FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY HONOURS IN ENGINEERING
OPEN
DMX4202- APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS I
UNIVERSITY
OF SRI LANKA

BOOK 02
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS I

DMX4202
 DMX4202
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 1

Published by the
Open University of Sri Lanka
 Course Team

Course Team Chair Content Editors

T.S.S. Jatunararchchi S.A.M.A.N.S.Senanayake

T.S.S. Jatunararchchi

Authors Word processing

S.A.M.A.N.S.Senanayake Miss. R.G.H.Jayawicrama

First published in 2020

© 2020 Open University of Sri Lanka

All rights reserved. No part of this course book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying and recording or from any information stored in a
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Open University of
Sri Lanka.

Published by
The Open University of Sri Lanka
 About the Course

There are two courses related to the area of Applied Thermodynamics which are offered under
the Bachelor of Technology Honours in Engineering Study Programme. This course,
DMX4202 Applied thermodynamics I, is offered at level 4 and the second course, DMX5205
Applied Thermodynamics II, is offered at level 5.

Unit 1 of this book deals with the thermodynamic aspects of simple Compressible flows
through nozzles and passages. In this unit the general relations associated with one-
dimensional compressible flows for an ideal gas with constant specific heats are considered.
First session of this unit (session 12), introduce the concepts of stagnation state, sonic
velocity, Mach number for fluid flow etc. In session two of this unit (session 13) discuss the
effects of heat transfer on compressible flows through nozzles and diffusers and also explain
the process in steam nozzles.

Unit 2 is mainly based on the thermodynamics aspects of Reciprocating Air Compressors.

Session 14 of this unit cover the introduction of air compressors and its classifications. Also
this session gives the details on machine cycle and thermodynamic analysis of the cycle.
Session 15 discusses the thermodynamic processes involved in the multistage reciprocating air
compressor machine cycle. The last session of this unit deals with the principle of operation of
rotary positive displacement compressors and the thermodynamic processes involved in their
machine cycle.
UNIT 03

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Session 12
Theory of compressible flow

Session 13
Flow through nozzles and diffusers

UNIT 04

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS

Session 14
Reciprocating air compressors

Session 15
Multistage reciprocating compressors

Session 16
Rotary air compressors
 DMX4202

Applied Thermodynamics 1

Unit 03

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

1
Session 12
Theory of Compressible Flow

Content
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Equations of motion for compressible flow
12.2 Ideal gas property relationships
12.3 Stagnation properties
12.4 Velocity of sound in ideal gas
12.5 Mach number
Summary
Learning Outcomes

12.0 Introduction
The fluids are classified as incompressible and compressible fluids. Incompressible fluids
do not undergo significant changes in density as they flow and in general, liquids are
incompressible. Water is an excellent example for the incompressible fluids. In contrast,
compressible fluids do undergo density changes, and gases are generally compressible, air
being the most common compressible fluid we can find. Compressibility of gases leads to
many interesting features such as shocks, which are absent for incompressible fluids. Gas
dynamics is the discipline that studies the flow of compressible fluids and forms an important
branch of Fluid Mechanics.

This Session focuses on thermodynamic aspects of simple compressible flows through ducts
and passages. Several thermodynamic cycles you have already studied have flows going
through nozzles or diffusers. For instance, a set of nozzles inside a steam turbine converts a
high-pressure steam flow into a lower pressure high-velocity flow that enters the passage
between the rotating blades. Proper analysis of these processes is important for an accurate
evaluation of the mass flow rate, the work and heat transfer, or kinetic energy involved in
order for the design and to study the operating behavior of the overall system. All of the
practical applications are complicated with respect to the flow geometry and the flowing
media, so we will use a simplified approach. In this session we will treat one-dimensional

2
flow of a pure substance that behaves as an ideal gas. This allows us to focus on important
aspects of a compressible flow, which is influenced by the sonic velocity, and the Mach
number that are important parameters for this type of flow.

12.1 Equations of Motion for Compressible Flow

As you know, for incompressible flow, simple equations namely, continuity equation,
Bernoulli equation and momentum equation are used to determine different variables along
the flow path. Such a simple approach is however, not possible for a compressible flow
where temperature and the density are not constants. One needs to solve the energy equation
and the continuity and momentum equations considering temperature and density variations
as well. In this Session, we use these equations with the following assumptions.

1. Flow is one-dimensional.
2. Viscosity and Heat Transfer are neglected.
3. Behavior of flow as a consequence of area changes only considered.
4. Flow is steady.

Also when the fluid is a gas, it is assumed to be an ideal gas in many situations, and ideal gas
equation and equations that describe the processes involved (adiabatic and isothermal) are
used in the analysis.

Let us consider a one-dimensional control volume as shown in Fig 12.1. The abbreviations
used are:

V = Fluid velocity
P = Pressure
T = Temperature
v = Specific volume
u = Specific internal energy of the fluid
m = Mass flow rate
A = Cross sectional area normal to the flow
 = Fluid density
W = Work
Q = Heat
F = External force

3
 Figure 12.1 Control volume
Continuity equation

For a steady flow it is obvious that the mass flow rates at entry (1) and exit (2) of the control
volume must be equal. Hence we can write the following equation.

𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Momentum equation

The derivation of Momentum Equation closely follows that for incompressible flows.
Basically, it equates net force on the control volume to the rate of change of momentum.

In general, we can write the rate of change of momentum in the control volume in the x –
direction as follows.
𝑑(𝑚𝑉𝑥 )
= ∑ 𝐹𝑥 + ∑ 𝑚1 𝑉1 − ∑ 𝑚2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑡

Here, we will be concerned primarily with steady-state processes in which there is a single
flow with uniform properties into the control volume, and a single flow with uniform
properties out of the control volume. When the flow is steady, the rate of momentum change
within the control volume becomes zero. So the above equation simplifies to:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = ∑ 𝑚2 𝑉2 − ∑ 𝑚1 𝑉1

Energy equation

Energy equation under the conditions steady flow is derived considering the energy balance.
Let’s consider the heat transfer to the control volume is Q and work transfer from the system
demarcated by the boundary is W.

Then, Total energy in (𝐸1 ) = Total energy out (𝐸2 )

4
Total energy input to the system are the heat transfer and the energies carried into the system
at the inlet in different forms. These forms are internal energy, kinetic energy, potential
energy and the energy due to pressure. Total energy exits from the system are the work
transfer and the energies carried out from the system at the exit in different forms. These
forms are internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy and the energy due to pressure.

Therefore, we can write energy balance equation as follows.

1
𝐸1 = 𝑄 + 2 𝑚1 𝑉12 + 𝑚1 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝑉1 + 𝑈1
Similarly,
1 𝑃2 𝑚2
𝐸2 = 𝑊 + 2 𝑚2 𝑉22 + 𝑚2 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝑈2
𝜌2
𝐸1 = 𝐸2

1 𝑃1 𝑚1 1 𝑃2 𝑚2
𝑄 + 2 𝑚1 𝑉12 + 𝑚1 𝑔𝑧1 + + 𝑈1 = 𝑊 + 2 𝑚2 𝑉22 + 𝑚2 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝑈2
𝜌1 𝜌2

1 𝑃2 𝑚2 𝑃1 𝑚1
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 2 (𝑚2 𝑉22 − 𝑚1 𝑉12 ) + (𝑚2 𝑔𝑧2 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑧1 ) + ( − ) + (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )
𝜌2 𝜌1

If mass flow rate is constant, for unit mass flow rate we can simplify this equation as follows.
1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = (𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 ) − (𝑢1 + 𝑃1 𝑣1 ) + 2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

This equation is called as Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE).

Example 1

A jet engine is tested on a test stand as shown below. The inlet area to the compressor is
0.2m2, and air enters the compressor at 95kPa, 100 m/s. The pressure of the atmosphere is
100kPa. The exit area of the engine is 0.1m2, and the products of combustion leave the exit
plane at a pressure of 125kPa and a velocity of 450 m/s. The air–fuel ratio is 50kg air/kg fuel,
and the fuel enters with a low velocity. The rate of airflow entering the engine is 20 kg/s.
Determine the thrust, Rx, on the engine.

5
Solution

Applying momentum equation,

𝑅𝑥 + 𝑃1 𝐴1 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 = (𝑚2 𝑉2 − 𝑚1 𝑉1 )

𝑅𝑥 + 1000(95 − 100)0.2 − 1000(125 − 100)0.1 = (20.4)(450) − (20)(100)

𝑅𝑥 = 10.68𝑘𝑁

12.2 Ideal Gas Property Relationships

In the analysis of compressible flow of gases, some relationships that hold for ideal gases are
also very important. We can recall these relations as mentioned below.

𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇

Ideal gas equation

Where, R is the specific gas constant. Its value for air is 0.287kJ/kgK.

Specific Heats and Specific-Heat Ratio

We define two intensive properties, specific heat capacity under constant volume (cv) and
specific heat capacity under constant pressure (cp).

These two properties are mathematically expressed as follows, when they are only functions of
temperature.

𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑣 = ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑣

𝑑ℎ
𝑐𝑝 = ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑝

6
The ratio of specific heats, 𝛾, is another commonly used property and is defined by,

𝑐𝑝
𝛾= 𝑐𝑣

Enthalpy (H)

Enthalpy is a useful property and is defined by the following combination of more common
properties.
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
Where, V is the Volume.
On a mass-specific basis, the enthalpy is denoted in terms of the specific volume (v) or the
density (), that is,
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
or
𝑝
ℎ =𝑢+𝜌
or (using ideal gas equation)
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇

By differentiating last equation for enthalpy,

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑅
𝑑𝑇

𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅
Entropy (S)

To obtain the desired temperature–entropy relationships for an ideal gas, we apply the
concepts associated with the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Let us begin by
considering a simple compressible system that undergoes an internally reversible process that
results in an incremental change in state. For such a process, the first law of thermodynamics
is expressed as,
𝑑𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 − 𝑑𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑑𝑈
The incremental heat interaction is related directly to the entropy change through the formal
definition of entropy.
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = ( 𝑇 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.1)
𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝑑𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆

7
For a simple compressible substance, the only reversible work mode is compression and/or
expansion, that is,
𝑑𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑝𝑑𝑉

Therefore, the equation (12.1) can be written as follows.

𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈
For a unit mass,

𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.2)

We know that,
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑃

Substituting for du in equation (12.2)

𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃

𝑑𝑃
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝜌

This equation can be written as,

𝑅𝑇
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑𝑃
𝑃

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝 −𝑅
𝑇 𝑃

2 𝑑𝑇 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫1 𝑐𝑝 − ∫1 𝑅
𝑇 𝑃

2 𝑑𝑇 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫1 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑅 ∫1
𝑇 𝑃

2 𝑑𝑇 𝑃
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫1 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑅𝑙𝑛 𝑃2
𝑇 1

Since cp is a function of T, we take the average of cp between state 1 and state 2.

𝑇 𝑃
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2) − 𝑅𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1 1

A similar expression can be obtained for change in entropy, in terms of cv-av and specific
volumes by using equation (12.2) and substituting cvdT for du and RT/v for P.

8
 𝑇 𝑣
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑣−𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2 ) + 𝑅𝑙𝑛 (𝑣2)
1 1

Isentropic relationships

For an isentropic process, a process in which the initial and final entropies are identical, the
above two equations for entropy change can be used to develop some useful engineering
relationships as give below.

𝑇 𝑃
0 = 𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2) − 𝑅𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1 1

𝑇 𝑃
𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2) = 𝑅𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1 1

𝑇 𝑅 𝑃
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2) = 𝑐 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1 𝑝−𝑎𝑣 1

𝑅
𝑇2 𝑃 𝑐
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇 ) = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 ) 𝑝−𝑎𝑣
1 1

𝑅 𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 −𝑐𝑣−𝑎𝑣 1 𝛾−1

= = (1 − 𝛾) = ( )
𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 𝑐𝑝−𝑎𝑣 𝛾

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇 ) = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃 )
1 1

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
= (𝑃 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.3)
𝑇1 1

Similar relationships in terms of specific volume could be obtained by the substitutions from
ideal gas equation.

Example 2

A gas with a velocity of 300m/s enters a horizontal pipe with a pressure of 78kPa and
temperature of 40oC. The pipe changes in diameter at the exit where pressure is 117kPa. Find
the velocity of the gas at the exit end if the flow is adiabatic. R=0.287kJ/kgK, =1.4.

9
Also determine the ratio of cross sectional areas at inlet and exit.

Solution

Inlet condition:
𝑉1 = 300𝑚/𝑠
𝑇1 = 313𝐾
𝑃1 = 78𝑘𝑃𝑎
Exit condition:
𝑃2 = 117𝑘𝑃𝑎
Given: process is adiabatic
Use the equation (4.3).
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
=( )
𝑇1 𝑃1

117 0.4/1.4
𝑇2 = 313 ( ) = 351.44𝐾
78

Now apply the steady flow energy equation

1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Since there is no work or heat transfer (adiabatic),

1
0 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
2
Considering ideal gas assumptions,

1
0 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
2
We can write,
𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅

𝑐𝑝 𝑅
=1+
𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑣
𝑅
𝛾−1=
𝑐𝑣

𝑅 0.287
𝑐𝑣 = = = 0.7175𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝛾 − 1 1.4 − 1

𝑐𝑝 = 0.287 + 0.7175 = 1.0045𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾

Substituting the relevant values in equation (1)

1
0 = 1.0045 𝑥 1000(351.44 − 313) + (𝑉22 − 3002 )
2

−77,225.96 = 𝑉22 − 3002

10
 𝑉2 = 113𝑚/𝑠
Applying continuity equation,

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴1 𝜌2 𝑉2
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
𝐴2 𝜌1 𝑉1
𝑃1
= 𝑅𝑇1
𝜌1

𝑃1 𝑃2
𝜌1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌2 =
𝑅𝑇1 𝑅𝑇2

𝜌2 𝑃2 𝑇2 117 351.44
= = ( ) = 1.684
𝜌1 𝑃1 𝑇1 78 313

Substituting in equation (2),

𝐴1 113
= 1.684 ( ) = 0.634
𝐴2 300

12.3 Stagnation Properties

By introducing the concept of the isentropic stagnation state and the properties associated
with it, the analysis of compressible flow can be simplified. The isentropic stagnation state is
the state, a flowing fluid would attain after a reversible adiabatic deceleration to zero
velocity. This state is designated in this session with the subscript “o”. Remember that there
does not have to be a stagnation (stationary) point in a flow in order to use the equations
derived based on this concept. Stagnation conditions (sometime called as total conditions) are
only reference conditions.

