ProceedingsoftheInstitutionofMechanicalEngineersPartB JournalofEngineeringManufacture 2015 Sarkar VKJain
ProceedingsoftheInstitutionofMechanicalEngineersPartB JournalofEngineeringManufacture 2015 Sarkar VKJain
ProceedingsoftheInstitutionofMechanicalEngineersPartB JournalofEngineeringManufacture 2015 Sarkar VKJain
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Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B Journal of Engineering Manufacture · September 2015
DOI: 10.1177/0954405415599913
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Abstract
Freeform complex surfaces have become an essential part of many devices to perform the required functions. Many of
these components require nanometer-level surface finish to perform the desired functions efficiently. In this work, an
attempt has been made to improve the external morphology of freeform surfaces, especially knee joint, by abrasive flow
finishing process. A uniform mirror finished surface with improved finishing rate is achieved for stainless steel knee joint.
Extrusion pressure is varied to reduce final surface roughness value and finishing time. Experimentally, good surface finish
ranging from (Ra) 42.9 to 62.5 nm is achieved at various locations of the knee joint which are within the recommended
American Society for Testing and Materials standard (’100 nm) of knee joint prosthesis. Effects of abrasive flow finishing
process parameters are investigated to develop ‘‘know how’’ of the process on the freeform surfaces. Abrasive flow fin-
ishing process has given 76.56% reduction in finishing time as compared to the time required by ‘‘ball end’’ type tool used
for finishing knee joint.
Keywords
Freeform surfaces, nanofinishing, knee joint, abrasive flow finishing
components and active particles’ density govern the fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation to find the optimal
surface roughness produced during AFF process. core shape for complex holes where uniform shear
However, effect of medium temperature on AFF effi- stress generates uniform surface roughness.
ciency was not studied. The theoretical and experimen- A freeform surface made of stainless steel (SS) simi-
tal research of thermal properties of medium was lar to the actual knee joint was fabricated to investigate
carried out by Fletcher and Fioravanti.20 Davies and the viability and superiority of the AFF process. This
Fletcher21 experimentally found that viscosity of the process is thought to be an alternative finishing tech-
medium is significantly affected by the medium tem- nique to the traditional time-consuming and costly belt
perature. Jain and Jain22 also reported the effects of grinding process. The novelty of the process is that it
specific energy and temperature on AFF responses. can simultaneously finish different surfaces of a prod-
They reported that the medium temperature increases uct, contrary to the traditional techniques. The motiva-
with number of finishing cycles and extrusion pressure. tion was to find out the best process parameters in the
They also found that both theoretical and empirical prescribed range, an appropriate fixture design, and
studies of AFF are greatly hampered by the inherent medium formulation. This will eliminate the stringent
random nature and multiplicity of variables. The requirements of tool hardness/rigidity and defined cut-
medium is non-Newtonian in nature, particles are ran- ting edge and address the problem of finishing difficult-
domly distributed and the entire process is encapsu- to-machine sculptured surfaces. A comparative review
lated. The variables are interdependent which further of AFF process with other nanofinishing processes has
complicates the studies. Thus, the material removal been reported by Jain et al.30
mechanism is only partially understood.
Jain et al.23 and Jain and Jain22 applied artificial
neural network (ANN) approach to analyze the AFF AFF system
process. They concluded that with the increase in num- Experimental set up
ber of cycles, material removal rate (MRR), which is
comparatively high initially, decreases afterwards. The main components of AFF system are AFF set up,
Initially, the surface has sharp peaks, which are sheared fixture or tooling, and medium. AFF fixture or tooling
more easily and become somewhat flatter than before. guides the abrasive medium and holds the workpiece,
Further finishing of this flat surface would require which is placed in between the upper and lower medium
higher tangential force, hence MRR decreases. Jain et cylinders. Uniform and sufficient gap between the
al.24 and Jain and Jain25 applied finite element simula- workpiece and fixture helps the medium to achieve nec-
tion approach to model AFM process to evaluate stres- essary uniform velocity while passing through the work-
ses and forces. Fang et al.26 criticized their model by piece contour. Every workpiece needs its own clamp.
