Ga, Al and In) introduces impurity level in Ge, Si near the valence band. These levels are empty of electrons at 0 K. At low temperature, enough ‘thermal energy is available to excite electrons from the valence bgnd into the impurity el leaving behind holes in valence band. Such an impurity level is called acceptor level. £3.22 A Ans,4.10 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Radius of simple lattice r = % 3822. ees =161A (d) Surface density in FCC on (111) plane oni 2.31 ) = = atom/m? Sea T SET y Ne = 0.1024 x 10°? atoms/m? = 1024 « 10! atoms/mm? (c) Fermi Level: The Fermi level is simply a reference energy level. It is the ener at which the probability of finding an electron N energy units above it in the ¢ band is equal to the probability of finding a hole (electron absence) n energy itin the valence band. Let at any temperature 7K Where K is Boltzmann constant in eV/KT is temperature in K and Eyis Fermi! characteristic energy for crystal in eV. (f) Resistance of sample R = a x als elt o A = t Inherent time constant tr = RC Lt eA wibhite® oA ft Capacitance of sample C = Q.6. How a semiconductor differs from that of the metal and insulators on the basis of bi (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Sol. Energy Band Structure of Semiconductors, Metals and Insulators: FZ Forbidden». & ron BEY Forbidden pe = 5 ey region Energy level in cV Energy level in eV ‘Valence band’ Insulator Semiconductor MetalCrystal Properties and Charge Carriers in Semiconductors any given material, there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist. These 1 bands are valence band and conduction band and are separated by a energy gap termed as jidden energy gap. any given material, the forbidden energy gap may be large small or non-existent, The tinction between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is largely concerned with the tive width of forbidden energy gap. icase of the insulator there is practically no electron in conduction band and the valence band filled, means electrons have no place to move. semiconductor at a temperature of absolute zero, the valence band is usually full and there iy be no electron in conduction band. Therefore, no current can flow in semiconductor; means es like an insulator. ever, in semiconductor materials, both bands are so close that an electron can be lifted from valence band to the conduction band by imparting some energy to it. The energy imparted heat at room temperature is sufficient to lift electrons from the valence band to conduction case of conducting materials, there is no forbidden gap and the valence and conduction bands lap. The electrons in a conduction band are called free electrons, ¥Sketch the photocurrent / vs retarding voltage V that you would expect to me given electrode material and configuration. Make the sketch for several intensities ata given wavelength. (Semester III, 2011-12, 2 (6) What is meant by carrier lifetime? Why does direct recombination life time dif indirect recombination lifetime? (Semester IIT, 2011-12, 2 (©) Explain the -/ characteristics of'a photo-diode. What is the significance of third quadrant operation of photodiode? (Semester HI, 2011-12, 2 Sol. (a) Characteristics Reverse bias voltage Forward bias voltage 3 2 4 0s] =¥. wv Dark current 15,000 Lumens TSUN SOATY, T(uA) Photo current / vs, Retarding voltage V 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 $0,000 Ilumination £ in LUX, Hllumination £ in LUX, Sketch of several intensities of light at a given wavelengthExcess Carriers in Semiconductors Carrier Lifetime: carrier lifetime is defined as the average time it takes for a minority carrier to recombine. 4. In direct recombination little change in ‘momentum is required for recombination. 2. Momentum is conserved by photon emission. 1. In indirect recombination the large change in momentum is required for recombination, 2. Momentum is conserved by phonon + photon emission. _ ¥-I characteristic of Photo-diode: “Vv. + ” 84> 8s? &> & (Generation rate of EHPS) Be "When a light energy bombards on a photo-diode an added generation rate of EHP patticipates incurrent. The more light strikes the junction the larger reverse current in the photo-diode, 222 ' ' ' ' 1 1Sol. Sol. Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Third and Fourth Quadrant Operation of Photo-diode: If power is to be the device the fourth quadrant is used. In application as a photodetector, we usually reverse bias the junction and o third quadrant. .. Obtain relationship between photocoductivity and mobility of carriers. (Semester III, 2011-12, ¢ Relationship Between Photo-conductivity and Mobility of Carrier: We know Current density J= oF Where o - electrical conductivity E applied electric field Total conductivity of semiconductors a = 0,+0, a, > conductivity of semiconductor due to electrons g,, > conductivity of semiconductor due to holes o.= net, O,= Pelt, n=no, of electrons p no. of holes e=charge of electron | 41,» mobility of holes = mobility of electron When excess carrier in a semiconductor are due to optical luminescence, the resulting, (0) is called photo-conductivity F oF = e(mu, + plt,) oo =e(ny, + pu,) Relation between conductivity and mobility, .. Define the following terms with suitable examples: (Semester III, 2011-12, 10. (i) Photoluminescence (ii) Cathodoluminescence (iii) Electroluminescence (iv) Carrier lifetime Write short notes on: (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4 +3 Electroluminescence (i) Photoluminescence: When carrier are excited by photon absorption, the radiation from the recombination of the excited carriers is called the photoluminescence. One of the most common example of photoluminescence is the fluorescent lamp. (ii) Cathodoluminescence: If the excited carriers are produced by high energy bombardment of the material, the mechanism js called the cathodoluminescence,Excess Carriers in Semiconductors This principle is used in cathode ray tube (CRT), oscilloscope and other visual display systems. (ii) Electroluminescence: When excitation occurs due to introduction of current into the sample, the resulting luminescence is called the electrohiminescence. There are two mechanism for production of electroluminescence. One mechanism is photoemission in the act of electron hole recombination. LEDs and P-N junction diodes are examples of the phenomenon, ‘The second mechanism for electroluminescence is photoemission following electron impact excitation of an activator atom. This process has been observed in Zn3:Cu. (iv) Carrier Lifetime: The amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a free electron is called the lifetime. It varies from a few nanosecond to several microseconds depending how perfect the crystal is and other factors. The lifetimes of carriers (holes and electrons) form very important factors in semiconductor devices because they indicate the time required for the hole and electron concentrations to return to their equilibrium values after being influenced by an external cause such as illumination by light, tis recombination? Derive the expression for minority cartier lifetime (Semester II, 2011-12, 10 Marks) ombination: It is the process where an electron moves from the conduction band into the nce band so that mobile electron hole pair disappear. Under low injection conditions, when cd carrier are much fewer in number then the majority carriers, the recombination process given by expression the recombination rate ‘dn (t) dt proportionality constant for recombination The initial excess electron and hole concentration An and Ap are equal ang the instantaneous eoncentrations of excess carrier Jn(#) and dp(t) are also equal. vial concentration in terms of the equilibrium values n, and p, Bnli) an; apd, = an; -a,[n, + dn(9] [p,6p(0)] =—4, [(n, +p.) dn(s) + dx? (e)] ‘cess cartier concentration are small the term dn? can be neglected and if the material is ss electrons in a P-type semiconductor recombine with a decay constant t, = (a,p,)! the recombination lifetime or minority carrier lifetime.