From the first law for a steady-state process we write the following equation.
𝑉2
ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧 = ℎ𝑜 + 0 + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑉2
ℎ+ = ℎ𝑜
2

Where h = enthalpy, V = flow velocity and ho = enthalpy of the flow when it is adiabatically
and reversibly decelerated to zero velocity.

Sometimes, we refer to actual stagnation state and isentropic stagnation state, together with
associated properties. The actual stagnation state is the condition that would be achieved after

11
the flow is brought to zero velocity through an actual process. Isentropic stagnation refers to
the state that would be achieved through an isentropic process (i.e. adiabatic and reversible).

Therefore, the term stagnation property is reserved for the properties associated with the
actual state, and the term total property is used for the isentropic stagnation state. The actual
and the isentropic stagnation states for a typical gas or vapour are show non the h–s diagram
of Fig12. 2.

Figure 12.2 Stagnation properties and total properties

It is evident that the enthalpy is the same for both the actual and isentropic stagnation states
(assuming that the actual process is adiabatic). Therefore, for an ideal gas, the actual
stagnation temperature is the same as the isentropic stagnation temperature. However, the
actual stagnation pressure may be less than the isentropic stagnation pressure. For this reason
the term total pressure (meaning isentropic stagnation pressure) has particular meaning
compared to the actual stagnation pressure.

12.4 Velocity of Sound in Ideal Gas

As you know, sound is a mechanical wave that results from the back and forth vibration of
the particles of the medium through which the sound wave is moving. If a sound wave is
moving from left to right through air, then particles of air will be displaced both rightward
and leftward as the energy of the sound wave passes through it. The motion of the particles is
parallel (and anti-parallel) to the direction of the energy transport. This is what characterizes
sound waves in air as longitudinal waves .When a pressure disturbance occurs in a
12
compressible fluid, the disturbance travels through the fluid exactly resembling the sound
wave with a certain velocity, called as sonic velocity and its value depends on the state of the
fluid. This is an important parameter in compressible-fluid flow.

With the pressure disturbance travels, a repeating pattern of high-pressure and low-pressure
regions moves through the medium. In fact, a plot of pressure versus time would appear as a
sine curve as shown in Fig12.3. The peak points of the sine curve correspond to
compressions; the low points correspond to rarefactions; and the "zero points" correspond to
the pressure that the air would have if there were no disturbance moving through it. The Fig
4.3 below illustrates the correspondence between the longitudinal nature of a sound wave in
air and the pressure-time fluctuations.

Figure 12.3 Illustration of sonic wave propagation through a fluid

We now see how to derive an expression for the sonic velocity of an ideal gas in terms of the
properties of the gas. Let a disturbance be set up by the movement of the piston at the end of
the tube, as shown in Fig. 12.4. A wave travels down the tube with a velocity c, which is the
sonic velocity.

13
Assume that after the wave has passed, the properties of the gas have changed an
infinitesimal amount and that the gas is moving with the velocity dv toward the wave front. In
Fig. 12.4, this process is shown from the point of view of an observer who travels with the
wave front. Consider the control surface shown in Fig. 12.4. From the first law, for this
steady-state process we can write the following equation.
𝑐2 (𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉)2
ℎ+ = (ℎ + 𝑑ℎ) +
2 2
𝑑ℎ = 𝑐𝑑𝑉 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.4)

From the continuity equation we can write,

𝜌𝐴𝑐 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝐴(𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉)

𝑐𝑑𝜌 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.5)

Considering the property relation,

𝑑𝑃
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ −
𝜌
When the process is isentropic (that is ds is zero),

𝑑𝑃
𝑑ℎ =
𝜌
From equation (12.4), substituting for dh,

𝑑𝑃
= 𝑐𝑑𝑉
𝜌
Substituting for dV from equation (12.5),

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌
= 𝑐 (𝑐 )
𝜌 𝜌
𝑑𝑝
= 𝑐 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.6)
𝑑𝜌

When an ideal gas undergoes an isentropic change of state, assuming constant specific heat,
we can write the following relationship.
𝑃
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌𝛾
In differential form,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌
−𝛾 =0
𝑃 𝜌
𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑃
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12.7)
𝑑𝜌 𝜌

From equations (12.6) and (12.7),

𝛾𝑃
𝑐2 =
𝜌

14
 𝑃
Since for ideal gas 𝜌 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑐 2 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

Therefore, sonic velocity for a given gas depends only on the temperature under isentropic
conditions.

Example 3

Determine the velocity of sound in air at 300 K and at 1000 K.

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇
For 300K
𝑐 = √1.4 𝑥 287 𝑥 300 = 347.2𝑚/𝑠
For 100K
𝑐 = √1.4 𝑥 287 𝑥 100 = 633.9𝑚/𝑠

Note the significant increase in sonic velocity as the temperature increases.

12.5 Mach Number

The ratio of the fluid velocity to the velocity of sound (sonic velocity) is found to be
important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flow, and this is called Mach
number.
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = =
𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐

Depending upon the value of Mach number, the flow is classified as;

Subsonic flow: M < 1 in this case V< c

Sonic flow: M = 1 in this case V = c
Supersonic flow: M > 1 in this case V > c

Summary
When a compressible fluid flows through a duct of varying cross-sectional area, the velocity
of flow obviously varies. When the velocity of flow exceeds the sonic velocity, the flow is
said to be supersonic, when it is less than the sonic velocity it is called subsonic. For an ideal
gas, the sonic velocity is the velocity of a sound wave under the prevailing local conditions of
the fluid, and it depends on the temperature.

15
That is,
𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

The ratio of flow velocity to the sonic velocity at a given point is denoted by Mach number
(M). M = 1 means flow velocity is equal to the sonic velocity. M < 1 and M > 1 respectively
denote subsonic flow and supersonic flow.

Isentropic stagnation condition of flow is also important in compressible flow analysis.

Isentropic stagnation condition is the state of fluid when it is brought to a stop under
isentropic conditions. This implies the energy of flow is same as the energy at stagnation
condition. The properties of the fluid in this state are named as stagnation properties.
In the analysis of compressible flows, we use the following principles.

Conservation of mass
𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Conservation of energy

1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Thermodynamic property relationships

𝛾−1
𝑑𝑃 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾 𝑃 𝑑𝑝
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝜌
; =( ) ; 𝜌
= 𝑅𝑇; = 𝑐2
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑑𝜌

Learning Outcomes
After reading this session you will be able to:

1. Explain the difference between compressible and incompressible flow of fluids

2. State assumptions usually made in simplifying the incompressible fluid flow
3. Work with property relationships for ideal gasses that are often valid for compressible
flow
4. Write down the continuity equation, momentum equation and the energy equation for
compressible flow
5. Define stagnation state of a fluid
6. Explain sonic velocity in a fluid and derive an expression for the same
7. Define Mach number for fluid flow
8. Differentiate the subsonic flow, sonic flow and supersonic flow.

16
Session 13
Flow through Nozzles and Diffusers

Content
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Subsonic and supersonic flows
13.2 Critical properties at the throat
13.3 Energy equations for isothermal and adiabatic processes
13.4 Variables of flow in terms of Mach number
13.5 Mass flow rate in compressible flow
13.6 Chocking in a convergent passage
13.7 Steam nozzles
Summary
Learning Outcomes

13.0 Introduction
Fluid flow through a duct with changing cross sectional area is found in many applications
and such devices are called nozzles or diffusers. The duct is termed as a nozzle or diffuser
depending upon how the pressure varies when the flow progresses. If pressure is decreasing it
is called as a nozzle whereas it is called a diffuser when pressure increases. In terms of
velocity, it is a nozzle when fluid accelerates and it is a diffuser when the fluid decelerates.

When the flow velocity is less than the sonic velocity, or in the subsonic flow region, we know
that fluid tends to accelerate with the decrease of flow area. However, when the flow velocity
is above the sonic velocity, the fluid tends to decelerate with the decrease of flow area.
In this session we study flow characteristics of isentropic flow through nozzles and diffusers
relating them to stagnation properties and Mach number which decides on the flow type,
subsonic and supersonic flows.

17
13.1 Subsonic and Supersonic Flows

To see the conditions for subsonic and supersonic flows (meaning of subsonic and supersonic
flows has been explained in the previous session) we consider a duct with both a converging
and diverging sections as shown in Figure 13.1. The minimum cross-sectional area is called
the throat. Our first consideration concerns the conditions that determine whether a nozzle or
diffuser should be converging or diverging, and the conditions that prevail at the throat when
an isentropic flow is present.

For the control volume shown, the following relations can be written.

Figure 13.1 Converging – diverging duct

From steady flow energy equation
1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2
This equation can be written differential form as follows.
𝑑𝑞 − 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑ℎ + 2𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧
For adiabatic process and with no work transfer this can be simplified as,
𝑑ℎ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑑ℎ = −𝑉𝑑𝑉. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.1)
From property relation,
𝑑𝑃
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ −
𝜌
For adiabatic and reversible process (that is ds = 0),
𝑑𝑃
𝑑ℎ = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.2)
𝜌

18
From (13.1) and (13.2)
𝑑𝑃
= −𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝜌
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑉 = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.3)
𝜌𝑉
From continuity equation,
𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
In differential form,
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉
+ + =0
𝜌 𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝜌
=− −
𝐴 𝑉 𝜌
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑃
=− − ( )
𝐴 𝑉 𝜌 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑉
=− ( )−
𝐴 𝜌 𝑑𝑃 𝑉
Substituting from (13.3) for dV,
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑃
=− ( )+ 2
𝐴 𝜌 𝑑𝑃 𝜌𝑉

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑉2
= (1 − ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.4)
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝜌
From the previous Session we know the relationship,

𝑑𝑃
𝑐2 =
𝑑𝜌
Therefore equation (13.4) can be written as follows.
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑉2
= (1 − 2 )
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃
= (1 − 𝑀2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.5)
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2

This is a very significant equation from which we can draw the following conclusions about
the proper shape for nozzles and diffusers:

19
For a nozzle dP< 0,(pressure is decreasing) therefore,

(1) For a subsonic flow, M < 1. This implies dA<0. This means the nozzle is converging.
(2) For a supersonic flow, M > 1. This implies dA> 0. This means the nozzle is diverging.

For a diffuser dP> 0, (pressure is increasing), therefore,

(1) For a subsonic flow, M < 1. This implies dA> 0. This means diffuser is diverging
(2) For a supersonic flow, M > 1. This implies dA< 0. This means the diffuser is converging.

According to this, shape of the duct depends on the type of flow. For a subsonic condition
nozzle is converging, and for a supersonic flow the nozzle is diverging as shown in Figure 13.2.
We have usually come across subsonic flows where the flow velocity is less than sonic
velocity, and in which case nozzle is diverging. Because of this we are used to identify a
nozzle as a diverging duct. But, this is only true for subsonic flow as we now understand.

Figure 13.2 Nozzle and Diffuser shapes according to flow type

If at some point in the duct, the velocity of flow reaches sonic velocity, then at that point
M = 1. This implies from the equation 13.5 dA = 0. So, the sonic velocity could be achieved at
the throat of a duct with varying cross section.

20
13.2 Critical Properties At The Throat

As mentioned before when fluid flows through a duct of varying cross section, sonic velocity
(i. e. M = 1) is achieved at the point where there is no change in cross sectional area, called as
throat. The properties at the throat, when sonic velocity exists in the flow are known as
critical properties.

We will now develop equations for properties in the flow at any particular point in terms of
stagnation properties and Mach number when the flow is isentropic. Also we can determine
the properties at the throat when sonic velocity exists at the throat (M =1) in terms of
stagnation properties. These relations are very useful in dealing with isentropic flow of an
ideal gas in a duct.

For an isentropic flow, consider the total energy at a point without potential energy term.
𝑉2
ℎ+ = ℎ𝑜
2
Where, ho = isentropic stagnation enthalpy
For an ideal gas this equation can be written in temperature terms as follows.
𝑉 2 = 2(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ)

𝑉 2 = 2𝑐𝑝𝑜 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇)
Where To is the isentropic stagnation temperature.

We can get an expression for cp as given below.

𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅 + 𝑐𝑣

𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑝
= 𝛾 ; 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑐𝑣 𝛾
𝑐𝑝
𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅 +
𝛾

𝛾𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑅 + 𝑐𝑝

𝛾𝑅
𝑐𝑝 =
𝛾−1

Therefore, the above equation for V can be written as follows.

21
 𝛾𝑅𝑇 𝑇𝑜
𝑉2 = 2 ( − 1)
𝛾−1 𝑇
Since
𝑐 2 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇

𝑐 2 𝑇𝑜
𝑉2 = 2 ( − 1)
𝛾−1 𝑇

𝑉2 2 𝑇𝑜
2
= ( −1)
𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑇

2 𝑇𝑜
𝑀2 = ( − 1)
𝛾−1 𝑇

𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=1+( ) 𝑀2
𝑇 2

For an isentropic process,

𝛾 1
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1 𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =( )
𝑃 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇

𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
Therefore, = [1 + ( ) 𝑀2 ]
𝑃 2

1
𝜌𝑜 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
= [1 + ( )𝑀 ]
𝜌 2

The conditions at the throat of the nozzle can be found by making M = 1. Therefore, the
properties at the throat are given by the following equations (denoted as *).

𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1 𝛾+1
∗
= 1+( )=
𝑇 2 2

𝑇∗ 2
= 𝛾+1
𝑇𝑜

𝛾
𝑃∗ 2 𝛾−1
= (𝛾+1)
𝑃𝑜

1
𝜌∗ 2 𝛾−1
= (𝛾+1)
𝜌𝑜

22
These properties at the throat of a nozzle are referred to as critical pressure, critical temperature,
and critical density.

Example 1

Air at 8.6bar and 190oC expands at the rate of 4.5kg/s through a convergent-divergent nozzle
into a space at 1.03bar. Assuming that the inlet velocity is negligible, calculate the throat and
the exit cross sectional areas of the nozzle.

Solution

The nozzle is shown below.

𝛾
𝑃∗ 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1

To find the cross sectional area, we can use the following continuity equation for the
particular point.

First consider the throat.

𝑚
𝐴𝑡 =
𝜌∗ 𝐶 ∗
m is given as 4.5kg/s, and we need to find out density and velocity at the throat first.
To find velocity, use energy equation.
𝐶 ∗2
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ∗ +
2

𝐶 ∗ = √2𝑐𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇 ∗ )
Inlet temperature is given,
𝑇𝑜 = 190 + 273 = 463𝐾

Find T* using the following equation.

