OUTLINE ○ A number of fungi can be used to produce one of the important

INTRODUCTION TO MYCOLOGY immunosuppressive drugs, which is the cyclosporin A

What is Mycology? 1
- Good Mycology Bad Mycology
- Bad Mycology ● “Dark side” of mycology
- Biological Research ● Fungi are implicated as a cause of multiple phenomena that have
What are Fungi?
deleterious or detrimental effect on environment and health
- Layman’s Description of Fungi 2
- Similarities between plants and fungi ● There are significant phytopathogens
- Differences between plants and fungi ○ They cause disease, particularly in plants
- Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
○ Other than the fact that we attribute to fungi the occurrence of
Fungal Structure 3
- Morphologic forms food spoilage and rotting of stored crops, fungi can also inflict
- Cytological features 4 diseases on cereals
- Mold 5 ■ Claviceps purpurea - causes disease in cereals
- Differences between Yeast and Molds 6
Fungi Reproduction ○ Even the harvested nuts and grains can be painted (?) with the
- Asexual Reproduction 7 aflatoxin that is produced by Aspergillus
- Sexual Reproduction 9 ○ There are also fungi which are very destructive, causing severe
Taxonomy of Fungi 10
Medically Important Groups of Fungi 11 plant diseases such as the rice blast or even the coffee rust
LEGEND ■ Diseases affecting rice crops as well as coffee plants that
BLACK TEXT COLORED TEXT are implicated in fungi
Based from ppt Based from lecture proper
● Cause life threatening disease in patients with risk factors or what
we consider as immunocompromised patients or those with a
Discussion Outline
lowered immune system
● Introductory Concepts in Mycology
● General Characteristics of Fungi Biological Research
● Differences between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes ● Saccharomyces cerevisiae
● Fungal structure ○ Main eukaryotic models in genetics, molecular biology, cell
● Basic forms of fungi biology, biochemistry, and metabolism
● Differences between monomorphic, dimorphic, and polymorphic ● Schizosaccharomyces pombe
fungi ○ Key organism in understanding the mechanism of regulation of
● Reproduction of fungi the cell cycle
● Overview of taxonomy of fungi
● Groups of medically important fungi What are Fungi?
● Non motile, eukaryotic organisms
What is Mycology? ● Can be single celled or usually are the very complex multicellular
● Study of Fungi organisms
○ A discipline of Biology or sub-discipline of microbiology that ● A diverse group made up of the classic pathogens, environmental
deals with, describes an enormous group of organisms saprobes and parasitic spore-producing eukaryotic organisms that
denominated fungi lack chlorophyll (i.e. Achlorophyllous)
○ Instituto de Salud Carlos III Madrid, Spain (2017): they have
Good Mycology already estimated a million fungi species all over the world
● Highlights the productive or beneficial effects and applications of this
○ In spite of the huge number of species, still, the number of
field of science particularly in the area of agriculture, biotechnology,
species of fungi which are causing disease or infection are still
and environmental biology
very low - less than a hundred
● Transformation and recycling of dead material
○ History would tell us that fungi were once classified to be part
○ Fungi are all around us. It has been a part of nature. It is a
of the plant kingdom
major part of our ecosystem
■ However, with further study, they found out that they are a
○ This process lead to production of nutrients or it becomes a
totally different group of organisms since they do not have
source of nutrients for plants and animals
chlorophyll which plants do have
● Recycling of carbon and other minerals
● Reside in nature, found in any habitat - on the land, in soil, or on
● Provide nutrients to the plants
plant material rather than in sea or freshwater
○ There is an association between that of the fungi and the root
○ There are only very minimal of them in sea and in freshwater
part of the plants
● Are obligate or facultative aerobes
■ There is a symbiotic relationship or an association
● Fungi may live as heterotrophs, saprotrophs, and parasitic
existing between fungi and the root part of plants
organisms
→ Because of that relationship, plants acquire a source
○ Parasitic - they are very dependent on the host not only in
of nutrition
food, but for its survival
● Important Biotechnological tool e.g. yeast
○ Heterotrophs - these are groups of fungi which have no
○ Involve production of food as well as certain types of spirits like
capacity to produce their own food. Therefore, their energy
alcohol and wine
source would be dependent on the intake and the digestion of
○ Fungi are actually used for producing wines, beers, and other
organic molecules using extracellular enzymes that they
alcoholic drinks
produce
○ They are also being used in production of our daily consumed
■ These are fungi that utilizes organic materials as their
food
source of energy, and they utilize the extracellular
■ Ex.: yeast, preparation of cheese and other food products
enzymes that they produce to break down these organic
such as cake
molecules
→ We make use of yeast to prepare cakes
○ Saprotrophs (also known as saprobes) - these are
● Source of secondary metabolites for production of antibiotics and
organisms that obtain their food from dead or decaying organic
immunosuppressive drugs (ex. Cyclosporin A)
matter
○ Penicillium - used in the production of Penicillin
 ■ Examples of dead/decaying matter: rotten wood, spoiled
Differences between Plants and Fungi
bread, cow dung
● Are chemotrophic; secretes enzymes that degrade a wide range of FUNGI PLANTS
Multinucleated One nucleus per cell
organic substrates into soluble nutrients which are then transported
Heterotroph Autotrophs - produce their own food
into the cell through passive absorption or active transport Fungi are achlorophyllous That is why an important element in their
○ Chemotrophic - this is the property pertaining to their ability to microorganisms structure is the presence of the pigment
secrete extracellular enzymes that would degrade or destroy They cannot produce their food, but they chlorophyll, which is a very important
would rely on organic materials factor in the process of photosynthesis
wide range of organic substrate
Photosynthesis - manner by which
■ They are usually feeding on organic materials plants produce their own food
■ These organic substrates would be converted into Glycogen is the main storage product Starch
nutrients that will be transported into their cell through No stem, root and leaves Higher plants have stem, roots, and
leaves
processes known as passive absorption or active Have chitin in their cell wall Cellulose in their cell wall
transport Makes it a very rigid structure
● Historically, they are compared to plants and have also been Lacks chlorophyll With chlorophyll
compared with bacteria No reproduction by seed Some reproduce by seed
● Fungi are subdivided on the basis of their life cycles, the presence
or structure of their fruiting body and the arrangement of and type of
spores (reproductive or distributional cells) they produce
Layman’s Description of Fungi