— Qs. Sol. Sol. . Define the explain quasi-fermi level. A Ge sample with 10'7 Sb atoms per cm’ is Fundamentals of Electronic Devices The general expression for carrier life time is aie a, (n, +P.) This expression is valid for an N-type or P-type material if the injection level is low. What are direct and indirect recombinations? Derive an expression for minorit lifetime. (Semester HI, 2010-11, 10 Direct Recombination: In direct recombination, an excess population of electrons decays by electrons falling from the conduction band to empty states in the valance band. lost by an electron in making the transition is given up as photon. Direct recombinati spontaneously, that the probability that an electron and a hole will recombine is constant Indirect Recombination: In direct recombination, an electron falling to the valance behind an empty state in the recombination level. Thus in hole, in capture energy is gi heat to the lattice. Similarly, energy is given up when a conduction band electron sub falls to the empty state. When both of these events have occurred, the recombination back to its original state butan EHP s missing. Thus, one another EHP recombination place and the center is ready to participate in another recombination event by cap\ Expression for Carrier Life Time: The general expression for carrier life time is jhe soy as, a,(m,+ Ps) This expression is valid for an V-type or P-type material if the injection level is low. excited at 300 K such that g,, = 10° EHP per cm’ sec and z, = r, = 10 micro second, the separation of the quasi-fermi levels? Draw an energy band diagram also. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 Quasi-Fermi Level: Level is often desirable to refer to the steady state electron concentrations in terms of Fermi-levels, which can be included in band diagrams for devices. The Fermi level £, used is meaningful only when no excess carriers are However, we can write expressions for the steady state concentrations in the same form: equilibrium expression by defining separate quasi-Fermi levels F,, and F, for elec holes. The resulting carrier concentration equations (F,- EYKT {E,~ FAT n=né pone can be considered as defining relations for the quasi-fermi levels. Numerical Given n,= 10" atoms/em’ T=300K g,,= 10°? EHP/em* n,=25*10% cm’ 1,=t,=10u sec, KT=0.0259 eV (at room temp.) n=N, +5, = N+ Bob = 1077 ¥ 10 10 « 10-6 n=10'7 + 10'5 = 101 x 10" = 1.01 x 10'7 n= ne BAT 1.01 x 10!7 = 2.5 x 10° el EYATExcess Carriers in Semiconductors 417 {@) Obtain an equation for photocurrent in terms of lifetime and transit time of carriers in a sample dominated by 4, (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks) What is photoconductivity? Show that photocurrent is proportional to the lifetime (r,) and inversely proportional to transit time (r,) of carrier. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks) Why has optical fiber become these days so important? (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 Marks) Photo current (I,) =J,A J, Photocurrent density A Area 1, = Ao AE = 0G, T(t, +My) AE = ) AL Me When the excess carriers are generated in a semiconductor through optical luminescence, the resulting conductivity is called photoconductivity. This is an important effect with usual applications in the analysis of semiconductor materials and in the operation of different types of devices. Photoconductive Current: The carriers generated by photoexcitation will move under the influence of an applied field. If they survive recombination, they will reach Ohmic contacts at the ends of semiconductor bar, and thus the device current will be constituted. ‘The current may be given by po ut t, Where G, is the generation rate of excess carrier in cm'/sec 1 average lifetime T,—> average transit time Importance of Optical Fiber: A optical fiber is a thin, flexible transparent fiber that acts asa waveguide or light pipe which is normally made from silica, to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Inmodem age, optical fibers are everywhere on this planet, hair thin carrying vast quantities of information from place to place 1. Optical fiber technology is very important for our high speed communication. 2. Fiber optics is light-weight, non-corrosiveness and long lasting. 3. Assingle fiber can handle as many voice channels as a 1500 pair cable can because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation. 4, Fiber is immune to interference from lighting crosstalk and electromagnetic radiation. 0.46 4 m-thick sample of GaAs is illuminated with monochromatic light of hy = 2 eV. absorption coefficient is GaAs is 5 « 10° cm™'. The power incident on the sample is mlW. Assume that the bandgap energy of GaAs is 1.43 eV. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Marks)4.18 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices (i) Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per seconds (J/s). (ii) Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the electrons to the clect the lattice before recombination (J/s). (iii) Find the number ofphotons per second given off from recombination events, as perfect quantum efficiency. (b) Write short notes on: (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4+3 (i) Photoconductivity (i) Blectroluminescence Sol. (a) Sample thickness 1 = 0.46 4m 0.46 « 104 cm Photon energy Eynjon = 2€V Ao BetBY | Conduction Le Be Fro lattice baad 1 ' a 6 Ar oneiaev wr Photon t ¥ ¥ eopoecitieo Valence band @eovoececn Absorbtion coefficient of GaAs @=5* 10% cm = 50,000/em Power incident /, = 10 mW Intensity of transmitted beam after traversing a thickness of the sample T=Le® = 10% 10° x eS000045x10-4 = 0.0L x e?5=1mW (i) Total energy absorbed 1=10 Tepsorbed 9mW=9x 107 Is x _ hy Fraction of each photon energy unit which is converted into heat= = 0.285 Energy converted into heat 0.285 x 9 x 103 Ws 0.00265 Is (ii) Rate of excess thermal energy given up by the electrons to the electrons of the before recombination = amount of energy converted to heat/sec = 0.00265 JS 4 No. of photons/sec given off from recombination eventsExcess Carriers in Semiconductors 4.19 Aipsocbed "phon ~ Charge x photon energy = Frvsorvea____0.009 eX Epoon 1.610719 x2 Npyoon = 2-81 * 108 photons/sec (i) Photo-conduetivity: When excess electron and holes are produced in a semiconductor, there is a corresponding increase in conductivity of a sample as indicated by the following, Conductivity of semiconductor o = z =e(piu, tnt.) When the excess carrier in a semiconductor is due to optical luminescence, the resulting conductivity is called photo-conductivity. ¥Explain, why a contact potential is developed across and open-circuited P-l Specify the parameters on which the contact potential depends. (Semester IIL, 2011-12,3 (b) State and explain the characteristics of a Zener diode. Explain, how it is usec protection. (Semester III, 2011-122 Sol. (a) Contact Potential: The potential difference in open circuit P-N junction is kno in potential barrier, maintains thermal equilibrium and holds back majority in the A-region and majority carrier holes in the P-region. The potential difference across the space charge region is known as contact potential. The built in poter or contact potential for the step junction is given by y NaMp Y= V; log, Contact potential depends upon the acceptor and donor ion concentration. (b) Characteristics of Zener Diode: Zener diode is known as breakdown diode, oper the breakdown region and the current is limited by an external resistance. The bt or Zener voltage V, depends upon the amount of doping i{mA) ‘orward current Reverse