saying that abrasive particles are not only sliding but The clamp is very important and it decides the AFF
also rolling, which would reduce MRR. The shear thin- performance.31,32
ning properties of the abrasive fluid can be determined Surface roughness will not be uniform when a com-
using rheometrical devices as reported by Carreau et plex hole is polished by AFF process. Wang et al.29
al.27 Experimental results25 showed that material reported that CFD numerical method can be used to
removal is also governed by the initial surface finish design good passage ways to find the smooth surface
and workpiece hardness. Based on two-body wear, they on the complex hole in AFF process. Velocity, strain
proposed their mathematical model which included rates, and shear forces applied by the medium acting
operating parameters to explain wear in AFF process. on the workpiece surface were computed using CFD
However, theoretical results of surface roughness could approach, while keeping pressure as constant. Their
not match very well with the experimental data. It can results demonstrated that the desired shape of the mold
be found that the assumptions were somewhat over core inserted into the hole results in uniform roughness
simplified and unrealistic because abrasive particles on the surface.
were assumed to be spherical in shape and wear process In AFF process, it is possible to control and select
was assumed to be only cutting without plastic defor- the intensity and location of abrasion by appropriate
mation. It was the first time to predict forces from fixture design. Two cylinders were fabricated to easily
rheological properties of the medium in AFM process accommodate knee joint-spider assembly (Figure 2(a)),
when Gorana et al.19 developed a two-body abrasive sealed and sandwiched between the pistons. Figure 2(b)
mathematical model to predict radial and axial forces shows a sectioned view of the spider and its dimen-
on a single abrasive particle. It has been shown experi- sions. Mild steel (EN8) was chosen for fixture fabrica-
mentally that material removal increases with piston tion because of ease of fabrication and cost. The wall
pressure and is highly dependent on the force acting on thickness should be sufficient to withstand large
the abrasive particles.26 Bähre et al.28 developed an in- hydraulic pressure. Gaskets should be inserted between
process measurement set up in order to measure the the cylinders to prevent medium leakage. Medium pas-
influence of the applied medium pressure on the sage width is not uniform as shown in Figure 2(c) (for
machined part of the workpiece with the help of an simplicity of the diagram, spider is not shown). The
axial force sensor. Wang et al.29 used computational exploded view of the figure (in the side) shows chip
Figure 2. (a) Photograph of a knee joint held in a spider, (b) sectioned view of spider with dimensions, and (c) knee joint in the AFF
set up.
formation, the forces acting on the knee joint, and Table 1. Hardness and density of some abrasives and
abrasive particles. workpiece materials.
One flywheel-shaped spider (Figure 2(b)) with three
arms was fabricated by abrasive water jet cutting. It Material Vickers hardness (HV) Density (g/cm3)
was designed so as to maintain a balance between
Stainless steel* 220 7.85
strength and effective area available for the medium
SiC 240 1.52
extrusion. Fixing knee joint ahead of the flow itself will B4C 320 1.82
reduce the effective area to a great extent. This axial Ti-6Al-4V* 360 4.42
obstacle offered by the projected area of workpiece CBN 450 2.28
(knee joint) will increase load on the spider and pistons. Diamond 700 3.52
So, the spider material should have high bending and CBN: cubic boron nitride; * implies that stainless steel and Ti-6Al-4V are
shear strength. SS is a good choice. The spider has a workpiece materials.
central hole where knee joint is held by means of a
bolted joint (Figure 2(a)). The dimensions are shown in Commercial medium contains polyborosiloxane or silly
the schematic diagram (Figure 2(b)). The thickness of putty as base carrier; diamond, boron carbide (B4C), or
the spider is 5 mm. The entire assembly is held between silicon carbide (SiC) as abrasive; and some additives/
the lower and upper cylinders. The edges of the ribs plasticizers. Base carrier also acts as a binder for abra-
were rounded off for smooth flow of medium and to sives and transmits force from the piston to the
minimize pressure loss due to separation. abrasives.