𝑇∗ 2
=
𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1

2 2
𝑇∗ = ( ) 𝑇𝑜 = ( ) 463 = 385.8𝐾
𝛾+1 1.4 + 1

23
Therefore,
𝐶 ∗ = √2(1.005𝑥103 )(463 − 385.8) = 393.9𝑚/𝑠

Density at the throat is found using ideal gas equation

𝑃∗
= 𝑅𝑇 ∗
𝜌∗

∗
𝑃∗
𝜌 =
𝑅𝑇 ∗
1.4
2 1.4−1
𝑃 ∗ = 8.6 ( ) = 4.543𝑏𝑎𝑟
1.4 + 1

4.543𝑥105
𝜌∗ = = 4.103𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
287(385.8)

Therefore,
𝑚 4.5
𝐴𝑡 = = = 0.00278𝑚2
𝜌∗ 𝐶 ∗ 4.103 ∗ 393.9

Now consider the exit section of the nozzle.

𝑚
𝐴2 =
𝜌2 𝑉2
To find the density at exit, use the isentropic expansion equation.
1
𝜌2 𝑃2 𝛾
=( )
𝜌𝑜 𝑃𝑜
1 1 1
𝑃2 𝛾 𝑃𝑜 𝑃2 𝛾 8.6 ∗ 105 1.03 ∗ 105 1.4
𝜌2 = 𝜌𝑜 ( ) = ( )( ) = ( )( ) = 1.421𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑃𝑜 𝑅𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝑜 287 ∗ 463 8.6 ∗ 105

From energy equation,

𝑉22
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ2 +
2

𝑉2 = √2𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇2 )

𝑉2 = √2 ∗ 1.005 ∗ 103 (463 − 𝑇2 )

𝑃2 1.03 ∗ 105
𝑇2 = = = 252.5𝐾
𝜌2 𝑅 1.421 ∗ 287

So, substituting for T2we calculate V2 from the above equation.

𝑉2 = √2 ∗ 1.005 ∗ 103 (463 − 252.5) = 650.5𝑚/𝑠

24
Note that this velocity is greater than that of the throat.

Now we can calculate the cross sectional area.

𝑚 4.5
𝐴2 = = = 0.00486𝑚2
𝜌2 𝑉2 1.421 ∗ 650.5

From the calculation we can see that at exit the velocity is higher than that at the throat
(accelerates) and at the same time area of cross section increases. This means between the
throat and the exit, supersonic flow occurs.
Mach number at exit can be calculated as follows.
𝑉2
𝑀=
𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 252.5 = 318.5𝑚/𝑠

650.5
𝑀= =2
318.5

13.3 Energy Equations For Isothermal And Adiabatic

Processes
We consider an isentropic process again (i.e. reversible adiabatic processes) of an ideal gas
with temperature variation and with constant temperature (isothermal).

Isentropic process with constant temperature (Isothermal process)

Let’s first consider an isothermal flow through a duct. Note here also there is no heat or work
transfer occurs. From steady flow energy equation,
𝑑𝑞 − 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑ℎ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧
Considering no heat and no work transfer,

𝑑ℎ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrating,
∫ 𝑑ℎ + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

We know that from property relation,

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − = 0 ⟹ 𝑑ℎ =
𝜌 𝜌
Substituting for dh,

25
 𝑑𝑃
∫ + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 … … … . . … . . (13.6)
𝜌
For isothermal process;
𝑃
𝑃𝑣 = 𝐶1 ⟹ = 𝐶1
𝜌
Therefore, equation 13.6 can be written as follows.

𝑑𝑃
𝐶1 ∫ + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃

𝑉2
𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑃 + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2

𝑃 𝑉2
𝑙𝑛𝑃 + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2

𝑃 𝑉2
𝜌𝑔
𝑙𝑛𝑃 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

You can see the similarity of this equation with the Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluid
flow given as,
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Isentropic process with temperature change

For an adiabatic process,

𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃
= 𝐶2 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜌𝛾
𝑑𝑃
The integral ∫ 𝜌 can be written as follows.

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃
∫ =∫ 1 = (𝐶2 ) 𝛾∫
1
𝜌
𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾
(𝐶 )
2

𝑑𝑃 1 1
−
∫ = (𝐶2 )𝛾 ∫ 𝑃 𝛾 𝑑𝑃
𝜌

1
1 1− 1 𝛾−1
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝛾 𝛾
∫ = (𝐶2 )𝛾 [ ]=( ) (𝐶2 )𝛾 (𝑃 𝛾 )
𝜌 1 𝛾−1
1−𝛾

26
Substituting for C2
1 1
𝑑𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝛾 𝑃𝛾 𝛾−1
∫ =( ) ( 𝛾 ) (𝑃 𝛾 ) = ( ) ( ) (𝑃 𝛾 )
𝜌 𝛾−1 𝜌 𝛾−1 𝜌

𝑑𝑃 𝛾 𝑃
∫ =( )( )
𝜌 𝛾−1 𝜌

Substituting this integral in equation (13.6)

𝑑𝑃
∫ + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌

𝛾 𝑃 𝑉2
( )( ) + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾−1 𝜌 2

𝛾 𝑃 𝑉2
(𝛾−1) (𝜌𝑔) + 2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Example 2

A gas with a velocity of 300m/s is flowing in a horizontal pipe. The pressure and the
temperature at the section of the pipe are 78kPa (absolute) and 40oC respectively. The pipe
diameter changes at a section where the pressure is 117kPa (absolute). Find the velocity of
the gas at this section if the flow is adiabatic. Take R = 287J/kgK and = 1.4

Solution

Section 1: 𝑉1 = 300𝑚/𝑠

𝑃1 = 78𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑇1 = 313𝐾

Section 2: 𝑃2 = 117𝑘𝑃𝑎
Applying energy equation for an adiabatic process,

𝛾 𝑃 𝑉2
( )( ) + + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 − 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝛾 𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝛾 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
( )( )+ = ( ) ( ) +
𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔

27
 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 𝑉1 2
( )( − ) = −
𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝜌2 2 2
From ideal gas equation,
𝑃1
= 𝑅𝑇1
𝜌1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝑉2 2 𝑉1 2
( ) (𝑅𝑇1 − ) = −
𝛾−1 𝜌2 2 2

𝜌1 𝑃1 1/𝛾 1 𝑃1 1/𝛾 𝑅𝑇1 𝑃1 1/𝛾

=( ) ⟹ = 𝑣1 ( ) = ( )
𝜌2 𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2

Substituting for 2 in the above equation

𝛾 𝑃2 𝑃1 1/𝛾 𝑉2 2 𝑉1 2
( ) [𝑅𝑇1 − 𝑅𝑇1 ( ) ] = −
𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑃2 2 2

𝛾−1
𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 𝛾 𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
( ) [1 − ( ) ]+ =
𝛾−1 𝑃1 2 2

0.4
1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 313 117 1.4 3002 𝑉2 2
( ) [1 − ( ) ]+ =
1.4 − 1 78 2 2

𝑉2 2
(314408.5)[−0.12282] + 45000 =
2

𝑉2 = 113𝑚/𝑠

13.4 Variables Of Flow In Terms of Mach Number

We can derive changes in flow variables in terms of Mach number with the use of following
relationships.

• Continuity equation or conservation mass

• Prefect gas equation
• Isentropic flow relationship (for isentropic process)
• Energy equation

Let’s start with continuity equation.

𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

In differential form we can write this equation as

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜌
+ + = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.7)
𝑉 𝐴 𝜌

28
For isentropic flow
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝛾
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌
=𝛾 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.8)
𝑃 𝜌
From perfect gas law
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑇
= + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.9)
𝑃 𝜌 𝑇
From energy equation,
𝑉2
𝑐𝑃 𝑇 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
In differential form,

𝑐𝑃 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.10)

Since
𝛾𝑅
𝑐𝑃 =
𝛾−1

𝛾𝑅
𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝛾−1

𝛾𝑅 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
( ) + =0
𝛾 − 1 𝑉2 𝑉
Since sonic velocity,
𝑐2
𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝛾𝑅 =
𝑇

𝑐2 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
( ) 2+ =0
𝛾 − 1 𝑇𝑉 𝑉

1 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
( ) 2 + = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.11)
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑇 𝑉

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉 2
= −(𝛾 − 1) . 𝑀 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.12)
𝑇 𝑉

From the Mach number relationship we obtain the following.

𝑉
𝑀=
(𝛾𝑅𝑇)1/2
In differential form’

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑇
= − ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13.13)
𝑀 𝑉 2 𝑇
29
Substituting for dT/T from equation (13.12),

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 2
= + [(𝛾 − 1) .𝑀 ]
𝑀 𝑉 2 𝑉

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉 (𝛾 − 1) 2
= [1 + 𝑀 ]
𝑀 𝑉 2

𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑀
= (𝛾−1) 2
𝑉 [1+ 𝑀 ] 𝑀
2

From equation (13.12),

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉 2
= −(𝛾 − 1) .𝑀
𝑇 𝑉

From equation (13.13),

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑇
= + ( )
𝑉 𝑀 2 𝑇

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑇
= −(𝛾 − 1) [ + ( )] 𝑀2
𝑇 𝑀 2 𝑇

𝑑𝑇 𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
[1 + (𝛾 − 1)] = −(𝛾 − 1)𝑀2
𝑇 2 𝑀

𝑑𝑇 −(𝛾−1)𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑀2
𝑇 [1+ (𝛾−1)] 𝑀
2

From equations (13.8) and (13.9),

𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑇
= +
𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝑇

𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑇
− =
𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝑇

𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑇
(1 − ) =
𝑃 𝛾 𝑇

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑇 𝛾
= ( )
𝑃 𝑇 𝛾−1

30
 𝑑𝑇
Substituting in equation for ( 𝑇 ),

𝑑𝑃 −𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑀2
𝑃 [1+ (𝛾−1)] 𝑀
2

𝑑𝑃
Substituting from equation (13.8) for( 𝑃 );

𝑑𝜌 −𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑀2
𝜌 [1+ (𝛾−1)] 𝑀
2

From equation (13.7),

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑉
=− −
𝐴 𝜌 𝑉

𝑑𝐴 𝑀2 𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑀
= −
𝐴 𝑀2 𝑀 (𝛾 − 1) 2 𝑀
[1 + 2 (𝛾 − 1)] [1 + 2 𝑀 ]

𝑑𝐴 −(1−𝑀2 ) 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑀2
𝐴 [1+ (𝛾−1)] 𝑀
2

Above equations give the different flow variables in terms of Mach number in differential
form.

By integrating the above equation we can obtain the following relationship between the critical
throat area where M = 1 and the area at any section where M > 1 or M <1.
𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾+1

13.5 Mass Flow Rate In Compressible Flow

We consider an isentropic flow through a duct from a reservoir at where pressure and
temperature are 𝑃0 and 𝑇0 respectively.

Let’s take m as mass flow rate per unit area.

𝑃
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = ( )𝑉
𝑅𝑇

Substituting for pressure and velocity in terms of stagnation values, we can obtain the following
equation.

31
 𝛾+1
𝛾 𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 −2(𝛾−1)
𝑚=√ ( ) 𝑀 (1 + 𝑀 )
𝑅 √𝑇𝑜 2

For maximum mass flow rate,

𝑑𝑚
=0
𝑑𝑀
𝛾−1 𝛾+1
1+ ( ) 𝑀2 − ( ) 𝑀2 = 0
2 2

1 − 𝑀2 = 0
This means that the flow rate per unit area becomes a maximum, when the Mach number is
equal to unity, which is when the sonic condition exits (velocity of flow is equal to sonic
velocity). This condition occurs at the throat of a duct of varying cross section as mentioned
before.
𝛾+1
𝛾 𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 −2(𝛾−1)
𝑚=√ ( ) (1 + )
𝑅 √𝑇𝑜 2

𝛾+1
𝛾 𝑃𝑜 𝛾 + 1 −2(𝛾−1)
𝑚=√ ( )( )
𝑅 √𝑇𝑜 2
𝑜𝑟
𝛾+1
𝛾 𝑃𝑜 2 2(𝛾−1)
𝑚=√ ( )( )
𝑅 √𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1

For air, substituting R = 286.7J/kgK and  = 1.4;

𝑃𝑜 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1
𝑚 = 0.04044 ( ) 2
√𝑇𝑜 𝑚

According to the above equation, the maximum flow rate per unit area increases directly with
the stagnation pressure and decreases with the stagnation temperature.

A passage in which the sonic velocity has been reached thus the mass flow rate per unit area
is maximum, is often said to be choked or in choking conditions.

13.6 Chocking In a Convergent Passage

Let us consider converging nozzle attached to a large reservoir with stagnation conditions
𝑃0 and𝑇0 , and exhausting into a region or a chamber where the back pressure can be
controlled as shown in Fig13.3.

32
Let PE be the pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle. We will consider the effect of varying
the back pressure PB, on the mass flow rate and the pressure of the fluid at the exit plane of
the nozzle. When PB = PE = Po, there cannot be any flow through the nozzle.

Figure 13.3 Chocking in a passage

As PB is gradually reduced, flow rate shall increase. The exit plane pressure PE shall remain
equal to PB so long as the maximum discharge condition is not reached. When flow rate
attains its maximum value, the exit plane Mach number should be equal to 1 and PE = P*.
Since the nozzle does not have a divergent potion, further reduction in back pressure PB will
not accelerate the flow to supersonic condition. Therefore, the exit pressure PE continues to
remain at P*, even at lower values of PB.

The convergent nozzle discharge against the back pressure is shown in Fig 13.4. The
maximum value of mass flow rate is called as chocked flow. With a given nozzle, the
maximum flow rate cannot be increased unless the reservoir conditions are altered. We can
show that maximum flow rate occurs under the following condition.

For maximum flow,

𝛾
𝑃𝐵 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1

Substituting  = 1.4 for air the pressure ratio, the value for air is 0.5282.