Mold
Amag

Mildew
Plant leaf with spots different from
the original color of the leaf
Figure. Comparing Fungi and Plant Cells
● In terms of organelles, they are just the same
○ They have the same set of organelles or cellular structure
■ Except for the fact that plants do have chloroplast
Mushroom Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Sprouts in grasslands after a PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
thunderstorm Typical size 0.4 µm - 2 µm in diameter 10 µm - 100 µm in diameter
0.5 µm - 5 µm in length >10 µm in length
Nucleus No nuclear membrane, nucleoid Classic membrane bound
region of the cytosol nucleus
Genome Circular DNA complexed with Linear DNA complexed with
- Chromosomal DNA & RNA at mesosome within basic histones and proteins in
location nucleoid the nucleus
Bracket Fungi - Extrachromosomal DNA Plasmid - each carries genes for In mitochondria and
Found on woods its own replication; can confer chloroplasts
resistance to antibiotics
Reproduction Asexual (binary fission) Sexual and asexual
Membrane-bound organelles Absent in all Present (e.g. mitochondria,
lysosome, ER, Golgi complex,
nucleus)
Ribosome Present in all Present in all
Chloroplast for Absent in all Present in algae and plants
Photosynthesis
Puffballs Electron transport for energy In the cell membrane In the inner membrane of
Found on twigs and decayed mitochondria and chloroplasts
Sterols in cytoplasmic Absent except in Present
wooden materials membrane Mycoplasmataceae
Plasma membrane Lacks carbohydrates Also contains glycolipids and
glycoproteins
Cell wall, if present Peptidoglycan in most bacteria Cellulose, phenolic polymers,
lignin (plants), chitin (fungi),
other glycans (algae)
Glycocalyx Present in most as an organized Present; some animal cell
capsule or unorganized slime
Truffles layer
Cilia Absent Present
Flagella if present Simple flagella; composed of Complex cilia or flagella;
polymers of flagellin; movement composed of MTs and polymers
by rotary action at the base; of tubulin with dynein
spirochetes have MTs connecting MTs; movement by
Similarities between Plants and Fungi coordinated sliding microtubules
Pili and fimbriae Present Absent
● Both are eukaryotic organisms
● Size:
● Numerous organelles
○ fungi are larger and have a more advanced structure compared
● Possess cell walls
to that of the prokaryotic bacteria
● Mostly are anchored on soil or other substrates
● Reproduction can be asexual or sexual or both
● Stationary
● Nucleus: ■ That is why the movement that happens among
○ the reason why fungi are classified as eukaryotes is because of eukaryotic organisms is well coordinated because of the
the classic membrane bound nucleus that they posses, which sliding motion of these microtubules
we cannot observe in bacteria ○ In prokaryotes, these flagella are actually polymers of flagellin
○ In the bacteria, there is a nucleoid region in the cytosolic area and the movement is more of a rotary action
● DNA: ■ There is only one prokaryotic organism that is said to have
○ eukaryotic organisms usually would have linear DNA that are microtubules and this is your spirochetes
complex with basic histones and proteins, which we can find in ● Pili and fimbriae:
nucleus and the mitochondria ○ Bacteria and prokaryotes would have pili and fimbriae, which
■ For eukaryotic organisms like plants, linear DNA in plant we cannot find among fungi
chloroplast is present
○ In the case of the prokaryotes, what they have is a circular Fungal Structure
DNA that is complex with an RNA at an organelle which they