voltage Ve Forward voltage Reverse current Wis Zener diode characteristics Zener Diode Used for Meter Protection: Zener diode protect a meter mova circuit against damage or from an accidental application of excessive voltage.Junction Properties 4.21 is connected in parallel with the meter; In case of overload most of the current will pass through the zener diode and so the meter movement will be saved from damage R Meter < Zener diode at is contact potential? Obtain the value of contact potential of an abrupt junction room temperature of intrinsic concentration n, = 1.6 * 10'°/m* with doping level Np= N= 10°'/m?. (Semester IT, 2011-12, 6 Marks) Or it is diffusion potential? Assuming cquilibrium condition at a step junction, derive an spression for diffusion potential. (Semester III, 2010-11, 10 Marks) itact Potential: Electrostatic potential > inction Showing Space Charge in the Transition Region W, the Resulting Electric Field ‘and Contact Potential V,: When we join two region P and N, holes diffuse from P-region Nregion and electron diffuse from N region to P region. The electric field & build up to the int up to the point where the net current is zero at equilibrium, The electric ficld appears in W about the junction called the transition region and there is an equilibrium potential ence V, across W called a contact potential = pointers = AT, Po n GPa re, is concentration of acceptor ion/cm* N,, is concentration of donor ion/cm* nis intrinsic concentration .=1.6* 10!%m?, Room temperature T= 300 K = Np = 10°/m?4.22 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Find contact potential 3 Contact potential (¥,) = AZ jy NaNa qo V,=V;=In NoNa ny 2 wef 3_lhio*4) 11600 ""(16x10!6)” 300. y= —— 12.03 © Tp609 * 22.08 V,= 0S711V Contact potential K S711 V Q3. Let the donor and acceptor concentrations in a semiconductor by NV, and N,, respectively. that the electron concentration in the semiconductor can he given by Ny-Ny + where n, is the intrinsic carrier concentration. (Semester IIL, 2011-12, 10 Na-N, 2 Total electron concentration Thermal electron Ne Donor electrons Sol. Show that electron concentrations n, = Unionized Donors EMIS a) Tonized Donors Ionized Acceptors Na = (Ma Po) Unionized Acceptor "Thermal hole >, ‘Acceptor holes Total hole concentration Energy Band Diagram of Compensated Semiconductor Showing Ionized and Uni Donars and Aceeptors: A semiconductor containing both donor and acceptor impurityJunction Properties 4.23 nthe same region is called a compensated semiconductor. Jompensated semiconductor is formed by diffusing donor impurities into a P-type material (N’, > N,) or by diffusing acceptor impurities into an N-type material (N, > N,). Np > NV, we have a completely compensated conductor. he charge density of negative and positive charges can be equated for charge neutrality condition PA, =P,+N5 + W4—Ps)= Po + Np Np) here n, and p, are the thermal equilibrium concentrations of holes and electrons in valence and tion bands, respectively. p, is the concentration of holes in the acceptor energy state, so /, ~P, is the concentration of negatively electrons in donor energy states V5 = N,—715 $concentration of positively charged donor states. For complete ionization n, and p, = 0. at is the difference between homojunction and heterojunction? Explain them with neat iches. (Semester I11,.2011-12, 10 Marks) Or low does a heterojunction improves the performance of the junction? Explain it in comparison homojunction. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 10 Marks) jojunction: The first laser were built a degenerate N-type sample, a, p n is formed on one side, for example, diffusing Z, into the N-type GaAs. Since P-alloy isin column II of the periodic table as is itroduced substitutionally on Ga sites, it A-alloy eve as an acceptor in GaAs, therefore the Header aavily doped Z, diffused layer forms a p* n, At this point we have a large area P-N junction. Structure of homojunction Vice is then mounted on a suitable header idcontact is made to the p region. Since the device contains only one junction in a single type of lerial, it is referred to as a homojunction laser. Lead4.24 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Heterojunction: Multiple layers have to be built-up in the laser structure to develop more ecient laser operating at room empersture i These devices are called heterojunction PGaAs laser and can be operated continuously SLLLLLTLLTTD, at room temperature to meet with optical communication needs. PAIGads GaAs Substrate In the structures, the injected carriers are confined to a narrow region in order that population inversion can be built-up at low current levels. This results in a lowering of the threshold current at which the laser action, Al GaAs heterojunction struc Q.5. Show that the total depletion width in a P-'V junction at thermal equilibrium condition given by: yp. f2eVe( 1 wf e (asta) where symbols have their usual meaning. (Semester III, 2011-12, 109 Or Show that the total depletion width in a P-N junction at thermal equilibrium condition given by FE) where, ¢, is the permittivity of the semiconductor, V, is the built-in potential of the is the acceptor concentration in the p-type material, N,, is the donor concentration in material and q is the electronic charge. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 61 Sol. (g) Show that total depletion width in a P-N junction at thermal equilibrium condita given by i +o > +44 y oe +++ X%—— x The electric field distribution wheret Transition region with x= 0 defined at the reference direction for € is arbitrarily tk meteorological junction the +x ~ directionJunction Properties 4.25 ‘thin the transition region clectrons and holes are in transit from one side of junction to the her. The charge density on the n-side is just q times the concentration of donor ions N yand the tegative charge density on the p-side is ~g times the concentration of acceptors Ny he transition region may extend into the p and n regions unequally, depending on the relative oping of the two sides. If the p-side is more lightly doped than n-side (N,, Wile] pilin TTT Wt iit Pili Puja a 1 s+ bee q— Equilibrium Forward bias Reverse bias ¥=0 Ve, v=¥, Carrier concentration on each side of P-N junction vary with applied bias because of Variation in the diffusion of carrier across the junction. The equilibrium ratio of hole ‘concentrations on each side, Pp _ wjxt Pa “The excess hole concentration Ap, at the edge of the transition region 2, by subtracting the equilibrium hole concentration Ap, = pl«,,) ~ Py = Py e*? — 1), Similarly, on p side An, = n(-x, )—n, = n,(e"*? — 1) The distribution of excess carrier (6,, and d,.) assuming long p and n region © 6,04,) = Anges =n, (eT 1) 8,(«,) = Ap, or? = p,(e*T 1) esl?Fundamentals of Electronic Devices The hole diffusion current at any point x, in the n material can be calculated d85(x%,) D - ? Ap el? In{tq) = ~44D, —5 = 94 L, AP,€ D, . = F824) p Where 4 is the cross sectional area of the junction. The total hole current injected int n material at the junction gym Oe yg oe (garter Jen" Spal? ) For p material (AD, He 1,(x,= 0) = 1? an, LP a (essen _ Total current I= 1,0, = 0) ~1,(n, = 0) AD A pn Pe ay, + Pe An, zy D, Vs Ki oe » let ja 1,(et”/7 1) Diode equation saul P-N Junction Breakdown Mechanism: Reverse breakdown can occur by two meel each of which requires a critical electric field in the junction transition region, mechanism, called the Zener effect, is operative at low voltage. If the breakdot at higher voltages (from few volts to thousands of volts), the mechanism is avalanche breakdown. ‘Zener Breakdown: When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy become crossed at relatively low voltage. The large number of empty states in the? conduction band opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band. If the separating these two bands is narrow, tunneling of clectrons can occur, Tunnel electrons from the p-side valence band to the n-side conduction constitutes a reverse from nto p; this is the Zener effect. wile A 94° tunneling i Ly Characteristics Heavily doped junction at Reverse bias with electron equilibrium tunnelling from p tonJunction Properties What do you mean by excess carriers? Derive an expression for diffusion equation for steady state distribution of excess electrons. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 Marks) Excess Carriers: The electron and hole created by this absorbtion process are excess carriers. Expression for Diffusion Equation (Continuity Equation) Jplx+ ax) nN xt Ae Jey) Area A em? Current entering and leaving a volume Ax = A Consider a differential length Ax of semi conductor samples with area A in the yz-plane. The hold current density leaving the volume J,(x + Ax) can be larger or smaller than the current density entering /,(x) depending on the generation and recombination of carrier taking place within the volume. The net increase in hole concentration/unit time [? isthe difference between a i¢ hole flux/unit volume entering the leaving minus the recombination rate. £ = 1p -Jp@-4) _ Sp Gera 9 a tp >» ite of hole build = increase of hole concentration in dx A per unit time — recombination rate \s Ax + 0 the current change in derivative form: _ 6p __1ap_ bp cP SR oP For holes or geax ft 3 = Gn _=1asn_ dn qa Ty For electrons en current is carried by diffusion then diffusion current Diffusion equation for electrons ‘What is contact potential? Explain. Derive an expression for it assuming step junction at equilibrium condition. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 Marks)4.30 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices For Si P-N junction, donor and acceptor impurities at room temperature are 10" cm? an 3 10'S cm * respectively. Calculate the contact potential and draw an equilibrium diagram for the junction if intrinsic carrier concentration of Si is 1.5 = 10! cm” at ro temperature. (b) Find an expression for the electron current in the N-type material of a forward biased. junction. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 Mark Sol. (a) Contact Potential: Electrostatic potential Junction Showing Space Charge in the Transition Region W, the Resulting Electric & and Contact Potential V,; When we join two region P and N, holes diffuse from Ps to N region and electron diffuse from N region to P region. The electric field £ build up point up to the point where the net current is zero at equilibrium. The electric field ap, some W about the junction called the transition region and there is an equilibrium po difference V, across W called a contact potential, Where NV, is concentration of acceptor ion/cm? N, is concentration of donor ion/em? xn, is intrinsic concentration 3= 10" em * 7 N,=1.5~ 10" em Contact Potential = ? y= KE yy NaNa o ) 15 1018 ¥, = 0.0259 in 10" #310 (Lsx10"y 3x10" V, = 0.0259 In. . 2.25 x10 V,=0,795 VJunction Properties 4.31 (b) Expression for Blectron Current: Us + | if | N-type material injected or che Concentration ee i r Pe I 1 ' | ' ' P 1 1 n ' ' I L = se. from juetion Forward bias P-N junetion Hole concentration components in N-type material When P-N junction diode is forward biased hole are injected from P region into the Nregion. The concentration p,, of the holes in the N region is increased above its thermal equilibrium value p,, PAP) = Pro + P'ghoe Where p,, is hole concentration in thermal-equilibrium, Z,, is the diffusion length of holes in N-type material and x is the distance from the junction, The injected or excess concentration of hole at x(0), p,{(o) is given as Px) =P,(0)— Pn, Diffusion hole current in the N-region is given as ap, de I= ~AeDy vy ys) = SEDRPAL) gt A AeD,p,(0) _ Ae D, If) = F iy *[P,(0)- Pro] A Area of material in m’, D,, is diffusion constant L, > Diffusion length Forward current Total diode current / at x =0. T= 1,0) * 1,60) Where /,,(0) is current caused by holes entering N region and [,(o) is the current caused by electrons entering the P region. ADiP, Lon = APs [Pne 1,00) Pes [ lh 1] Total Diode CurrentFundamentals of Electronic Devices =| Ann, Petty, | vine Is [aa (e" -1) I=1(e"r-1) Q.10, Obiain the equation of diffusion current in terms of the life time of the carrier and parameters. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 5 M Sol. Carrier diffusion is a process whereby particles flow from a region of high concentration, The diffusion of charge carrier is a result of gradient of carrier concentration. In this concentrations of charge carriers tend to distribute themselves uniformly throughout the conductor crysial, This movement continues until all the carries are evenly distributed thra the material, This type of movement of charge carrier is called the diffusion current, Relation between diffusion current and carrier life time can be shown through continuity. op _ P-P. +p, 22 opE at ext ae Q.11, What happens to the contact potential and the depletion width with increasing reverse forward biases? (Semester IV, 2007-08, 10 Mai Sol. The depletion width is formed across a P=N junction. It happens when the junction thermal equilibrium or in steady state, The electrons and holes are diffused into regions, the concentration of holes and electrons is low. Also, N-type region consists of excess electrons and P-type consists of excess holes. As a result when V-doped and P-doped of semiconductor are put jointly to form a junction, electrons travel into the P-side dep positive donor ion behind on the N-side, and likewise the hole leaves a negative accept on the P-side, 1. In reverse bias (P negative with respect to N), the potential drop (.e., voltage) acros depletion region increases. This widens the depletion region, which increases the component of current and decreases the diffusion component. In this case the net is leftward in the figure of the PN junction. The carrier density then is small and very small reverse saturation current flows. 2. In forward bias (P positive with respect to N), the depletion region and lowers the to carrier injection. The diffusion section of the current greatly increases and the component decreases. In this case the net current is rightward in the figure of the junction figure in the below. The carrier density is large (it varies exponentially wit applied bias voltage), making the junction conductive and allowing a large forward PSpe Le Lp Uecovered space charges; Junction Properties 4.33 Space charge region Neutral region ‘Neutral region = —. ' \ E| Electric field 1 1 v ' ' ' ' 1 1 ' 1 i 1 1 1 1 ' ‘AY Built-in voltage Voltage The contact potential appearing across Wis a built in potential barrier in that it is necessary to the maintenance of equilibrium at the junction; it does not imply any external potential. Depletion width increases in reverse bias and decreases in forward bias condition. (2) (i) Define the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and Fermi energy level of a material. Describe briefly the temperature dependence of the above distribution function. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 6 Marks) (ii) Consider a particular material with Fermi energy of 6.25 eV and that the electrons in the material follow the Fermi-dirac distribution function. Calculate the temperature at which there is a 1.0 percent probability that a state 0.30 eV below the Fermi energy level with not contain an electron. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4 Marks) }) Define the effective density of states function in the conduction band. Find the numerical value of the same for a semiconductor in which the effective mass of an electron is 1.5 m, where m, is the mass of a free electron, (Semester IV, 2006-07, 5 Marks) :) A device is doped with a donor concentration of NV, =3 x 10'em’, For the device to operate satisfactorily, the intrinsic carrier concentration must remain less than 5 per cent of the total electron concentration. What is the maximum temperature that the device may operate? (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4 Marks)4.34 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Sol. (a) (i) FermiDirac Distribution: The distribution of electrons over a range of al energy levels at thermal equilibrium is l HE) Ty EET Where K is Boltzman’s constant (K = 8 — 62 x 10°eV/K) The function f (# the Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability available energy state at £ will be occupied by an electron at absolute temper The quantity £,, is called the Fermi level. AE) 4 Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac distribution function. (ii) Fermi energy level B= 6.25 eV E-E, =-0.30eV Boltzmann constant K = 8.61 x 10% eV/K 1-f@)=1%=0.01 The probability that a state is empty _ 1 LAB) = 1 ee 1+ Lp e8Otx ear Tr = 1-0.01=0.99 brewer uur, 1 0.99Junction Properties 4.35 1 ay VWr= ——-1 |= 3484/7 tore (5 ‘| ~4,595 -3484 T = 758. A SRE 758.2K ns, [ane n= 2) 2eKT le 7 ye = 4.82. 107! () ree my Me = 15, T=300K mm, n, = 4.82 10?! x (1.5)? « (300)? n, = 46.011 « 10"! per meter > (©) Given: N,=3 10" em? Total electron concentration = No, [No nn Pty +m N, n, rege =1.05Np SS (0.55 NY = % +n nj = (0.55)? N2-0.25 N2 nj = 0.0525 Nj n, = 0.0525 N, = 0.229 x 3x 10" om? n, = 0.687 * 10 em Wb = Neg > No=28* 10° N,= 1.04 x 10! E,=112eV K=8.62™ 10> eW/K ebisT _M (0.687x108)? NeNy 2.8x10° x1.04« 10 oF = 0.1621 x 10% Fhe log, 0.1621 x 10° = ~20.24 KT : _ Fe 1_ : 30.24 62K T=642KFundamentals of Electronic Devices Q.13. Quasi-Fermi level (Semester IV, 2006-07, 3 \ Sol. Quasi-Fermi Level: The steady state electron and hole concentrations in terms of Fermilei Ey is meaningful only when excess carriers are present. The same equation can be d separate quasi Fermi levels F,, and F., for electron and hole n= nen EYAT P ‘A given concentration of excess EHPs causes a large shift in the minority carrier quasi level compared with that for the majority carrier. The separation of the quasi fermi levels F, is direct in case of the deviation from equilibrium. The concept of quasi Fermi levels is useful in visualizing the minority and majority carrier concentrations in devices where quantities very with position. Q.14. (a) Derive an expression for the built-in potential in P-N junction in terms of the do acceptor concentrations of n- and p-type materials. i FF) oF FAT (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4 (b) Derive an expression for the current-voltage relation in an ideal P-N junction diode. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 () Write short notes on (Semester IV, 2006-07, 4 + 6M (i) Zener breakdown (ii) Avalanche breakdown Sol. (a) Built-in-Potential in P-N Junction: Let us consider separate regions of p and types conductor material together to form a junction. If we consider that electrons diffusing from to p leave behind uncompensated donor ions (Nj) in the n-material and holes leaving the p region, leave behind uncompensated acceptor (Nj). The resulting electric field is directed from the positive charge towards the negative charge. Thus, & is in the direction opposite to that of diffusion current for each type of carrier. Therefore, the field creates a drift component of current from » to p, opposing the diffusion current, Electrostatic potential The drift and diffusion currents must be cancelled for each type of carrier ep cat i J,{drift) + J, (diff) = 0 J,(deift) + J, (diff) = 0 Therefore, the electric field € builds up to the point where the net current is zero at equilibrium. The electric field appears in some region W about the junction and there is a equilibrium potential difference V, across 7, Potential difference Y=V,-Vy Where V, is constant potential in the neutral material Energy bandJunction Properties y, is constant potential in the neutral p material. The region W is called the transition region and the potential difference V, is called the contact potential. This contact potential appearing across Wis a built-in potential barrier. (b) P-N Junction Diode: A P-N junction has a unilateral nature, that is to a good approximation it conducts current in only one direction. An ideal diode is a short circuit when forward biased and as an open circuit when reverse biased. J L Vv a tL. air — — , -—>—2 Hy Hip Vrs magaliaious Ideal diode with Ideal diode with an offset voltage an offset voltage with resistance (©) @) Zener Breakdown: When heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy bands become crossed at relatively low voltages. The crossing of the bands align the large number of empty stales in the n-side conduction band opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band. If the barrier separating these two bands in narrow tunneling of electrons can occur, then tunneling of electrons from the p-side valence band to the n-side conduction band constitutes a reverse current from m to p this is the Zener effect > wile i Fp ae Eqy = Tunneling 7 ee Ew ME nn NN 7 Em Revere bias with | Heavily dogped junction electron tunneling, LY characteristic at equilibrium from p ton Zener effect (ii) Avalanche Breakdown: For lightly doped junction electrons, tunneling is negligible and instead the breakdown mechanism involves the impact ionization of the host atoms by energetic carriers. Normal lattice-scattering events can result in the creation of EHPs if the carrier being scattered has sufficient energy. If electric field & in the transition region is large, an electron entering from the p-side may be accelerated to4.38 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices high enough kinetic energy to cause an ionizing collision with the lattice. A singh interaction results in carrier multiplication. The degree of multiplication can b very high. A large number of EHPs are generated. This is an avalanche process each incoming carrier can initiate the creation of a large number of new carrier ; Primary secondary Band diagram of a P-N and tertiary collision junction in reverse bias(@) Explain different components of currents flow through the structure of a N-P-N transistor, How the emitter injection efficiency and base transport factor influences the amplifications factor? (Semester IMI, 2011-12, 6 Marks) Enumerate the special feature of MESFET. Explain its working and discuss difference in its characteristics from the characteristics of the MOSFET. © (Semester HI, 2011-12, 6 Marks) Or Enumerate the special features of MESFET. Explain its working and state the difference between normally-on and normally-off MESFET. (Semester III, 2010-11, 10 Marks) Or : What is the advantages of the MESFET? Draw its structure and explain its working. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 10 Marks) Or Discuss briefly the principle of operation of a GaAs MESFET. Alsg derive an expression for the /-V characteristic of the device, (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Marks) Structure of N-P-N Transistor: wy ecu Electron St [Collector ec Current component representation in N-P-N transistor With proper biasing it is clear that current [,, flows out at the emitter of N-P-N transistor and that Jc flows into the collector, since the direction of electron flow is from emitter to collector. However, the base current J, flows into the base region.