Figure 13.4 Variation of discharge with back pressure

33
Example 3

Air in a reservoir has a temperature of 27oC and a pressure of 0.8MPa. The air is allowed to
escape through a channel at a rate of 2.5kg/s. Assuming that the air velocity in the reservoir is
negligible and the flow is isentropic, find the Mach number, the velocity and the area at a
section in the channel where the static pressure is 0.6MPa

Solution

Given data
Reservoir: To = 300K, Po = 0.8MPa, Vo = 0 [stagnation condition]
Mass flow rate m = 2.5kg/s

To find the M, use the equation,

𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
= [1 + ( ) 𝑀2 ]
𝑃 2
When P = 0.6MPa
1.4
0.8 1.4 − 1 1.4−1
= [1 + ( ) 𝑀2 ]
0.6 2

𝑀 = 0.654
To find the velocity, use the equation,
𝑉
𝑀= → 𝑉 = 𝑀𝑐
𝑐
c is the sonic velocity given by,
𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 𝑇

To find T, use the equation for temperature

𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=1+( ) 𝑀2
𝑇 2

300 1.4 − 1
=1+( ) 0.6542
𝑇 2

𝑇 = 276.36𝐾
Therefore,
𝑐 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 276.36 = 333.3𝑚/𝑠

𝑉 = 𝑀𝑐 = 0.654 ∗ 333.3 = 217.9𝑚/𝑠

To find the area,
𝑚
𝐴=
𝜌𝑉

𝑃 0.6 ∗ 106
𝜌= = = 7.565𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑅𝑇 287 ∗ 276.36

34
 2.5
𝐴= = 1516𝑚𝑚2
7.565 ∗ 217.9

Example 4

A supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to be designed with Mach number 2, a cross sectional
area of the throat being 0.11m2. The inlet pressure and temperature are 70kPa and 37oC
respectively. Determine the following.

Mass flow rate, Exit cross sectional area, Fluid properties at the throat and exit point.
Take = 1.4

Solution

Given data:
Inlet: To= 37oC = 310K, Po = 70kPa, Vo = 0
Throat: M = 1, A1 = 0.11m2
Exit: M = 2

Mass flow rate can be calculated by taking the throat properties.

Here we use suffix 1 for the throat where M = 1.

𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑐

𝑃1
𝑚= 𝐴 𝑐
𝑅𝑇1 1

Using the relationships for pressure and temperatures in terms of stagnation state properties
and the critical properties at the throat we can find 𝑇1 and 𝑃1 as follows.

𝑇1 2
=
𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1
2
𝑇1 = 310 ( ) = 258.33𝐾
1.4 + 1

35
 𝛾
𝑃1 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1
1.4
2 1.4−1
𝑃1 = 70 ( ) = 36.98𝑘𝑃𝑎
1.4 + 1

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇1 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 258.33 = 322.18𝑚/𝑠

Substituting all values in the equation for mass flow rate,

𝑃1 36.98
𝑚= 𝐴1 𝑐 = 0.11 ∗ 322.18 = 17.677𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑅𝑇1 287 ∗ 258.33

Exit cross sectional area can be determined by using the following equation, as Mach
number at exit is given as 2.
𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾+1

Applying the equation between the throat (1) and the exit (2), we can write the equation as
follows.
𝛾+1
𝐴2 1 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀 𝛾+1

Substituting M = 2
𝛾+1
𝐴2 1 2 + (𝛾 − 1)22 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴1 2 𝛾+1

1.4+1
0.11 2 + (1.4 − 1)22 2(1.4−1)
𝐴2 = [ ] = 0.1856𝑚2
2 1.4 + 1

Properties at the exit

Use the relationship between properties at the stagnation point and any other point where
Mach number has a value.
For temperature,
𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=1+( ) 𝑀2
𝑇 2

At exit M =2
Therefore, applying the above equation,

36
 𝑇𝑜 310
𝑇2 = = = 172.22𝐾
𝛾−1 1.4 − 1
1 + ( 2 ) 𝑀2 1 + ( 2 ) 22
For pressure,
𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
= [1 + ( ) 𝑀2 ]
𝑃 2

𝑃𝑜 70
𝑃2 = 𝛾 = 1.4 = 8.95𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 1.4 − 1 2 1.4−1
[1 + ( 2 ) 𝑀2 ] [1 + ( 2 )2 ]

Exit velocity,
𝑉2 = 𝑀2 𝑐2 = 𝑀2 √𝛾𝑅𝑇2 = 2 ∗ √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 172.22

𝑉2 = 526.11𝑚/𝑠

13.7 Steam Nozzles

In all derivations of equations, we have assumed that fluid to be ideal gas. In the case steam
𝑃
we could approximate that steam follows an isentropic law ( )= constant. But, the value of
expansion index () is not equal to the ratio of specific heats that is valid only for ideal
gasses.

Example 5

Dry saturated steam at 10bar expands through a convergent-divergent nozzle to atmospheric

pressure of 1bar. Find the critical pressure and the throat area per unit mass flow rate
assuming that inlet velocity is negligible and the expansion to be isentropic. Expansion index
for dry saturated steam is 1.135.

Solution

We need to find out the properties at the throat when sonic velocity exit (i.e. M = 1).

Since the inlet condition can be treated as stagnation condition,

𝛾
𝑃∗ 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1
1.135
𝑃∗ 2 0.135
=( )
10 1.135 + 1

𝑃 ∗ = 5.77𝑏𝑎𝑟

37
At inlet, steam is dry saturated at 10bar. So we can find from the steam tables the enthalpy and
the entropy at inlet.
2778𝑘𝐽
ℎ1 =
𝑘𝑔
𝑠1 = 6.586𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
Because of isentropic expansion,

𝑠 ∗ = 6.586𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
At 5.77bar
𝑠 ∗ = 𝑠𝑓∗ + 𝑥 ∗ 𝑠𝑓𝑔
∗

6.586 = 1.931 + 𝑥 ∗ (4.830)

𝑥 ∗ = 0.96

So we can write equation for enthalpy at throat.

ℎ∗ = ℎ𝑓∗ + 𝑥 ∗ ℎ𝑓𝑔
∗

ℎ∗ = 670 + 0.96(2087) = 2673.5𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Using energy equation
∗
𝑐 ∗2
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ +
2
𝑐 ∗2
2778 = 2673.5 +
2

𝑐 ∗ = 457𝑚/𝑠

We can also find the velocity at the throat using the following equation (because sonic velocity
exists at the throat).
𝑃∗
𝑐 ∗ = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √𝛾 = √𝛾𝑃 ∗ 𝑣 ∗
𝜌∗

𝑃 ∗ = 5.77𝑏𝑎𝑟
From steam tables we can obtain the specific volume value at 5.77bar.

𝑣 ∗ = 𝑣𝑓∗ + 𝑥 ∗ 𝑣𝑓𝑔
∗

𝑣 ∗ = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑣𝑔∗

From steam tables (at 5.77bar)

𝑣𝑔∗ = 0.328066𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

𝑣 ∗ = (0.92)(0.328066) = 0.3018𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

𝐶 ∗ = = √𝛾𝑃∗ 𝑣 ∗ = √1.135(5.77 𝑥105 )(0.3018)

𝐶 ∗ = 444.6𝑚/𝑠
38
Mass flow rate can be expressed as;
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐
∗
𝐴𝑐 1 𝑣 0.3018
= ∗ ∗= ∗= = 6.788 ∗ 10−4 𝑚2 /(𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 )
𝑚 𝜌 𝐶 𝐶 444.6

Supersaturation

When super heated steam is expanded isentropically, it starts condensing when the steam
reaches the point 2 on the dry saturated line of the h – s chart as shown in Fig13.5. However,
in nozzles, the velocity of flow is so high that sufficient time is not available for vapour
droplets to form at the saturation pressure. Therefore, normal condensation does not happen
at the saturation temperature, and it continues to expand (reduce pressure) in the superheated
sate (from 2 to 3). At certain lower pressure (at point 3), the steam suddenly condenses. The
point 3 in the T-s diagram is located by extending the 𝑃3 pressure line into the wet region. The
expansion from normal dry saturated state to the point it starts condensation is called
supersaturated (or metastable) expansion (from 2 to 3). The flow in this case is called as
supersaturated or metastable flow. The line connecting the points at which condensation
starts is called as Wilson line. This line becomes the saturation line for all practical purposes
in the expansion of steam in nozzles.

Figure 13.5 Super saturation of steam

The pressure at which condensation occurs could either be within the nozzle or after steam
exits the nozzle. In the problems of Super saturation, the process from 1 to 3 is considered as
isentropic expansion of superheated steam ( = 1.3), and expansion from 3 to 4 is considered
as dry saturated steam with  equals to 1.135.

39
Example 6

A convergent-divergent nozzle receives steam at 7bar and 200oC. The steam expands is
entropically into a space at 3bar. Neglecting the inlet velocity, calculate the exit area required
for a mass flow rate of 0.1kg/s, when
(i) Flow is in equilibrium throughout
(ii) Flow is super saturated with expansion index of 1.3.

Solution

(i)To determine the area, we need to calculate the velocity at exit and we use energy equation
to find the velocity.

𝑉2 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
From h – s chart, h1 = 2846kJ/kg

Considering isentropic process from 1 to 2, h2 = 2682kJ/kg and x2 = 0.98

v2=x2vg2

v2=0.98*0.6057 = 0.594m3/kg

𝑉2 = √2 ∗ 1000(2846 − 2682) = 573𝑚/𝑠

𝑚𝑣2 0.1 ∗ 0.594 ∗ 106

𝐴2 = = = 103.7𝑚𝑚2
𝑉2 573

(ii) In the supersaturated process the steam remains superheated despite the condensation is
reached. So the process is expressed as follows.
𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
𝐶
𝑣= 1
𝑃𝛾

40
The point 3 in the h –s chart cannot be easily located, that lies on the extended line
corresponding to 3bar pressure.

For an isentropic flow,

𝑑𝑃
𝑑ℎ = = 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝜌
3
1
3 3 3 1 − +1
𝐶 − 𝑃 𝛾
𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 = ∫ 𝛾 𝑑𝑃
1 𝑑𝑃 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑃 =𝐶[
1
]
1 1
𝑃𝛾 1 −𝛾 +1
1

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 1 𝛾−1 1 𝛾−1

𝛾 𝛾
ℎ3 − ℎ1 = [𝐶𝑃3 𝛾 − 𝐶𝑃1 𝛾 ] = [𝑣3 𝑃3𝛾 𝑃3 𝛾 − 𝑣1 𝑃1𝛾 𝑃1 𝛾 ]
𝛾−1 𝛾−1

𝛾
ℎ3 − ℎ1 = 𝛾−1 [𝑃3 𝑣3 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 ]

You can use the above equation without proof.

From steady flow energy equation we also write,

𝑉12 𝑉32
ℎ3 − ℎ1 = −
2 2
Since inlet velocity is negligible,
𝑉32
ℎ3 − ℎ1 = −
2

Therefore, equating two expressions for enthalpy change,

𝑉32 𝛾
− = [𝑃 𝑣 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 ]
2 𝛾−1 3 3
1 1
𝑣3 𝑃1 𝛾 7 1.3
= ( ) = ( ) = 1.919
𝑣1 𝑃3 3

From steam tables, at 7bar and 200oC, v1 = 0.3001m3/kg.

𝑣3 = 0.3001 ∗ 1.919 = 0.576𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

Therefore,
2 ∗ 1.3
𝑉32 = (3 ∗ 0.576 − 7 ∗ 0.3001) ∗ 105
1.3 − 1

𝑉3 = 568𝑚/𝑠

𝑚𝑣3 0.1𝑥0.576
𝐴3 = = 𝑥106 = 101.4𝑚𝑚2
𝑉3 568
41
Summary
Fluid flow through a duct with changing cross sectional area is found in many applications
and such devices are called nozzles or diffusers. The duct is termed as a nozzle or diffuser
depending upon how the pressure varies when the flow progresses. If pressure is decreasing it
is called as a nozzle whereas it is called a diffuser when pressure increases. In terms of
velocity, it is a nozzle when fluid accelerates and it is a diffuser when the fluid decelerates.

The properties at the stagnation condition (denoted by o) are related to the properties at any
other point of the flow where M > 1 or M < 1 by the following equations.

𝛾 1
𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1 𝑃𝑜 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝜌∗ 2 𝛾−1
=1+( ) 𝑀2 = [1 + ( ) 𝑀2 ] =( )
𝑇 2 𝑃 2 𝜌𝑜 𝛾+1
If this any other point is the throat where M =1, the above relationships are simplified as
follows. The properties at the throat are called critical properties (denoted by *).

𝛾 1
𝑇∗ 2 𝑃∗ 2 𝛾−1 𝜌∗ 2 𝛾−1
= =( ) =( )
𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1 𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1 𝜌𝑜 𝛾+1

The energy equation in terms of pressure, velocity and potential energy are expressed for
isentropic compressible flow with and without temperature change as follows.
For isothermal process:
𝑃 𝑉2
𝑙𝑛𝑃 + + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
For non-isothermal process:

𝛾 𝑃 𝑉2
( )( ) + + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 − 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

In the analysis of compressible flow, the relationships of properties of a particular point with
those properties at the throat are very important. The equation that relates the area of the throat
(A*) to an area of section (A) where Mach number is M is given by:

𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2 2(𝛾−1)
= [ ]
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾+1

Similar relationships for pressure and temperature could also be derived.

42
In a duct of varying cross section the maximum mass flow rate occurs at the throat where M
=1. The following equation gives the maximum value in terms of stagnation properties.

𝛾+1
𝛾 𝑃𝑜 2 2(𝛾−1)
𝑚=√ ( )( )
𝑅 √𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1

When a back pressure is present at the exit of a nozzle, the maximum flow rate occurs at a
pressure ratio given by the following equation.

When steam is expanded in a nozzle isentropically, the condensation would not occur at the
saturation point due to high speed of the flow. But it continues to expand as a super heat vapour
to a certain point known as super saturation.

𝛾
𝑃𝐵 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1

Leaning Outcomes
After studying this session, you will be able to do the following.

1. Explain how the area of flow changes for a diffuser and a nozzle depending upon the
Mach number.
2. Drive equations for properties at a section of a duct of varying flow area in terms of
stagnation properties and Mach number.
3. Write down equations properties at the throat (where M = 1) of a duct of varying flow
area in terms of stagnation properties.
4. Use equations for properties of a particular point in a flow that relates those of the throat
and the Mach number.
5. Demonstrate the knowledge of using equations related to maximum mass flow rate
through a duct of varying section.
6. Explain the chocking flow in a duct and the condition for maximum flow rate per unit
area.
7. Explain the process in steam nozzles and super saturation in the expansion of steam.