Actual prototype of knee joint is made of Ti-6Al-
4V, which is harder than SiC and B4C as shown in
Medium formulation and preparation Table 1. A SS knee joint was fabricated for the present
Important part of a successful AFF system is medium. investigations. SiC (mesh sizes 1000, 1500, and 2000)
The medium loses its finishing capability with time due was used as abrasive because it is harder than SS. The
to fracture and wear of abrasive particles and mixing of medium is made by mixing silicone oil, boric acid, poly-
the removed workpiece material with the medium. dimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and other additives. This
non-Newtonian pseudo plastic fluid shows unusual 22, and 24 bars. At first, 1000 mesh size abrasive was
properties under different ranges of strain rate. It is a chosen and the medium with SiC/Silly putty level =
viscoelastic fluid. Silly putty can be characterized as a 50:50 was carefully prepared with other additives.
shear thickening fluid. High elasticity helps abrasives Three experiments were conducted each for 1500 cycles
indent deep and high viscosity helps retaining the abra- with 20, 22, and 24 bar pressure. Then, the composition
sive particles intact against shearing of the workpiece of the SiC/Silly Putty was changed to 55:45 ratio.
surface protrusion. High viscosity medium is required
to finish large internal passage or external contour, and
Measurement of surface finish
very low viscous slurry type medium is needed for
micro channel and nozzle-type workpiece. Viscosity Measurement of the surface finish of freeform surface is
can be increased either using high viscous polymer or as difficult as finishing it. One swiveling device was cho-
by increasing percentage of abrasives.33 sen which can hold as well as tilt the workpiece to make
The polymer used is mainly elastic in nature. But for the area of the surface under investigation horizontal.
high FR, high viscosity is essential. Miscibility of abra- A linear tactile probe SurfTest SV-2100M4 was used to
sive in polymer is low. Plasticizer or softener is mixed measure surface roughness of the knee joint. The
to achieve the desired medium properties, that is, easy roughness is measured in the direction perpendicular to
flow ability. These are low molecular weight and low the finishing direction on the same point before and
viscous compounds, which get mixed with the polymer after finishing experiments. Initially, the idea was to
and increase softness. Silicone oil, naphthenic oil, measure roughness at 10 points per face. But it was not
toluene, varnish oil, and hydrocarbon oil can be used possible to measure where the surface has slope in mul-
as plasticizer. They diffuse in between the polymer tiple directions because sufficient approach length and
chains and increase the distance between the chains. It evaluation length were not found. It is difficult to align
reduces cohesive force and internal friction of polymer a three-dimensional (3D) curved surface horizontally
chains. by manual control. The measurements at those points
For the present investigation, multigrade hydrocar- were not repeatable and erratic in nature. So, the points
bon oil was used because of its compatibility with silly only on simple curved areas were chosen. The exact
putty. Its content should not be very high as the location of the point of measurement is identified with
medium becomes oily and sticky. The plasticizer devel- the help of a transparent template prepared for this pur-
ops a very thin protective coating on the workpiece sur- pose. In these experiments, the final surface roughness
face, which prevents interaction between abrasives and (Ra) value of the previous experiment becomes initial
workpiece surface. Most widely used mold releasing surface roughness (Ra) value for the next experiment.
agent, namely, zinc stearate, is used as an additive to Special optical profilometer, software control, and tilt-
exploit its non-sticky and lubricating properties. It ing mechanism are needed for reliable and accurate
reduces plasticizer requirement to a great extent, and measurement of freeform surfaces. Tactile probe is not
thus, oiliness is avoided. It also reduces brittleness of able to follow ups and downs and contour of freeform
the medium and develops a continuous mass. surface. However, the only alternative seems to be feasi-
The mixing of the ingredients is done using two-roll ble is to measure the surface roughness variation in
mills (150 mm diameter rolls, 7.5 HP motor) in the tem- both directions (X and Y) and compare it with the origi-
perature range of 40 °C–55 °C. The mixing is carried nal (i.e. before finishing) values of surface finish in X-
out as per ASTM D 3182-89 with mastication, which and Y-directions. Atomic force microscope (AFM)
means breaking down of molecular chains of polymer. image was taken only on plane surfaces because of sen-
This is very necessary because it improves homogeneity sitivity and limitation of the instrument; 25 3 25 mm2
and acceptability of polymer for abrasive particles.34 area was chosen for the investigation.
The impact of abrasive percentage on polishing effi- The preliminary experiments were conducted to
ciency is paramount, but with the increase in abrasive study the effect of extrusion pressure on % change in
percentage, the flow ability of the medium diminishes.18 Ra and FR. % Change in Ra is calculated as {(DRa/ini-
That is why, a maximum ratio of SiC/Silly putty = tial Ra) 3 100}, where DRa = (initial Ra 2 final Ra).