(b) Fundamentals of Electronics Devices In a good transistor, the base current will be very small since /, is essentially a el current and collected electron current /, is almost equal to /,. Emitter Injection Efficiency: The total emitter current i; is made up of the el component i, and the hole component i, and due to hole injected from base to 1En The emitter injection efficiency (y) dg, + i, ley Base Transport Factor: i, is proportional to the electron component of the emitter: frp ig= Big, The proportionality factor B is called the base transport factor. For an efficient transistor B and y to be very near to unity. fo Bin By=a ic tty tin The product By is defined as the factor «, is known as emitter to collector cu amplification. Base current ig= ip ic tp + ty — Bin, in trp * A By ing _ Biz, Bien /tep tien | ig +C-BYigy 1 BL iy Jip then | - By _ a _ i-By --a fis known as current amplification factor. Special Features of MESFET: Metal semiconductor FET is useful in high speed or microwave circuits, where the simplicity of Schottky barriers allows fabrication tod geometrical tolerance. Compounds such as GaAs or InP which have higher mobilities and carrier drift vel than Si gives the speed advantage for MESFET. Working Principle of GaAs MESFET: nGads Semi insulating GaAs Structure of GaAs The structure shows a simple GaAs. The substrate is undoped or doped with chrot which has an energy level near the center of the GaAs bandgap. In either case the Fe@ Transistors 4.41 level is near the center of the gap, resulting in very high resistivity material called semi insulating GaAs, On this non conducting substrate a thin layer of lightly doped N-type GaAs is grown epitaxially to form the channel region of the FET. By using GaAs instead of Si a higher electron mobility is available and furthermore GaAs can be operated at higher temperature. Since no diffusions are involved, close geometry tolerances can be achieved and the MESFET can be made very small. What are the advantages and disadvantages of FET over BJT? Describe the construction and operation of MOSFET with suitable diagram, (Semester III, 2010-11, 10 Marks) Explain how a Bipolar junction transistor can be used as a switch. Explain the factors which determine the switching speed of BJT. (Semester ITI, 2010-11, 10 Marks) Advantage and Disadvantage of FET over BJT Advantages 1. High input impedance 1. Low input impedance 2. Smaller in size 2. Larger than FET in area 3. Negative temperature coefficient 3. Positive temperature coefficient 4, High power gain 4. Power gain is less than FET Disadvantages 41. Small gain bandwidth product 4. Higher gain bandwidth product 2. Low voltage gain due to small trans conductance 2. High current gain 3. Higher cost 3. Less cost MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor): MOSFET has a three terminal device. Gate, Drain, and Source. MOSFET has two types: (i) Enhancement type MOSFET; (ii) Depletion type MOSFET. Depletion MOSFET: on Source Gate Drain ‘Metal contact SiO, dielectric ran, tan ir lL: _———=" P-Substrate Structure of N-channel D-MOSFET Construction: It is consists of heavily doped P-type substrate into which two blocks of N-type material are diffused forming the drain and source. A N-channel is formed by diffusion between the source and drain. The type of impurity for the channel is the same as the source and drain. SiO, dielectric is grown over the entire surface and holes are cut through the SiO, layer to make contact with the N-type blocks.4.42 Fundamentals of Electronics Devices 6) Biasing circuit for CE configuration Operating regions Operation: There is no P-N junction between gate and channel. Here the diffused ch N, the insulating dielectric SiO, layer and the metal layer of the gate forms a p: capacitor. DE-MOSFET can be operated with either a positive or a negative gate. gate is positive with respect to source, it operates in the enhancement or E-mode and: the gate is negative w.r. the source. It operates in depletion mode. Yow s D Wi. TT. +— si0, dielectric N-Channel P-Substrate When drain is made +ve with respect to source a drain current will flow, even with gate potential and the MOSFET is said to be operation in E-mode. In this mode of opera gate attracts the —ve charge carriers from the P-substrate to the N-channel and thus ré the channel resistance and increase the drain current. The more positive the gate, m made drain current flows. ipolar Junction Transistor Used as a Switch: In a switching operation, a is usually controlled in two conduction states ‘on’ state and ‘off” state. Ideally, a 5 should appear as a short circuit when turned on and an open circuit when tured off In a common emitter circuit collector current i, is controlled by base current ip VEE} off the family of characteristics. If base current is zero or negative the calleeton curren negligible. This is the ‘off’ state of transistor and the device is said to be operating cut off region, The base current is positive and sufficiently large, the device is dri the saturation region. This is the ‘on’ state of transistor in which large value of. ig with only a very small yoltage drop yop. i Vp (forward bias) P E50 Neel Saturation active fig ‘ac 100K | P oO + Cut off Inverted (forward bias) 1Transistors 4.43 ‘What are the advantages and disadvantages of Field effect transistor over a BIT? Discuss briefly the operation of normally-on and normally-off GaAs MESFET with suitable diagram and characteristics. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 Marks) Advantage and Disadvantage of FET over BJT Advantages Low input impedance Larger than FET in area Positive temperature coefficient Power gain is less than FET 4. High input impedance 2. Smaller in size 3. Negative temperature coefficient 4. High power gain Disadvantages Pee 4. Small gain bandwidth product 1. Higher gain bandwidth product 2. Low voltage gain due to small trans conductance 2. High current gain 3, Higher cost 3. Less cost s MESFET: The substrate is undoped or doped with chromium, which has an energy | near the center of the GaAs bandgap. In either case the Fermi level is near the center of gap, resulting in very high resistivity material generally called semi insulating GaAs. On is non-conducting substrate a thin layer of lightly doped N-type GaAs is grown epitaxially form the channel region of the FET. The photo lithographic processing consist of defining titers in metal layers for source and drain Ohmic contact and for Schottky barrier gate. By werse biasing the Schottky gate, the channel can be depleted to the semi insulating substrate the resulting /-V characteristics are similar to the JFET device. s G@ Dd i i [ nGads Semi insulating GaAs Structure of GaAs MESFET at are the factors that affect the amplification factor of the BIT? (Semester IV, 2007-08, 10 Marks) Or it reference to a dipolar junction transistor, define the following quantities: 4o-collector current amplification factor (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Marks)4.44 Fundamentals of Electronics Devices Sol. The factor f relating the collector current to the base current is the base-to-collector amplification factor. fe. by -P-N transistors are identical except that transistor 2 has base region twice as transistor 1, and transistor 3 has the base region doped twice as heavily as transis Rest parameters of all transistors are identical. Which transistor has largest value (i) Emitter injection efficiency (ii) Base transport factor (iii) Punch through voltage (iv) Common emitter current gain? (Semester FV, 2007-08, 10 Or In reference to a dipolar junction transistor, define the following quantities: (i) The emitter injection efficiency b (ii) Current transfer ratio (iii) Early effect. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Sol. ()) Emitter Injection Efficiency: The total emitter current i, is made up of hole « i,, and the electron component i;,, due to electrons injected from base to emit emitter injection efficiency. fey | Tle (ii) Current Transfer Ratio: The product Zy is defined as the factor a called the transfer ratio. Where f is base transport factor and y is emitter injection efficiency. (iii) Early Effect: The modulation of the effective bass width by the collector voltage is as early effect. An increase in the collector voltage increases the space charge wi output junction diode and, thus, the effective base width W, is reduced.d r nee N= Ig Vg ee OWE Derive an expression for maximum power delivered by a solar cell. (Semester II, 2011-12, 2 Marks) What do you mean by optoelectronic devices? How are they classified and what are the various types of photoelectronic devices? (Semester III, 2011-12, 2 Marks) Expression for Maximum Power Delivered by a Solar Cell: pay | yT ++) \ a R P-N junction solar cell with resistive load Consider a P-Vjunction in which incident photon illumination generate EHPs in the space charge region that will generate photo current J, in the reverse direction, The photocurrent 1, causes a voltage drop across the resistive load which forward biases the P-N junction and therefore a forward current /,. flows. The resultant current =1-Ip=1,-1fe"" 1) When load resistance = 0 the short cireuit current T=Iyc=h When R =, the resultant current is zero and voltage is open cht voltage (V,.) 1= =f, Is (eT 1) Open circuit voltage V,,, = Vlog ( +2) Power delivered to load P= I= VI, —I,(°Y*"-1)] The power delivered to load is maximum if its derivates a m en4.46 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices V,, is the voltage that makes the power delivered to load maximum, ie. (jeer -1+% VY s (0) Optoelectronic Devices: These devices provide the optical sources and detectors allow broadband telecommunications and data transmission over optical fibres, Classification of Optoelectronic devices 1. Photoconductive devices: These are devices detecting variations in the light inda to activate or inhibit a circuit. Ex: LDR, Photodiode, Photo transistor 2. Photovoltaic Devices: These devices generate a voltage and current by a energy from light. Ex: Solar cells, Photovoltaic cells. Q.2. Why p-i-n diode detector does not provide gain? How can it be made more sens low level intensity of light? What material should be used to detect light of wa A=0.6um? (Semester II, 2011-12, 10) Sol. p-i-n diode detector: p-i-n diode detector is used to control the width of depletion region. The ‘/’ region need not be truly intrinsic as long as the resistivity is high. When the device is reverse biased, the applied voltage appears:almost entirely across the i region of the cartier lifetime within the i region is long compared with the drift time, most of the photogenerated carrier will be collected by the » and p regions. An important figure of merit for a photodetector is the external quantum efficiency ,, defined as the number of carriers that are collected for every photon impinging on the detector, Fora photo-diode that has no current gain, the maximum 1, is unity. If low level opticd are to be detected, it is often desirable to operate the photo-diode in the avalanche regio characteristic. The material used to detect light of wavelength 4 = 0.6 jem is In GaAs. Q.3. Explain the working of GUNN and IMPATT diode with neat sketches. Mention t ie Schematic representation of p-i-n phot difference between them. (Semester II, 2011-12, Or Briefly describe the principle of operation of an IMPATT diode. (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Or Write short notes on: (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 The gunn diode Sol, IMPATT Diode: It is a microwave negative-conductance device that operates by aco of carrier injection and transit time effects. It has n*-p-i-p’ structure. This device ofSome Special Devices 4.47 injecting carriers into the drift region and is called an impact a valence transit-time (IMPATT) diode. IMPATT operation can be obtained in simpler structures, the Read diode is best suited for illustration of the basic principles. The device consists essentially of two regions: 1. The n”-p region at which Avalanche multiplication occurs, 2. The ‘region, through which generated holes must drift in moving to the p*contact. Similar devices can be build in the p* -n-i-n” configuration, in which electrons resulting from Avalanche multiplication drift through the / region, taking advantage of the higher mobility of electrons compared with holes ea \¢—— £ ——>! pe Basie device configuration and electric field distributions Operation of IMPATT Diode: The device operates in a negative conductance mode when the AC component of current is negative over a portion of cycle during which the AC voltage is positive and vice-versa. The negative conductance occurs because of two processes, causing the current to lag behind the voltage in time: 1, Adelay due to the avalanche process. > 2. A further delay due to the transit time of carriers across the drift region, Ifthe sum of these delay times is approximately one-half cycle of the operating frequency, negative conductance occurs and the device can be used for oscillation and amplification GUNN Die Microwave devices that operate by the transferred-electron mechanism are called GUNN diodes. In the transferred electron mechanism the conduction electrons of some semi conductors are shifted from a state of high mobility to a state of low mobility by the influence of strong electric field. Negative conduction operation can be achieved in a diode for which this mechanism applies and the results are varied and useful in microwave circuits. Operation of GUNN Diode: If a sample of GaAs is so biased that the field falls in the negative conductive region, space charge instability is caused, and device cannot be maintained in a DC stable condition. To understand the formation of such instabilities consider the dissipation of space charge in the conventional semi conductor. It can be shown that a localized space charge dies out exponentially with time in a homogeneous sample with positive resistance. The instantaneous charge is given as q= O,e%44.48 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Qa. Sol. Where Q is the initial space charge and, = = is known as the dielectric relaxationt o As the electric field is increased, the electron velocity increases until a critical fi reached then the electron slow down with further increase in field. The electron tr process allows electrons to gain energy at the expense of velocity over a range of of the electric field. ae r J lem fe Characteristic of electron drift velocity vs field For low values of field the electrons reside in the lower valley of conduction band mobility is high and constant with field. For high values of field electrons transfer satellite valleys where their velocity is smaller and their mobility lower. What is GBT? Draw its equivalent circuit and enumerate its special features? (Semester HIT, 2011-12, 10M (Insulating Gate Bipolar Transistor): (IGBT) SCR has difficulty in efficiently turning off the Cue device using the gate. We need additional circuitry Sateee x to reduce the anode to cathode current below: Metal t the holding current to change the SCR from the "ae * 2% conducting state to the blocking stage. Hence P IGBT was invented. IGBT combines an SCR with a MOSFET that is able to connect or disconnect th x” cathode to a base region, depending on the gate bias of the P Substrate MOS: a The main part of the IGBT is the n- region acts Anode as a drain with low doping grown on a heavily p* Structure of IGBT doped substrate that forms the anode, The 17 region can therefore support a large blocking voltage in the off state. In the on state the con¢ of this lightly doped region is modulated by the electrons injected from the n° cat the holes injected from the p* anode hence the alternative name conductively modu (COMFET). The increased conductivity allows the voltage drop across the device be in the ON state.Some Special Devices 4.49 Output current voltage characteristics of an IGBI MOS gate