43
 DMX4202 Applied Thermodynamics 1

Unit 04

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS

44
Session 14
Reciprocating Air Compressors

Content
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Construction and Operation
14.2 Isothermal Efficiency
14.3 Volumetric Efficiency
14.4 Actual Reciprocating Compressor Cycle
Summary
Learning Outcomes

14.0 Introduction
The function of a compressor is to admit fluid from a low pressure region, compress it and
deliver it to a high pressure region. Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used
for increasing pressure of fluid at the expense of work done on fluid. The compressors used
for compressing air are called air compressors. Compressors are invariably used for all
applications requiring high pressure air. Some of popular applications of compressor are, for
driving pneumatic tools and air operated equipment, spray painting, compressed air engine,
supercharging in internal combustion engines, material handling (for transfer of material),
surface cleaning, refrigeration and air conditioning, chemical industry etc.

Compressors are supplied with low pressure air (or any fluid) at inlet which comes out as high
pressure air (or any fluid) at outlet as shown in Fig. 14.1.

Fig. 14.1 Compressor

45
Work required for increasing pressure of air is available from the prime mover driving the
compressor. Generally, electric motor, internal combustion engine or steam engine, turbine
etc. are used as prime movers. Compressors are similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms
of pressure ratios. Fan is said to have pressure ratio up to 1.1 and blowers have pressure ratio
between 1.1 and 4 while compressors have pressure ratios more than 4.

Compressors can be classified in the following different ways.

(a) Based on principle of operation

Based on the principle of operation compressors can be classified as,

i. Positive displacement compressors
ii. Non-positive displacement compressors

Positive displacement compressors can be further classified based on the type of mechanism
used for compression. These can be

• Reciprocating type positive displacement compressors

• Rotary type positive displacement compressors

The main characteristics common to positive displacement compressors are

• Compressors are comprised of components such as pistons and valves which

ensure positive admission and delivery of working fluid and prevent any undesired
reversal of flow within the machine
• Their operation is intermittent and the compressor subjects the fluid to non-flow
processes and the system can be regarded as an open system.
• The work is transferred by virtue of a hydrostatic pressure force exerted on a
moving boundary such as a piston, vane, etc.

Reciprocating compressors generally, employ piston-cylinder arrangement where

displacement of piston in cylinder causes rise in pressure. Reciprocating compressors are
capable of giving large pressure ratios but the mass handling capacity is limited or small.
Reciprocating compressors may also be single acting compressor or double acting
compressor. Single acting compressor has one delivery stroke per revolution while in double
acting there are two delivery strokes per revolution of crank shaft.

46
Rotary compressors employing positive displacement have a rotary part whose boundary
causes positive displacement of fluid and thereby compression. Rotary compressors of this
type are available in the names as given below;

• Roots blower
• Vaned type compressors

Rotary compressors of above type are capable of running at higher speed and can handle
large mass flow rate than reciprocating compressors of positive displacement type.

Non-positive displacement compressors, also called as steady flow compressors use

dynamic action of solid boundary for realizing pressure rise. Here fluid is not contained in
definite volume and subsequent volume reduction does not occur as in case of positive
displacement compressors. Non positive displacement compressor may be of ‘axial flow
type’ or ‘centrifugal type’ depending upon type of flow in compressor.

(b) Based on number of stages

Compressors may also be classified on the basis of number of stages. Generally, the number
of stages depend upon the maximum delivery pressure. Compressors can be single stage or
multistage. Normally maximum compression ratio of 5 is realized in single stage
compressors. For compression ratio more than 5 the multi-stage compressors are used.

Typical values of maximum delivery pressures generally available from different types of
compressor are,
• Single stage compressor, for delivery pressure up to 5 bar
• Two stage compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 and 35 bar
• Three stage compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 and 85 bar
• Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar

(c) Based on capacity of compressors

Compressors can also be classified depending upon the capacity of compressor or air
delivered per unit time. Typical values of capacity for different compressors are given as;

47
 • Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or less
• Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15 and 5 m3/s.
• High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s.

(d) Based on highest pressure developed

Depending upon the maximum pressure available from compressor they can be classified as
low pressure, medium pressure, high pressure and super high pressure compressors. Typical
values of maximum pressure developed for different compressors are as under;

• Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure up to 1 bar

• Medium pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 1 to 8 bar
• High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10 bar
• Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than 10 bar.

14.1Reciprocating compressor- construction and operation

Fig. 14.2- Line diagram of Reciprocating Compressor

A reciprocating compressor consists of a cylinder and a piston, with the piston connected to
the crank by a connecting rod. The crank shaft is rotated by either an electric motor or an
engine. Inlet and outlet valves which are usually spring loaded permit the fluid flow in and
out of the cylinder at appropriate times.

48
The total piston travel is called the ‘Stroke’, and the volume displaced by the piston is known
as the ‘Swept Volume’. To accommodate the valves and avoid contact of the piston and
cylinder head, there is always some small volume called ‘Clearance Volume’. The delivery
pressure is dependent on the pressure of the fluid in the compressed air receiver.

The compression cylinders, also known as stages, of which a particular design may have from
one to six or more, provide confinement for the process gas during compression. A piston is
driven in a reciprocating action to compress the gas. Arrangements may be of single-or dual-
acting design. (In the dual-acting design, compression occurs on both sides of the piston
during both the advancing and retreating stroke.) Some dual-acting cylinders in high-pressure
applications will have a piston rod on both sides of the piston to provide equal surface area
and balance loads.

14.1.1 Machine Cycle Analysis

We will now analyse the successive events that occur in the Cylinder of a reciprocating air
compressor during one revolution of the crank shaft, ie. during a machine cycle. The
processes can be explained using a P-V diagram.

Fig. 14.3 - P V Diagram For a Ideal Reciprocating Compressor

a-b
The inlet valve is opened and a mass of air m in state (1) enters the cylinder without a change
of state. It mixes reversibly with a mass mc in the same state (1) already present in the
cylinder within the clearance volume.
b-c
Both valves are closed and the mass (mc+mf) changes its state during the compression to
pressure2.
c-d

49
The exhaust valve is opened and the mass mf at state 2 is ejected from the cylinder without a
further change of state. It is assumed that the compressed air receiver is sufficiently large to
prevent any significant pressure increase during one delivery stroke.

d-a

Both valves are closed and a mass mc is expanded to the original state 1.

With the above description of events in a machine cycle of a reciprocating air compressor, we
must establish the following facts.

1. Although figure 14.3 represent the events during a machine cycle, it does not represent
a thermodynamic cycle

2. Only mass mc is carried through a thermodynamic cycle and the mass mf is not carried
through a thermodynamic cycle, but has simply changed its state from state 1 to state
2.

Having established the above facts, we must look at the compression and expansion processes
between state 1and state 2. Do you think they are adiabatic? The speed of flow through the
compressor is not very high. Therefore, these processes cannot be assumed as adiabatic. It is
more realistic to assume that the processes are polytropics, i.e. of the form P𝑉 𝑛 =constant.

14.1.2 Work Required Per Machine Cycle

Let us now calculate the work required per machine cycle. The network required is the
algebraic sum of the work transfers in the four processes, each of which can be calculated from
 pA dL or  pdV , A is the area of the piston and L the distance moved.
Therefore,
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ pdV + ∫ pdV + ∫ pdV + ∫ pdV = ∮ pdV.............................14.1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

 pdV is equal to the area enclosed by the P-V diagram.

Please refer theory and equations derived for non flow processes (constant volume process,
constant pressure process, isothermal process , adiabatic process etc. ) explained under the
Fluid mechanics and Thermodynamics which is offered as level 3 course.
(𝑝2 𝑉𝑐 −𝑝1 𝑉𝑏 ) (𝑝1 𝑉𝑎 −𝑝2 𝑉𝑑 )
. ∮ 𝑑𝑊 = +𝑝1 (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) + + 𝑝2 (𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐 ) + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.2
(1−𝑛) (1−𝑛)

50
Simplifying,
𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = {𝑝 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑏 ) + 𝑝2 (𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐 )}
(𝑛 − 1) 1 𝑎
Representing the valves of Va , Vb , Vc and Vd in terms of the fluid properties at inlet and outlet,
we note
Va = m c V1 ………………………14.3

Vb = (m c + m f )V1 ………………………14.4

Vc = (m c + m f )V2 ………………………14.5

Vd = m c V2 ………………………14.6

Where V1 and V2 are the specific volumes at pressure p1 and p 2 respectively.

Substituting the above values, we have

𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = {𝑝 [𝑚 𝑉 − (𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑐 )𝑉1 ] + 𝑝𝑧 [(𝑚𝑐 + 𝑚𝑓 )𝑉2 − 𝑚𝑐 𝑉2 ]}
(1 − 𝑛) 1 𝑐 1
Simplifying,
𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑚𝑓 [𝑝 𝑉 − 𝑝1 𝑉1 ]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.7
(1 − 𝑛) 2 2

Equation 14.7 can be written in terms of the pressure ratio as follows

𝑛 𝑝2 𝑉2
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑝1 𝑉1 [ − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.8
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑝1 𝑉1
As you know from theory learnt before
1
𝑉2 𝑝1 𝑛
=( )
𝑉1 𝑝2

 n −1

n  p 2  n 
 W = m f p1V1 (1 − n)  p1  − 1.......... .......... .....14.9
 
 
Using the equation of state for a perfect gas,
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.10
Where V – Specific Volume
R – Characteristic Gas Constant
T – Absolute Temperature

51
Equation 14.9 can be written in the form,
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.11
(𝑛 − 1) 𝑝1

Thus, you will realize that for an air compressor p2  p1 and therefore, the above equation will
return a negative value for  dW indicating that the work has been done on the working air.

The rate of work done on air, W, is obtained multiplying the network during the machine cycle,
dW by the number of cycles, N, per unit time.
Therefore

W =  dW  N

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
= 𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑝1
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑀𝑓 𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.12
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑝1

Where,

Mf = N  mf Mass of air delivered per unit time.

What do you think about the effect of the clearance volume on the work done? It has no net
effect when the full machine cycle is considered since the work absorbed by mass m c during
compression is released during the expansion.

Example 1
A single acting, single stage, reciprocating air compressor compresses 7 liters of air per second
from atmospheric conditions 0.1013 MN/m2 and15oC to a pressure of 1.4 MN/m2.The
compression follows the law PV 1.3 = constant. , Calculate the power required to drive the
compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 82%.
Let us first see what a single acting compressor is?

52
 Fig. 14.3 (a) Single Acting Compressor Fig. 14.3 (b) Double Acting Compressor

In the single acting compressor only one side of the piston is effective and there is only one
delivery stroke in one revolution of the crank shaft. Both sides of the piston are effective in
the double acting compressor and there will be two deliveries from either side of the piston in
one revolution of the crank shaft.

The work done given by equation 14.12

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑀𝑓 𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.12
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑝1

Since the volume discharge rate is known, let us represent the above equation in terms of the
volume.
Using pV = MRT Equation of state

We can write
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 (1−𝑛) [(𝑝 ) − 1] .............................................................................................14.13
1

Where V1 -volume discharge rate at pressure p1 and temperature T1

According to the data given in the example

𝑃1 = 0.1013 MN/m2

𝑃2 = 1.4 MN/m2
𝑇1 = 15∘ 𝐶

𝑛 = 1.3
Substituting the above values in appropriate units in equation 14.13.
1.3−1
7 1.3 1.4 1.3
𝑊 = 0.1013𝑥1000𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 [( ) − 1] 𝑘𝑊
1000 (1 − 1.3) 0.1013

= −3.073(1.833 − 1)𝑘𝑊
𝑊 = −2.560𝑘𝑊

Negative sign indicates that the work has been done on the air.
Since the mechanical efficiency of the pump is 82% the actual amount of power required by
the compressor is given by

100
Power required= 2.560 × 82
= 3.12 kW

53
14.1.3 Heat Transfer During the Machine Cycle
The heat is transferred during the processes b-c and d-a (reference to figure 14.2), because the
processes a-b and c-d are only mass transfers to and from the cylinder without any change of
state. The heat transferred during the expansion of mc , the clearance mass, along d-a is equal
and opposite to the heat transferred during its compression from b to c .Therefore, the net
heat transferred is the amount associated with the compression of mf , mass delivered per
machine cycle, along b-c.

Since the system is closed during the compression from b to c, the energy equation using the
First law of thermodynamics will be

2
∮ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑚𝑓 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑣 ..............................................................................14.14
1

Where u1 and u 2 are the specific internal energies of air at state 1 and state 2.
2
Performing the integration  pdv , equation 14.14 can be written in the form
1

(𝑝2 𝑣2 − 𝑝1 𝑣1 )
∮ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑚𝑓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.15
(1 − 𝑛)

Since u = h − pv where h is the specific enthalpy

𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝑚𝑓 (𝑝 𝑣 − 𝑝1 𝑣1 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.16
(1 − 𝑛) 2 2

As we did before in calculating the rates of work done, the rate of heat transfer with respect
to time can be obtained by multiplying dQ by the number of machine cycles N per unit time.

𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑁 × ∮ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑁. 𝑚𝑓 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝑁. 𝑚𝑓 (𝑝 𝑣 − 𝑝1 𝑣1 )
(1 − 𝑛) 2 2
𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑀𝑓 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝑀𝑓 (𝑝 𝑣 − 𝑝1 𝑣1 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.17
(1 − 𝑛) 2 2

14.2 Isothermal Efficiency

You may recall what you studied theory on polytropic process described in level 03
Thermodynamics and fluid mechanics course. You can remember the work done varies with
the change of polytropic index n as follows. It was pointed out that the work done on air
decreases as the value of n decreases.

54
 𝑝𝑖 𝑝2
Since = , the temperature at the exit of each stage is
𝑝1 𝑝𝑖

𝑛−1 0.3
𝑝𝑖 𝑛 4 1.3
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 288 ( )
𝑝1 1

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔 = 397𝐾
Hence, the net heat rejected from each cylinder is found from the energy equation
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊1𝑖

= 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊𝑖2
6
𝑄= × 1.005 × (397 − 288) − 13.50
60
= -2.55 kW
Heat rejected from the intercooler
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝐶 )
6
𝑄= × 1.005 × (288 − 397)
60
= -10.95 kW
The volumetric efficiency for each stage is found from equation (E15.22) derived in lesson 15.
1
𝑉𝑑 𝑃2 𝑛
= 1 − ( ) {( ) − 1} 𝐸15.22
𝑉𝑠 𝑃1
Therefore, the volumetric efficiency of the first stage 𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙1 ,

1
𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙1 = 1 − 0.04 (41.3 − 1) = 0.924
1
𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙2 = 1 − 0.06 (41.3 − 1) = 0.887

P 2’ 2

Decreasing n

𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡V

Fig. 14.4 - Effect of decreasing value of n on the work done on Air

55
How does the value of n change? The value of n depends on how slowly we complete the
compression process or how efficient the cooling system is to maintain the temperature rise
of air to a minimum or to maintain the air at the inlet temperature during the compression. A
smaller temperature rise corresponds to a lower value of n. However, even with a good
cooling system, the value of n usually lies between 1.2 and 1.3.