55:45 (by weight) is chosen. Here, Ra is centre line average (CLA) surface rough-
ness measured in micrometers. FR (nm/min) is calcu-
lated as {(DRa/finishing time in min) 3 1000}. The
Experimentation initial and final surface roughness of each part is mea-
sured by SurfTest machine.
Plan of experiments The coordinates of the points were measured on a
AFF is influenced by a number of parameters but in CNC machine. Tangents were drawn (as shown in
this work only pressure was varied to make preliminary Figure 3) in the solid model of the knee joint by
study about feasibility in nanofinishing of knee joints SolidWorks software at the identified points, and the
using AFF process to compare the finishing time angles of inclination (u) were evaluated (Table 2).
required and uniformity of finishing across the face as Then, the knee joint was held in a vice where there is a
well as different faces. The pressure was varied at 20, provision to tilt the knee joint at the desired angle (u).
Figure 3. (a) Inclination of identified points, (b) force acting on the convex workpiece surface and distance of the workpiece
surface from the fixture or cylinder wall, and (c) free body diagram of forces acting on face 1.
The knee joint was tilted to the opposite of the corre- The effects of different process parameters on the
sponding angle to align it horizontally. responses (% change in Ra, FR, final Ra) have been
discussed in the following sections. There are four faces
of the knee joint. For each face, surface roughness value
Results and discussion was measured at 5 points. However, for comparison
Best results of surface roughness measurements and purposes, surface finish only at three critical points (i.e.
topography are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. at different angles) was considered. Variation in Ra
Initial and final surface roughness on each face on a value on all the three points with a variation in pressure
certain point with corresponding surface roughness has been considered.
reduction ratio is shown in Figure 4. It is clearly seen
that significant reduction ( . 72%) has been achieved.
However, optimization of the process parameters Inclination angle
would result in a higher % DRa. Topography was Knee joint is a complex type of freeform surface. It has
taken by atomic force microscope on flat surfaces slope in multiple directions which complicates finishing
(faces 2 and 4) only. Figure 5 shows the initial and final as well as measurement procedure to a great extent.
surface topography. The inclination angle (u) (shown in Figure 3(b)) is the
Figure 4. Different faces of a knee joint, initial surface roughness, final surface roughness, and % reduction in Ra. Finishing
conditions are mesh size of 1500, SiC:Silly Putty = 55:45, and pressure = 24 bar.
Figure 5. Initial and final surface topography measured by atomic force microscope for two faces, faces 2 and 4. Finishing
conditions are mesh size 1500, SiC:Silly Putty = 55:45, and pressure = 24 bar.
angle between the vertical direction and the tangent medium, which is responsible for indentation.
drawn at the point under consideration in the same However, this will be quite different when the medium
plane (XY, XZ, or YZ). The tangents were drawn in is flowing in the reverse direction due to the asymmetry
the solid model of knee joint by SolidWorks software. of the knee joint. Finishing conditions favorable dur-
Pu is the hydrostatic force acting toward the upper ing, say, upper stroke may become adverse in the
cylinder and Pb is the hydrostatic force acting toward reverse stroke. If the shearing force available is not
the bottom cylinder (Figure 3(c)). They are assumed to enough at higher depth of penetration, then the abra-
be equal and denoted by P. Due to curvature, the sive particles may roll without cutting.35 Due to rota-
extrusion force is resolved into shearing force (P.Cosu, tion of the abrasive particle, the depth of indentation is
responsible for shearing the surface protrusions) and decreased. The abrasive particle may then become able
normal force (P.Sinu, responsible for abrasive indenta- to shear the workpiece material depending upon the
tion). Viscoelastic nature of the fluid imparts viscous value of the shear force acting on it.
force Pv (acting tangentially to the surface) and elastic Depending upon the inclination angle, the final Ra,
force Pe (acting perpendicular to the surface). Thus, the % DRa, and FR vary as shown in Figure 6. These
total tangential force is given by Pt = P.Cosu + Pv. results can be interpreted as follows:
The total normal force is given by Pn = P.Sinu + Pe.
Almost full abrasion force (P.Cosu) is acting where 1. As the pressure increases, shearing force also
the angle u is low. Only a part of the abrading force is increases. But temperature of the medium also
available for shearing where the angle u is high. The increases due to abrasion and internal friction. As
normal force (P.Sinu) is high where the angle (u) is a result, viscosity decreases as shown in Figure 7.
high. It is the P.Sinu and elastic force Pe exerted by the This figure clearly shows that with an increase in
Figure 6. Effect of inclination angle on (a) final Ra, (b) % change in Ra, and (c) FR for face 1. Finishing conditions are mesh size 1500,
SiC:Silly Putty = 55:45, pressure = 24 bar, and (d) saddle-like surface on face 1.