voltage is zero n-type an inversion region is not formed in the p-type channel ion and the n° cathode is not shorted to the nbase. For positive anode to cathode bias ,, Avalanche breakdown occurs at the n-p junction while fornegative. V,,, Avalanche occurs at the -p” junction. fo Gate MOSFET [—. Gate MOSFET 2 ‘Anode GBT equivalent circuit below offset voltage for low V,, and above the offset voltage for high Vg ive Vx, the characteristic look like that of a MOSFET with one difference: id of current starting to increase from the origin there is an offset or cut-in voltage of 07 V, as with a diode. le up of the p* substrate, the n” blocking region which is essentially like an intrinsic region, d the n” cathode. In this region, there is negligible voltage drop across the DMOS device i exp(aV yy 27)4.50 Qs. Sol. (b) Solar Cells: Itis used to convert solar energy into Fundamentals of Electronic Devices On the otherhand when V,, is larger than the offset voltage the characteristics look like M and the current is 1,= (1+ Boros Write short notes on any two of the following: (Semester III, 2011-12, 10 (a) Tunnel diode Or Explain the conditions for electron tunneling in a tunnel diode with the help of energy band diagrams. Explain the operation and /-V characteristics of the diode. (Semester IV, 2009-10, 10 (b) Solar cell Or Write short notes on: (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Solar cell (©) Schottky diodes Or Which is the hot carrier diode? Describe its special advantages and disadvantages its symbol and /-V characteristics. (Semester IV, 2007-08, 10 (a) Tunnel Diode: A tunnel diode is a high conductive two terminal P-N junction doped than a conventional junction diode. Because of heavy doping depletion layer is reduced and reverse voltage is also reduced, It is found that the reduced depleti can result in carriers “punching through” the junction with the velocity of light they do not possess enough energy to overcome the potential barrier. The result large forward current is produced at relatively low forward voltage, Such a mec conduction in which charge carriers punch through a barrier directly instead of over it is called tunneling and the diode is known as tunnel diode. Tunnel diode characteristic has a shape of a N, therefore it is called a type-N negative resistance. Itis also called as a voltage controlled negative resistance meaning that the current decreases rapidly at some critical voltage. ‘The values of peak tunneling current /, and valley current /, determine the magnitude of the negative resistance slope for a diode. The ration /,/Jy, is used a figure of merit for the tunnel diode and ratio of V,/V,is a measure of the voltage spread between the two positive resistance regions. a Total tunnel diode charaet electrical energy. To utilize maximum amount of available optical energy it is necessary to design a solar cell with a large area located near the surface of the device.Some Special Devices 451 i a Antireflecting Ise coating Sth iii) 1-¥ characteristic of solar cell Configuration of solar cell The planar junction is formed by diffusion or ion implantation and the surface is coated with appropriate materials to reduce reflection and to decrease surface recombination. The thickness of the p region must be such that electrons generated in this region can diffuse to the junction before recombination takes place. Itis desirable to have large contact potential , to obtain a large photovoltage and therefore heavy doping is indicated, on the other hand long lifetimes are desirable and these are reduced by doping too heavily. It is important that the series resistance of the device be very small so that power is not lost to heat due to ohmic losses in the device it self. Since the area is large the resistance of the p-type body of the device can be made small. The contact can be distributed over the n surface by providing small contact fingers. These narrow contacts serve to reduce the series resistance without interfering with incoming light. (¢) Schottky Diode: At lower frequency an ordinary diode can easily turg off when the bias changes from forward to reverse, But with the increase in frequency the diode reaches a point where it cannot trun off fast enough to prevent noticeable current during part of the reverse half cycle. The effect is called the charge storage. It restricts the useful frequency of ordinary rectifier diode, Gold leaf metal contact ‘Anode Cathode Metal sic) screen annide: ‘ Cathode 7 Metal 4q Cathode — Metal (gal semi-eSaductor conic junction \ Construction of Schottky diode Symbol of Schottky diode ** Schottky diode has no depletion layer eliminating the stored charges at the junction. Because of lack of charge storage the schottky diode can switch off faster than an ordinary diode. Schottky diode ean easily rectify frequencies exceeding 300 MHz.4.52 Fundamentals of Electronic Devices Sol. - (a) (b) (a) In the construction of Schottky diode electrons are in majority in both side. In the met level of minority carrier is insignificant. When the diode is unbiased, electrons on have low energy levels than electrons in the metal and so the electrons cannot cris junction barrier called the Schottky barrier. But when diode is forward biased the eled on A-side gain enough energy to cross the junction and enter into the metal with very energy so the diode is also known as hot earrier diode. What is transferred electron effect? Describe a device based on this effect with si diagram in detail. Also draw it characteristics. (Semester III, 2010-11, 10 Mat What is photodetector? Explain the operation of a p-i-n photodetector, What are thes materials for it? How can it be made more sensitive to low level intensity of light? (Semester IE, 2010-11, 10 Ma Or Write short notes on: (Semester IV, 2006-07, 10 Mi p-i-n photodetector With a suitable diagram describe the operation and characteristics of a four-layer Explain the various triggering mechanism of this diode. (Semester IH, 2010-11, 10M Or Write short notes on: (Semester LV, 2006-07, 10 Ma fer. Silicon controlled rect ‘Transferred Electron Effect: The transfer of conduction electrons from a mobilitye valley to low mobility higher energy satellite valleys is called the transferred-dl effect. Gunn Diode (Based on Transferred Electron Effect): These are simple homogi structures which have Ohmic contacts on both ends. Devices can be fabricated! Gaas or In P. The N-type epitaxial layer is grown on an N* substrate wafer. The subi serves as one of the contacts to the active region. A thin N** layer is grown on N-region so that an N*-N -N"* sandwiched structure is formed. External contacta made by evaporation of a thin layer of Au-Sn or Au-Ge on each surface, follonet brief alloying step in a hydrogen atmosphere. The wafer is divided into individual d by cutting off, clearing or by etching. Each device is mounted with the N"" side a copper stud or the other heat sink so that the heat generated in an active region ¢f dissipated to the mount in one direction and the substrate layer in other direction] the substrate side can be contacted by a wire or pressure contact. Operation of Gunn Diode with its Characteristics: If a sample of GaAs is sob that the field falls in the negative conductivity region, then space charge instabilit caused, and the device cannot be maintained in a DC stable condition. The instant charge is given as y= Q,¢""" Where @, is initial charge space and r, = e/a is dielectric relaxation time During the initial growth of the domain an increasing fraction of the applied voltage across it, at the expense of electric field in the rest of the bar. Consequently, it ism that more than one domain will be present in the bar at a time, after the formationd domain the electric field in the rest of the bar falls below the threshold value for ne