The compression work becomes a minimum when the value of n is equal to 1; ie for an
isothermal compression.

This minimum work done per machine cycle of the compressor is called the isothermal work
done. The isothermal work provides a basis for the measurement of performance of an actual
compressor in terms of an isothermal efficiency defined by

Isothermal Work
Isothermal Efficiency =
Actual Indicated Work

By repeating the derivation for the cycle work done for the isothermal compression
pV=constant, you will arrive at the following.\
𝑝
∮ 𝑑𝑊𝐼𝑠𝑜 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑝1 𝑣1 1𝑛[𝑝2 ]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.18
1

Therefore Isothermal Efficiency

𝑝
𝑚𝑓 𝑝1 𝑣2 1𝑛[ 2 ]
𝑝1
𝜂𝐼𝑠𝑜 = − 𝑛−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.19
𝑛 𝑝 𝑛
𝑚𝑓 𝑝1 𝑣1 [( 2 ) − 1]
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑝1

14.3 Volumetric Efficiency

How does the clearance volume affect the performance of the compressor? We know already
that it does not affect the work done, heat transfer or the isothermal efficiency. What can you
say about the volume discharged? During the return stroke of the piston, the air at inlet
condition can not enter the cylinder until the air trapped in the clearance space expands
allowing the pressure to fall slightly below the inlet air pressure. This leads us to the
conclusion that the actual volume of air taken into the cylinder is less than the swept volume.

56
Therefore, another parameter known as ‘Volumetric Efficiency’ is defined to assess the
performance of the compressor in terms of the volume discharge capability.

Volumetric Efficiency
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 Volume Induced
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 Volume

With reference to figure 14.2

𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑎
= = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.20
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠

Where Vs - Swept Volume= Piston Area × Stroke

Re-adjusting Equation 14.20

𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑎
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 + − × . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.21
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑑
𝑉 𝑝 1⁄
However, 𝑉𝑎 = [𝑝2] 𝑛 and substituting in 14.21
𝑑 1

1⁄
𝑉𝑑 𝑝2 𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 − [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.22
𝑉𝑠 𝑝1

𝑉
The ratio of clearance volume to the swept volume 𝑉𝑑, is known as the ‘Clearance Ratio’.
𝑆

When we analyse equation 14.22, we can see that the increase of clearance ratio or the
increase of pressure ratio, reduces the volumetric efficiency of the reciprocating air
compressor.

14.4.Actual Reciprocating Compressor Cycle

Fig. 14.5 Actual Machine Cycle

The actual machine cycle of a reciprocating compressor differs slightly from the ideal cycle
that we have discussed. In practice, when the clearance air pressure is reduced to atmospheric

57
pressure, the inlet value will not open. This is due to two main reasons. One is that there must
be a sufficient pressure difference across the inlet valve in order to move it. The other reason
is the inlet valve inertia.

Cylinder pressure has to be reduced further until the valves is forced off its seat. Some valve
bounce will then set in, as shown by the wavy line, but eventually the intake will become
nearly steady at some pressure below atmospheric pressure. This negative pressure
difference, called the ‘Intake Depression’ settles off naturally. This shows that suction is
really atmospheric air forcing its way into the cylinder against reduced pressure.

The same situation occurs at the delivery end making the delivery end making the delivery
pressure slightly above the external receiver pressure. One further point to note is that when
inlet air passes through the hot inlet air passes through the hot inlet manifold and valve, there
may be a significant temperature rise as the air enters into the cylinder.

Some Important Definitions of Air Compressors

Compression ratio:- It is defined as the ratio of volume of air before compression to the
volume of air after compression.

Compressor capacity:- It is the quantity of air actually delivered by a compressor in

m3/minute or m3/sec.

Free air Delivered(FAD):- It is the volume of air delivered by compressor under the
compressor intake conditions ( i.e. temperature and pressure ).

Swept Volume:- The volume displaced or swept by piston when it moves between top dead
center and bottom dead center.

Clearance volume:- it is the difference between the total volume and the swept volume,
basically the gap that remains between the piston head and the cylinder head when at top dead
center.

Efficiencies:

Volumetric efficiency:- It is the ratio of actual volume of the FAD at standard atmospheric
condition in one delivery stroke (Actual air intake) to the swept volume (theoretical air intake)
by the piston during the stroke.

58
Isothermal efficiency:- It is defined as the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) (i.e. required input
power at isothermal process) done to the indicated power (IP) or actual work done.

Mechanical efficiency:- It is the ratio of indicated power (IP) to the shaft(Brake) Power
(Pshaft).

Overall efficiency:- It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).

Example 2

A single stage, single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke
of 300 mm. It runs at a speed of 500 revolutions per minute. The clearance volume is 5% of
the swept volume and the polytropic index is 1.3 throughout. Intake conditions are 97kN/m2
and 20oC and the compression pressure is 550 kN/m2. Determine

a) The free air delivered in m3/min (free air conditions 101.325 kN/m2 and 15oC).
b) The volumetric efficiency,
c) The air delivery temperature,
d) The cycle power,
e) The isothermal efficiency, neglecting clearance.
As the first step, you must draw the P-V diagram to show the processes involved in the machine
cycle.

(a) Effective volume intake is ( Vb − Va ) , and therefore, please attempt to find the values of
Va and Vb with the available data, let us first calculate the swept volume, 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 area × stroke
𝜋𝑑2 × 𝑙 𝜋
(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 ) = = × 2002 × 300𝑚𝑚3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.23
4 4

59
Simplifying (Vb − Vd ) = 0.00945m3

we know that the clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume

Therefore 𝑉𝑑 = 0.05(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 ). . . . . . . . . . . .14.24
𝑉𝑑 = 0.05 × 0.0099425
= 0.000471 m3

Then
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑑 + (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.25

𝑉𝑏 = 0.000471 + 0.009425
= 0.009896 m3

Considering the expansion from d to a according to pV1.3 = cons tan t .

1⁄
𝑃2 𝑛
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑑 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.26
𝑃1
1⁄
550 1.3
ie. 𝑉𝑎 = 0.000471 ( 97 ) = 0.00719𝑚3

Therefore, the effective volume intake per machine cycle is

(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) = 0.009896 − 0.00179
= 0.008106𝑚3

Effective volume intake per minute

= 0.008106 × 500 m3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 4.053 m3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

This effective volume of 4.053 m 3 . was taken into the cylinder under 97 KN/m 2 pressure and
20oCtemperature. Therefore, the equivalent free air volume flow rate under 101.325 kN/m 2
and 15oCcan be calculated from

𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑓
𝑃1 ( ) = 𝑃𝑓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.27
𝑇1 𝑇𝑓

Where ‘f’ refers to the free air conditions.

Substituting
97 × 4.053 × 288
𝑉𝑓 =
101.325 × 293

= 3.814𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

Rate of free air delivery

= 3.814𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

60
(b) Volumetric Efficiency
Efficiency volume intake
=
Swept volume

𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 0.008106
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = =
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 0.009425
= 0.86
𝜂vol = 86%

(c) As you have studied before, the change in temperature during a polytropic process is
expressed by
𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑛
=( )
𝑇1 𝑝1

Therefore , air delivery temperature

1.3−1
500 1.3
𝑇2 = 293 ( ) K
97
Simplifying
𝑇2 = 437.5 K
ie t 2 = 437.5 − 273
= 164.5 ∘ 𝐶

(d) Power required per machine cycle can be calculated using equation 14.9.
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑚𝑓 P1 𝑉1 ( ) [( ) ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.9
1−𝑛 𝑃1

But mf V1 = Vb − Va effective intake volume

Therefore, equation 14.9 can be written as

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
∮ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃1 (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) [( ) ]
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑃1

Substituting the values

1.3−1
1.3 550 1.3
∮ 𝑑𝑤 = 97 × 0.008106 × [( ) − 1]
(1.0 − 1.3) 97

Simplifying

∮ 𝑑𝑤 = −1.68 KJ

Negative sign indicates that the work has been done on air.

61
 500
The rate of work received = 1.68 × 60
KW
= 14.0 KW

(e) You have been asked to neglect the clearance volume for the purpose of calculating the
isothermal efficiency. This is to avoid the complication which arises due to the difference in
effective intake volumes of the machine cycles in accordance with the isothermal and
polytropic processes.

When the clearance volume is neglected, the effective intake volume will be Vb .

Then , For the isothermal cycle

𝑃2
∮ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃1 𝑉𝑏 1𝑛 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.29
𝑃1

Therefore, isothermal efficiency = iso

𝑃
−𝑃1 𝑉𝑏 1n[𝑃2 ]
1
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑃1 𝑉𝑏 [( ) − 1]
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑃1

𝑃
−1𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
[( ) − 1]
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑃1

Substituting the values

−1.732
= = 0.811
−4.33 × 0.493
Isothermal efficiency, neglecting clearance volume is 81.1%.

Summary
Air compressor is a machine which compresses the air and raises its pressure. The process of
compressing the air compressing the air requires work and portion of that will be absorbed
against friction and the rest will be used to compress the air to high pressure. The
construction of reciprocating compressor is similar to the IC engine except for the suction and
delivery valves.

62
Air compressors may be classified according to the following considerations; based on the
principle of operation, based on number of stages, based on capacity of compressors and
based on pressure limits.

The rate of work done on air (W) is given by

𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝒑𝟐 𝒏
𝑾 = 𝑴𝒇 𝑹𝑻𝟏 [( ) − 𝟏] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟐
(𝟏 − 𝒏) 𝒑𝟏

Where,

Mf = N  mf Mass of air delivered per unit time.

Also rate of heat transfer Q is given by

𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑀𝑓 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝑀𝑓 (𝑝 𝑣 − 𝑝1 𝑣1 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.17
(1 − 𝑛) 2 2

Isothermal efficiency is given by

Isothermal Work
Isothermal Efficiency =
Actual Indicated Work

Volumetric efficiency is given by

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 Volume Induced

𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 =
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 Volume

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session you will be able to:

1. Explain the principle of operation of a reciprocating air compressor,

2. Describe thermodynamic processes involved in the machine cycle of a reciprocating

compressor and the assessment of work done and heat transfer.

3. Define isothermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency in relation to reciprocating

compressors and their quantitative assessments.

63
Session 15
Multistage Reciprocating Air Compressors

Content
15.0 Multistage compression
15.1 Two Stage compressor machine cycle
15.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Two stage air compressor with intercooler
Summary
Learning Outcomes

15.0 Multistage Compression

The isothermal compression requires minimum work, but in actual practice it is not possible
to compress isothermally, particularly, if the delivery pressure is high. So, the compression is
carried out in stages. This is called multistage compression. As show in the diagram 15.1, in a
two stage compressor, the air is first compressed in the first cylinder from high pressure (P2‫)׳‬
to some intermediate pressure (P2). The air coming out of this cylinder is cooled to initial
temperature in an intercooler and then led to the second cylinder in which it is compressed
from intermediate pressure (P2) to low pressure (P1).

In previous session you have studied the working cycle of a reciprocating air compressor and
computed the work required to complete a machine cycle. Further, we defined the isothermal
efficiency and volumetric efficiency and established mathematical relations for their
calculations.

Let us begin this session with a further analysis of the volumetric efficiency. You may recall
the equation we developed for the computation of the volumetric efficiency.

1⁄
𝑉𝑑 𝑃2 𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 − {( ) − 1}
𝑉𝑠 𝑃1

64
 𝑉𝑑
The clearance ratio is fixed for a particular compressor and the volumetric efficiency will
𝑉𝑠

decrease with the increase of pressure ratio.

This can be readily seen by the analysis of the above equation and also can be
diagrammatically shown as given in figure 15.1.

V
Fig. 15.1

When the delivery pressure is P2 , the intake volume is (Vb − Va ) per machine cycle and, if the

delivery pressure becomes P21 , P21  P2 , the volume intake will become (Vb − Va ' ) per

machine cycle as shown in figure 15.1. Therefore, at some pressure ratio the flow will be
zero.

It is more economical to split the compression into two or more stages, before this
extreme value is reached, rather than simply increase the size of the cylinder to obtain
the desired flow.

Advantages of multistage compression

(a) Saving in work

(b) Little chance of lubrication trouble as the maximum temperature is reduced.
(c) Improves the volumetric efficiency.
(d) Leakage loss is reduced considerably.
(e) Provides more uniform torque and thus smaller sized flywheel is required.

(f) Cheaper material may be used for construction as the operating temperatures are lower.
(g) Lighter cylinders.

65
Disadvantages of multistage compression

(a) The unit is more complicated.

(b) Initial investment is more.

15.1 Two Stage Compressor Machine Cycle

In a two stage reciprocating compressor, air is first compressed to some intermediate pressure
P1 in the low pressure cylinder and is then transferred to high pressure cylinder for final
compression to P2 . Therefore, the swept volume needed in than the swept volume of the low
pressure cylinder. This allows for a smaller clearance volume in the high pressure cylinder.
Therefore, the machine cycle of a two stage compressor can be shown as follows.

Fig. 15.2 Two stage reciprocating compressor machine cycle.

The intermediate pressure Pi is determined by the relative values of the swept volumes in the
two stages and their respective clearance ratios. The volumetric efficiency of a multi-stage
(Vb − Va )
compressor is usually expressed in terms of the first stage swept volume, i.e.  vol =
Vsi
With reference to Fig.15.2, you can now asses the relative magnitudes of the volumetric
efficiencies, if the whole compression was accomplished in the low pressure cylinder or only
partial compression to intermediate pressure Pi was accomplished in the low pressure
cylinder.