Figure 8. Effect of pressure variation on final Ra (a–d) (F stands for face, u for inclination angle, and P stands for a point on that
surface). Finishing conditions are mesh size 1500, SiC:Silly Putty = 55:45, and pressure = 20, 22, 24 bar.
Figure 9. Effect of pressure variation on % change in Ra (a) for face 1 and (b) for face 3 (F stands for face, u for angle, and P for
point on that surface). Finishing conditions are mesh size 1500, SiC/Silly putty = 55:45, and pressure = 20, 22, 24 bar. .
the workpiece surface. As a result, the FR decreases some points were colored on the knee joint before the
with an increase in pressure.35 test run and checked after the finishing was over for a
short period. The color spots were intact only where
the gap is large. In most of the cases, larger the distance
Distance from the fixture wall from the wall, larger is final Ra (Figure 11(a)). It can
Surfaces of the knee joint far away from the fixture be attributed to the smaller value of force acting on the
wall do not undergo severe shearing as compared to knee joint in that area because of larger cross-sectional
the surfaces where the gap is smaller. To check this, area through which the medium is flowing. The
Figure 10. Effects of pressure variation on FR (a) for face 1 and (b) for face 3 (F stands for face, u for angle, and P for point on that
surface). Finishing conditions are mesh size 1500, SiC:Silly putty = 55:45, and pressure = 20, 22, 24 bar.
Figure 11. Effect of distance from the wall on (a) final Ra, (b) % change in Ra, and (c) FR. (d) The location of measuring points.
Finishing conditions are mesh size 1500, SiC:Silly Putty = 55:45, and pressure = 24 bar.
Table 3. Comparison of time taken in finishing knee joint using MRAFF, R-MRAFF, and AFF processes.
MRAFF: magnetorheological abrasive fluid finishing; R-MRAFF: rotational magnetorheological abrasive fluid finishing; AFF: abrasive flow finishing.
a
Workpiece material: Ti-6Al-4V, abrasive: diamond.
b
Workpiece material: stainless steel, abrasive: SiC.
c
Workpiece material: stainless steel, abrasive: SiC.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following finan-
cial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article: This work was supported by
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai
(project no. BARC/Works/MoU/321/2011/), and the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
New Delhi, India (project no. 22(0479)/09/EMR-II).
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Appendix 1
1. Johnson & Cobalt–Chromium Larger contact area New Jersey, United www.jnjindia.com
Johnson States
Reduced contact stress
Cross-linked Use of cross-linked polyethylene
polyethylene reduces wear and restricts failure due
to oxidation
2. Zimmer Cobalt– High degree of active flexion (up to Indiana, United www.zimmer.com
Chromium– 15° to 5°) States
Molybdenum
Enhanced stability
UHMWPEa Extensor mechanismb provided
3. Stryker Tritaniumc Better fit due to a broader range of Michigan, United www.stryker.com
sizes States
Reduced wear and longer life
(By use of additive Improved motion (up to 150°)
manufacturing)
X3 polyethylene Better mechanical strength than
conventional polyethylene
4. Smith & Oxiniumd Surface hardness twice that of Cobalt– London, United www.smith-nephew.com
Nephew Chromium Kingdom
20% lighter than Cobalt–Chromium
\ 0.0035% nickel causing lesser
allergic reactions
Ceramic Use of ceramic in place of UHMWPE
causes resistance to scratches and
abrasions.
a
UHMWPE: ultra high molecular weight polyethylene. This is the material used traditionally to make the cartilage part of the knee implant.
b
Extensor Mechanism refers to the expanding or straightening mechanism of a joint. In knee joints, it is brought about by quadriceps tendon, patella,
and patellar tendon.
c
Tritanium is highly porous metal biologic fixation technology developed by Stryker by use of 3D printing technology/additive manufacturing with the
help of titanium powder made of various layers forming a complex porous structure.
d
Oxinium refers to oxidized zirconium. A material developed by Smith and Nephew having ceramicized metal bearing surface for better results.