66
 Fig. 15.3

If partial compression to intermediate pressure Pi is accomplished in the low pressure

(𝑉𝑏 −𝑉𝑎 )
cylinder the volumetric efficiency will be but if the whole compression upto final
𝑉

pressure P2 is accomplished in the low pressure cylinder, the volumetric efficiency will
(𝑉𝑏 −𝑉𝑎1 )
reduce to .
𝑉𝑠𝑖

Therefore, it is clear that by compounding the compression, and accomplishing it in two or

more stages, a higher volumetric efficiency can be achieved. Is that the only advantage we
can obtain by compounding the compression? When we analyse equation 14.2 derived in
session 14, we realise that the work required for compression reduces as the inlet temperature
of air T1 decreases.
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑅𝑇2 [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.12
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑃1

Therefore, if an intercooler is fitted between the stages, cooling the air leaving the first stage
to T1 before it enters the second stage, the work required to drive the second stage is reduced.
The shaded area indicated in figure 15.4 represents the saving of work in the second stage of
compression.

67
15.2 Thermodynamic analysis of Two Stage Air
Compressor with Intercooler

Fig.15.4 Effect of intercooling on the work of a two stage compressor

Intercooling brings the compression nearer to the ideal isothermal compression. With an
infinite number of stages this ideal could be reached, but in practice more than three stages
are not used unless unusually high pressure ratios are required.

Let us now see how we determine the intermediate pressure Pi achieved after the first stage
of compression. The criterion should be to achieve the minimum work required for the whole
machine cycle.

The total work required is the sum of the work required in each stage, and considering a two
stage compressor, it can be written as

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑖1 + 𝑊𝑖2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.1

Where Wi1 and Wi2 are the work required in low- and high-pressure cylinders respectively, per

machine cycle.

Assuming complete intercooling to T1 at constant pressure Pi after the first stage of

compression, we can write.
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃𝑖 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑓 [ ] 𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] + 𝑚𝑓 [ ] 𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.2
1−𝑛 𝑃1 1−𝑛 𝑃𝑖

Since Pi is the variable, by differentiating 15.2 with respect to Pi and equating to zero.

68
 𝑑𝑤
=0
𝑑𝑝𝑖
𝑛−1 1⁄
𝑛−1 1 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 1−2𝑛
[ ]( ) ( ) −( ) (𝑝2 ) 𝑛 (𝑝𝑖 ) 𝑛 = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.3
𝑛 𝑝1 𝑝𝑖 𝑛

Simplifying

𝑝𝑖= √𝑝1 p2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.4

pi p
i.e = 2 .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 15.5
p1 pi

𝑝 𝑝2
When 𝑝 𝑖 = , W𝑖1 = 𝑊𝑖2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.6
1 𝑝𝑖

Therefore minimum work required per cycle is given by

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 ( 2𝑛 )
𝑊 = 2[ ] P1𝑉1 [( ) − 1] 𝐽
𝑛−1 𝑃1

We can now conclude, when complete intercooling is achieved, the total work required is a
minimum when the work is divided equally between the stages. Although this is derived only
for a two stage compressor, it is true for any multi stage compressor.

If the number of stages is “s” the minimum work required per cycle with perfect intercooling
is as follows.

𝑛−1
𝑠𝑛 𝑃𝑠+1 ( 2𝑛 )
𝑊=[ ] P 𝑉 [( ) − 1] 𝐽
𝑛−1 1 1 𝑃1

In addition to the higher volumetric efficiency and the reduction of work required in multi-
stage compression, we have the following mechanical advantages too.

1) Only the small high pressure cylinder needed to be designed to withstand the delivery
pressure.
2) A multistage arrangement gives rise to less crank balancing problems and a smaller
flywheel could be used.

69
Example 1

A single acting two stage compressor with complete intercooling delivers 6 kg/min of air at
16 bar. Assuming an intake state of 1 bar and 15oC, and that the compression and expansion
processes are reversible and polytropic with n=1.3, calculate the power required, the
isothermal efficiency and the free air delivery. Also calculate the net heat transferred in each
cylinder and in the intercooler. If the clearance ratios for the low and high pressure cylinders
are 0.04 and 0.06 respectively, calculate the swept and clearance volumes for each cylinder.
The speed is 420 rev/min.

Solution

Let us first draw the P-V diagram.

Fig.15.5

The intermediate pressure after the first stage 𝑝𝑖 = √𝑝1 𝑝2

ie. 𝑃𝑖 = √1 × 16 = 4 bar

Since work done in each stage is equal, total work required per unit time
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝𝑖 𝑛
𝑊 = 2 × m𝑓 [ ]𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑛 𝑝1
Where m f is the rate of air mass delivery.
Substituting he values
0.3
6 1.3 4 1.3
𝑊 = −2 × × × 0.287 × (273 + 15) × [( ) − 1]
60 0.3 1
𝑊 = −2 × 13.50 = −27.00 kW
i.e. total power required=27.00 kW

70
Isothermal work per unit time
𝑝2
= −𝑚𝑓 RT1 1n ( )
𝑝1
6 16
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 = − × 0.287 × 288 1n ( )
60 1

𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 = −22.92𝑘𝑊
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 22.92
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 efficiency 𝜂iso = =
𝑊 27.00
𝜂iso = 84.9%

The volume of free air delivered could be calculated by using pV= mRT

RT1 6  0.287  288

V = mf =
i.e. P1 1  100
= 4.96 m3 / min

You may remember that we substitute the pressure in kN/m2.

As you have already studied in the previous lessons, the initial and final temperatures in a
polytropic compression process is correlated in terms of the pressure ratio as
𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑛
=( )
𝑇1 𝑝1
𝑝𝑖 𝑝2
Since = , the temperature at the exit of each stage is
𝑝1 𝑝𝑖

𝑛−1 0.3
𝑝𝑖 𝑛 4 1.3
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 288 ( )
𝑝1 1

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔 = 397𝐾
Hence, the net heat rejected from each cylinder is found from the energy equation
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊1𝑖

= 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊𝑖2
6
𝑄= × 1.005 × (397 − 288) − 13.50
60
= -2.55 kW
Heat rejected from the intercooler
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝐶 )
6
𝑄= × 1.005 × (288 − 397)
60
= -10.95 kW

71
The volumetric efficiency for each stage is found from equation (E14.22) derived in session
14.
1
𝑉𝑑 𝑃2 𝑛
= 1 − ( ) {( ) − 1} 𝐸15.22
𝑉𝑠 𝑃1
Therefore, the volumetric efficiency of the first stage
Vol 1 ,
1
𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙1 = 1 − 0.04 (41.3 − 1) = 0.924
1
𝜂𝑉𝑜𝑙2 = 1 − 0.06 (41.3 − 1) = 0.887
However,

free for delivered per machine cycle

𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
Swept volume

free air delivered per machine cycle

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 Volume =
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙
4.96 1
Swept volume of the low pressure cylinder 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 } = 420 × 0.924 = 0.01278 m3
The clearance volume
𝑉𝑑 = 0.04(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 )
= 0.04 × 0.01278 = 0.00051 m3

Volume of air entered into the second cylinder can be calculated by using

𝑝1 (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) = 𝑝𝑖 (𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑒 )
Since in both instances the temperature of air is T1

1 4.96 1
i.e. (𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑒 ) = 4 × 420 × 0.887
= 0.00333 m3
and the clearance volume is
𝑉ℎ = 0.06(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉ℎ ) = 0.00020𝑚3

We must note that points d and e need not coincide on the indicator diagram because they
represent different states and different clearance masses.

We have now analysed the machine cycle of a two stage reciprocating compressor in detail
and let us conclude this section by working an exercise.

Example 2

A three stage single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a low pressure cylinder of
450mm bore and 300mm stroke. The clearance volume of the low pressure cylinder is 5% of

72
the swept-volume. Intake conditions are 1 bar and 18 oC, the final delivery pressure being
15bar. Intermediate pressures are ideal and intercooling is perfect. The compression and
expansion index a can be taken as 1.3 throughout.

Determine,

(a) The intermediate pressures

(b) The effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder
(c) The temperature and the volume of air delivered per stroke at 15 bar
(d) The work done per kg of air.

Solution

First draw the Indicator diagram.

Fig.15.6

You may recall that the work done in each stage is equal to achieve the minimum total work
input.
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
i.e. 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 = 𝑝4 = 𝑘
1 2 3
Therefore
𝑝2 3
3
𝑘 =( )
𝑝1

𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝4
=( )×( )×( )= ( )
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝1
1⁄
𝑝 3
i.e. 𝑘 = (𝑝4 )
1
i.e. pressure ratio at each stage
1⁄
15 3
𝑘=( )
1

= 2.466 bar
73
Therefore intermediate pressures

(a) 𝑝2 = 𝑘 × 𝑝1 = 2.466 × 1
= 2.466 bar
𝑝3 = 𝑘 × 𝑝2 = 2.466 × 2.466

= 6.081 bar

(b) Swept volume of the low pressure cylinder

= 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑
𝜋
= 4 × (0.45)2 × 0.3
= 0.0477 m3

The clearance volume in the L.P. cylinder

𝑉𝑑 = 0.05 × 0.0477
= 0.00239 m3
Therefore
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑑 + (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑑 )
= 0.00239 + 0.0477
= 0.050009 m3

Let us consider the expansion from d to a to find Va

i.e.𝑃2 𝑉𝑑1.3 = 𝑃1 𝑉𝑎1.3
1
𝑝2 ⁄1.3
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑑 ( )
𝑝1
1
= 0.00239(2.466) ⁄1.3
𝑉𝑎 = 0.00478 m3

Therefore, effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder

= 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎
= 0.050009 − 0.00478 𝑚3
= 0.0453 𝑚3

𝑛−1
𝑇𝑜 𝑃4 𝑛
(c) = (𝑃 )
𝑇𝑛 3

But Tn = (273 + 18)K due to complete intercooling.

Therefore
0.3
15 1.3
𝑇0 = (273 + 18) ( )
6.081
= 358.5 K

i.e. Delivery Temperature

𝑇𝑜 = 85. 5∘ 𝐶

74
The volume of air delivered Vo − Vp is given by
(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑝 )
𝑃1 = 𝑝4
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑜
1 358.5
(𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑝 ) = × × 0.453
15 291
= 0.00372 m3
Delivery volume per stroke

= 0.00372 m3

(e) Work required per kg of air

= 3 × work required at any one of the stage /kg

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
W=3× 𝑅𝑇1 {( ) − 1}
(1-n) 𝑝1
1.3 0.3
= −3 × × 0.287 × 291 {(2.466) ⁄1.3 − 1} 𝑘𝐽
0.3

The work required per kg of air delivered.

= 254.0 kJ

Example 3

A three stage compressor supplies air lor a battery of six Diesel engines. The air is drawn the
compressor under atmospheric conditions of 1 bar and 10 oC, and is cooled in each of the

intercoolers to 30 oC. The gauge pressures or the intercoolers are 3 bar and 15.3 bar
respectively, and the delivery gauge pressure is 62.8 bar. [reach Diesel engine uses 5.62 kg of
air per hour, find the power used in compressing the air. Neglect the clearance of the
compressor. Assume adiabatic compression.

Solution:

𝑃1 = 1𝑏𝑎𝑟Temperature after intcrcooling = T2 = T3 = 30°C = 273 + 30 = 303 K

33.72
Mass of air compressed = 6 x 5.62 = 33.72 kg/hr. = = 0.562 kg/min.
60

Total work done per minute in the three stages is given by

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾 𝛾 𝑃3 𝛾 𝑃4 𝛾
𝑊= m𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1] + m𝑅𝑇2 [{( ) − 1} + ( ) − 1]
𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝛾−1 𝑃2 𝑃3

Power used in compressing the air = 4061.4 W. = 4.0614 kW.

75
Summary
The isothermal compression requires minimum work, but in actual practice it is not possible to
compress isothermally, particularly, if the delivery pressure is high. So the compression is carried out
in stages. This is called multistage compression.

Intercooling refers to the installation of a heat exchanger between the exit of one stage and
the inlet of the subsequent stage in order to remove the heat of compression from the previous
stage or stages, thereby increasing the average fluid density over the compression process and
reducing compressor power consumption.

Intercooling brings the compression nearer to the ideal isothermal compression. With an
infinite number of stages this ideal could be reached, but in practice more than three stages
are not used unless unusually high pressure ratios are required.

Minimum work required per cycle for a single stage compressor is given by

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 ( 2𝑛 )
𝑊 = 2[ ] P 𝑉 [( ) − 1] 𝐽
𝑛 − 1 1 1 𝑃1
If the number of stages is “s” the minimum work required per cycle with perfect intercooling
can be written as,

𝑛−1
𝑠𝑛 𝑃𝑠+1 ( 2𝑛 )
𝑊=[ ] P 𝑉 [( ) − 1] 𝐽
𝑛−1 1 1 𝑃1

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this session you will be able to:

1. Describe the working of multistage compressors

2. List the advantages and disadvantages of multistage compressors
3. Carry out thermodynamic analysis of multistage compressor with intercooling

76
Session 16
Rotary Air Compressors

Content
16.0 Introduction
16.1 Positive Displacement Compressors
16.2 Non-Positive Displacement Compressors
16.3 Comparative Study of Compressors
Summary
Learning Outcomes

16.0 Introduction
In this session we discuss the compressor in which the displacement of air is performed by a
rotary motion instead of the reciprocating motion of a piston. Rotary machines can operate at
high speeds and therefore handle larger rates of flow when compared with their reciprocating
counterpart. Due to high speed compression, the compression process is nearly adiabatic and
hence, the isothermal efficiency is much lower when compared with reciprocating machines.
However, this deficiency is offset to a certain extent by usually higher mechanical efficiency
of rotary compressors due to their low frictional losses.

Rotary compressors are used in the applications where larger flow rates at relatively low
pressure ratio are required and are suitable as superchargers for internal combustion engines.

Rotary compressors are used for supplying large volume of air up to 3000 cubic metre/min at
a very low pressure which rises up to 10 bar. The compression of air follows the law P𝑉 𝑛 =
constant. The index of compression may be as high as 1.7 if no cooling devices are used. It
runs at a very high speed up to 40000 r.p.m. By using intercoolers between the stages the
value of index n can be reduced which approximates adiabatic compression.

77
Rotary compressors are classified as,

a) Positive displacement compressors

b) Non-positive displacement compressors

16.1 Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors are further sub-divided into roots blower and vane blower.

Roots Blower

Fig.16.1 Roots Blower

The simplest rotary positive displacement compressor is the roots blower. Its essential parts
are two rotors, each rotor having two or more lobes with profiles formed by complete
epicycloids and hypocycloids. This geometric form ensures that at all angular positions the
high pressure space is sealed from the low pressure space. Both rotors are driven by external
gearing.

During the operation, volume Vs of air at inlet condition is being trapped between the left

hand rotor and the casing as shown in figure16.1. This trapped volume Vs does not change its

state until the space Vs is opened to the high-pressure region. At that instant, some high

pressure air will rush back from the receiver and mix irreversibly with the air in the blower
until the pressure is equalized. The air is then displaced into the receiver. The indicator
diagram for the above process can be drawn as

78
 Fig.16.2 Indicator Diagram of a Roots Blower (P-V Diagram for roots blower)

The back flow of high pressure air from the receiver creates a rise in pressure in the roots
blower.

During one complete revolution of the rotors, 4 Vs volume is displaced into the receiver and

therefore, the work done per revolution is

𝑊 = 4𝑉𝑆 (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.1

Roots Efficiency
The ratio of adiabatic work done to the actual work done is known as roots efficiency.

𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Let,

P1 = Intake pressure of air

P2 = Discharge pressure of air
V1= Volume of air compressed

As you know that work done per revolution = W = ( p 2 − p1 )4Vs

Also, if the volume of air handled per minute is V1 then work done

𝑊 = (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )𝑉1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.2

Theoretical work done in compressing the air

𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(( ) − 1)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.3
𝛾−1 𝑃1
Actual work done ,

𝑊 = 𝑉1 (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.4
79
Therefore the roots efficiency is

 −1
 
   

PV   − 1
P 2
 − 1 1 1  P1   (r )−1 − 1
   p  
 roots =− =  .......... .......... ...... 16.5
V1 ( P2 − P1 ) (rp − 1)  −1

P2
Where is 𝑟𝑝 the pressure ratio =
P1
It is seen from the above Eq (16.5) that the efficiency of the root compressor decreases with
increase in pressure ratio. It is used to supply air from 0.15𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 to 1500𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛. The
pressure ratio is in the order of 1 to 3.6 for single stage machines. The maximum r.p.m is
12500.

Vane Pump

Fig.16.3 Vane Pump

The vane pump also called vane blower consists of a eccentrically placed rotor which carries
a series of vanes in slots. Combined squeezing action and back flow of air creates rise in
pressure in vane blower. As in figure 16.3 It consists of the following elements:

a) A rotor which is located eccentrically in a cylindrical outer casing.

b) A set of vanes mounted on the rotor and rotating eccentrically in the outer casing.
c) Intake and delivery ports: The intake side opens to a large area of vanes and delivery
opens ta a much smaller area.

80
 Fig. 16.4 Indicator diagram of a Vane pump

The volume of air 𝑉1at pressure 𝑃1 is entrapped between two vanes as in roots blower. This
entrapped air is first compressed from 1 to 3 as the compression takes place due to the
decrease in volume provided for the entrapped air. This air is then compressed from 3 to 2
irreversibly.

The work done per revolution with M vanes is given by,

W = W1 + W2
𝛾−1
𝑀𝛾 𝑝𝑑 𝛾
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] + 𝑀(𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑑 )𝑉𝑑 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.
𝛾−1 𝑝1

Where,

P1 = Intake pressure of air

P2 = Discharge pressure of air
Pd = Pressure at point 3
V1 = Volume of air compressed

Efficiency of the vane blower ,

𝑊2
𝜂= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.7
𝑊1 + 𝑊2

The vane blowers are used to deliver up to 150 m3of air per minute at pressure ratio up to 8.5.
The blower speed is limited to 3000 r.p.m.

81
16.2 Non-Positive Displacement Compressors
If the These types of compressors are also known as dynamic compressors and are sub-
divided into,

a) Centrifugal compressors
b) Axial flow compressors.

Centrifugal Compressor

It consists of a rotor in which a number of curved vanes are mounted. The rotor rotates in a
casing. As the rotor rotates, it sucks air through its eye, increases its pressure due to
centrifugal force and forces the air to flow into the diffuser where its velocity is reduced by
providing more cross-sectional area. Part of the kinetic energy of the air is converted into
pressure energy and pressure of the air is further increased. Finally the air at a high pressure
is delivered to the receiver.

Fig.16.5 Centrifugal Pump

Let,
P1 = Intake pressure of air
V1 = Initial volume of air
T1 = Initial temperature of air
P2 V2 T2 = Corresponding values for the final condition
m = Mass of air compressed per minute

For isothermal compression the work done is given by,

V  V 
W = P1V1 loge  1  = mRT1 loge  1 
 V2   V2 

For polytropic compression the work done is given by,

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑃1

82
For adiabatic compression work done is given by,

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾 𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝛾−1 𝑃1

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑊 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) [𝐴𝑠 = ( ) ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.8
𝑇1 𝑃1

Axial Flow Compressor

In axial flows parallel to the axis. It consists of a number of rotating blades fixed to a rotating
drum. Each stage consists of one row of moving blades and one of fixed blades. As the air
flows from one set of stator and rotator to another, it gets compressed. The successive
compression of air in all the sets of stators and rotor increases its pressure and the air is
delivered at a high pressure from the outlet. The blades are made of aero foil section to
reduce the losses caused by turbulence and boundary separation. The number of stages may
vary from 4 to 16. The pressure ratio per stage is from 1.2 to 1.3.

Fig.16.5 Axial Flow Compressor

16.3 Comparative Study of Compressors

Comparative study of different types of air compressors is presented below:

83
Comparison of reciprocating compressors with rotary compressors

Reciprocating compressors Rotary compressors

(a) These are suitable for low discharge rate (a) These are suitable for high
at higher delivery pressures. Speed of discharge rate at smaller delivery
rotation of reciprocating compressors is pressures. Speed of rotation of
quite small due to higher inertia of rotary compressors is quite high
reciprocating parts. up to 40,000 rpm.

(b) Reciprocating compressor lias inter- (b) Rotary compressor has

mittent delivery of high pressure air continuous delivery of high
thereby requiring receiver for maintain- pressure air therefore no receiver
ing continuous delivery. is required.

(c) Reciprocating compressors have (c) Rotary compressors have better

balancing problems. balancing as compared to
reciprocating compressors.

(d) Quality of air delivered from (d) Air delivered is comparatively

reciprocating compressors is poor cleaner.
due to its contamination
(e) Lubricating requirements are less
compared to reciprocating
(e) Lubrication requirements are severe in compressors.
these compressors.
(f) Rotary compressors can be
directly coupled to high speed
(f) Reciprocating compressors can not be
prime movers.
directly coupled to high speed prime
movers such as turbines etc.
(g) Rotary compressors have
isentropic process ideally but
(g) Reciprocating compressors are designed actually the compression occurs
to achieve compression close to following polytropic
isothermal compression by cooling etc. compression with index more
compression process with index more. than adiabatic index.
 Rotary Air Compressors

Positive Non -Positive

Displacement Displacement
Compressors Compressors

Roots Vane Centrifugal Axial Flow

Blower Pump Compressor Compressor
Comparison between the centrifugal compressors and axial flow compressors

Centrifugal compressors Axial Flow compressors

(a) Centrifugal compressors generally (a) Axial flow compressors generally

have stage pressure ratio of aro- have stage pressure around 1.5 and have
und 5 and have radial flow inside axial inlet and axial exit with flow inside
with axial entry of fluid. Maxi- compressor being parallel to the
mum pressure up to 400 bar can compressor axis. Maximum pressure up to
be achieved by multi-staging. 10 bar is possible to be achieved through
although multi-staging is slightly multi-staging which is very convenient in
difficult. axial compressors.

(b) Centrifugal compressors have (b) Axial flow compressors have

good part load efficiency and poor part load efficiency and narrow
wide operating range between operating range between surging and
surging and choking limits. choking limits.

(c) Axial flow compressors have large

(c) Centrifugal compressors have starting torque requirement.
small starting torque requirement.
(d) Due to small frontal area axial
(d) Due to large frontal area flow compressors are well suited
these are well suited for land for aviation applications.
applications.

(e) These have complex construction

(e) These have simple construction and are costly.
and are comparatively cheap.
(f) These have better isentropic efficiency (~
(f) These have poor isentropic efficiency 85 to 90%). Power required per kg of air
(= 70%). Power required per kg of air flow rate is less in axial flow compressors.
flow rate is more.
(g) Efficiency vs. speed characteristics is
(g) Efficiency vs. speed characteristics
slightly bell shaped. It means higher
for centrifugal compressor is flat. It
efficiency in narrow range of speed.
has higher efficiency in large speed
range.
(h) Axial compressors performance
deteriorates with any kind of
(h) Centrifugal compressors performance deposition on blade surface.
does not alter with any kind of
deposition on blade surface.
Example 1

A rotary vane type compressor has an air delivery of 0.01m3 per revolution when it
compresses air from 100 kPa to 200 kPa. Determine the compressor efficiency when (a) the
ports are so placed that there is no internal compression, and (b) the ports are so placed that
there is 45%pressure rise due to internal compression before back flow occurs,

Solution

(a) When there is no internal compression

Actual work done per revolution = (P2 − P1 )Vs = (200-100)× 103 ×0.01

= 1000Nm/revolution
𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
Ideal work done per revolution = 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [((𝑃 ) − 1)]
1

1.4−1
1.4 200 1.4
= × 100 × 103 × 0.01 [(( ) − 1)]
1.4 − 1 100
= 766.547 Nm

Ideal work done

 Compressorefficiency =
Actual work done
766.547
= = 0.7665 or 76.65 %
1000

(b) When there is 45% pressure rise due to internal compression , the pressure rise = (200-
100) ×0.45 = 45kPa

∴ Pressure after internal compression

𝑃𝑑 =100+45 =145 kPa

Work done due to internal compression is given by area A

𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃𝑑 𝛾
𝑊1 = 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(( 𝑃 ) − 1)]
1

1.4−1
1.4 3 145 1.4
= 1.4−1 × 100 × 10 × 0.01 [((100) − 1)] = 392 Nm
 1 1
𝑃 𝛾 100 1.4
Again, 𝑉2=𝑉1 (𝑃1 ) = 0.01 × (145) =0.00766𝑚3
𝑑

(a) (b)
Fig.16.6

Work done due to back flow is given by area B,

W2 = (P2 − Pd )Vd = (200-145)× 103 ×0.00766 = 421.79 Nm

Total work done W=W1 +W2 = 392+421.79 = 813.79 Nm

766.547
Compressor efficiency = = 0.9419 or 94.19 %
813.79

Example 2

A roots blower handles free air of 0.5 nr/s at 1 bar and 27°C and delivers air at pressure of
2 bar. Determine indicated power required to drive compressor and isentropic efficiency.

Solution
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝑉1
𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (2 − 1) × 102 × 0.5 = 50𝑘𝐽/𝑠
𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 50𝑘𝑊

Indicated power when isentropic compression occurs,

𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [((𝑃 ) − 1)]
1

1.4−1
1.4 2 2 1.4
=1.4−1 × 1 × 10 × 0.5 [((1) − 1)]

= 38.33kW
 Fig 16.7
Wisentropic
Isentropic efficiency of roots blower = Wroots

38.33
= = 0.7666 or 76.6 %
50

Example 3

A vaned compressor handles free air of 0.6 𝒎𝟑 /s at 1 bar and compresses up to 2.3 bar. There
occurs 30% reduction in volume before the back flow occurs. Determine the indicated power
required and isentropic efficiency.

Solution
Here on P—V diagram the state 2 indicates the pomt at which delivers' occurs.
While 2' is the point up to which air is compressed inside. 𝑉2=0.7× 𝑉1

P2 𝑉 𝛾 𝑉 1.4
= (𝑉1 ) =(0.7𝑉
1
)
P1 2 1

1 1.4
P2= 1× (0.7) = 1.65 bar

Fig 16.8 P-V Diagram

Indicated power required for vaned compressor
𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑊𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [((𝑃 ) − 1)] +(P21 − P1 ) × 𝑉2
1

1.4−1
1.4
= 1.4−1 × 1 × 102 × 0.6 [((1.65) 1.4 − 1)]+ (2.3 − 1.65) × 102 × (0.7 × 0.6)

= 59.60 kJ/s
Power requirement when compression occurs isentropically.
𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃21 𝛾
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(( 𝑃 ) − 1)]
1

1.4−1
1.4 2.3 1.4
= × 1 × 102 × 0.6 [(( ) − 1)]
1.4−1 1

= 56.42 kJ/s
Wisentropic
Isentropic efficiency of vane compressor = Wvane
75.66
= 79.925

= 0.9466 or 94.66 %

Example 4

A centrifugal compressor delivers 54 kg of air per minute at a pressure of 200 kPa,when

compressing from 100 kPa and 15°C. If the temperature of the air delivered is 97°Cand no
heat is added to the air from external sources during compression, determine the efficiency of
the compressor relative to ideal adiabatic compression and determine the power absorbed.

Solution
Ideal temperature at the end of isentropic compression is given by
γ−1 0.4
P2 γ 200 1.4
T2 = T1 ( ) = (273+15)( ) = 351.07K
P1 100

Actual temperature at the end of compression

T21 = (273+97) = 370K
 Adiabatic temp.rise
Adiabatic Efficiency = Actual temp.rise

T −T 351.07−288
=T21 −T1 = = 0.768 or 76.8 %
2 1 370−288

54
Power absorbed = mCp (T21 -T1 ) = 60 ×1.0035×(370-288) =74.058 kW

Summary
Rotary compressors are in which the displacement of air is performed by a rotary motion
instead of the reciprocating motion of a piston. Rotary compressors are used in the
applications where larger flow rates at relatively low pressure ratio are required and are
suitable as superchargers for internal combustion engines.

In rotary compressors the compression of air follows the law P𝑉 𝑛 = constant. The index of
compression may be as high as 1.7 if no cooling devices are used. It runs at a very high speed
up to 40000 r.p.m. By using intercoolers between the stages the value of index n can be
reduced which approximates adiabatic compression.

Rotary compressors are classified as,

c) Positive displacement compressors
d) Non-positive displacement compressors

Positive displacement compressors are further sub-divided into roots blower and vane blower.
Non positive displacement compressors are also known as dynamic compressors and are sub-
divided into,

e) Centrifugal compressors
f) Axial flow compressor.
Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session you will be able to:

1. Describe the rotary compressor and its classifications

2. Carryout thermodynamic analysis of positive displacement and non-positive
displacement rotary compressors
3. Compare rotary compressors with reciprocating compressors
4. Compare centrifugal compressor with axial flow compressors