call as mesosome that lies within the nucleoid
■ They do have plasmid that carries the genes for its own
replication as well as for comparing resistance to
antibiotics
● Reproduction:
○ The mode of reproduction carried out by bacteria is usually
asexual, by means of binary fission
○ For fungi, they engage in both sexual and asexual reproduction
■ In terms of asexual reproduction, fungi would also
undergo or have a fission mode of reproduction
● Membrane bound organelles:
○ There are membrane bound organelles that are present in the Figure. Fungal structure
eukaryote which we cannot find in the prokaryotic organism ● Fruiting bodies - spore producing structures
such as your bacteria
● Ribosome:
○ Ribosomes are present or observed in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic organisms
● Chloroplast for photosynthesis:
○ Bacteria do not have chloroplasts
○ Fungi do not have chloroplasts as well, but for the other
eukaryotes like the algae and plants, they do have
● Electron transport for energy:
○ For energy sources, in bacteria, it happens in the cell
membrane
○ Whereas in the eukaryotes, usually it is within the inner
membrane of the mitochondria
Figure. Yeast Cell
○ In plants, in the chloroplast
● Sterols in cytoplasmic membrane: Morphologic Forms
○ They are observed in eukaryotic organism but not in the ● Yeast - single vegetative cell
prokaryote, except for those of the mycoplasma ○ In culture, shows smooth, creamy bacteria-like colony without
● Plasma membrane: aerial hypha
○ Plasma membranes of bacteria or prokaryotes don’t have ■ Butter-like consistency
carbohydrates ○ Reproduce by budding or fission
○ Whereas for the eukaryotes, they contain glycolipids as well as ○ Can be identified using biochemical test and molecular
glycoproteins diagnostic method
● Cell wall:
○ Cell wall of bacteria has peptidoglycan
○ For plants particularly, you have cellulose, phenolic polymers,
lignin
○ For fungi we have chitin and other glucans which are also
observed among algae
● Glycocalyx:
○ Present in eukaryotic organisms as well as in animal cells
○ These structures has also been present in prokaryotes but in
an organized capsule or unorganized slimy layer
● Cilia:
Figure. Yeast in culture
○ Observed in eukaryotic organism
○ Prokaryotes don’t have cilia
● Molds - grows in multicellular filaments called hyphae
● Flagella:
○ Are made up of tubular branches having multiple, genetically
○ Eukaryotes would have a more complex flagella because they
identical nuclei, yet form a single organism, known as a colony
(both cilia and flagella) are built upon microtubules that are
actually products of polymerization of tubulin with incorporation
of the motor protein dynein that connects these microtubules
 ● In the cell wall of hyphal structures, there are two layers of
mannoproteins, compared to the single layer of mannoproteins that
you find in the yeast cell wall
● The amount of the β-1,3-glucan in that of the yeast cell wall is more
expanded compared to that of the hyphal cell wall
● Both would have the chitin components

B. Membrane bound organelles - nucleus, mitochondrion, E.R., Golgi

bodies, microbodies
○ These microbodies are none other than your peroxisomes
Figure. Molds in culture
C. Ribosomes
Cytologic Features of the Fungal Cell D. Spindle Polar bodies (SPBs) are plaque-like structures embedded
● When we talk of fungal cell, what must always come into our mind is in the nuclear envelope for the entire cell cycle in budding yeast and
that of the yeast cell most of the cell cycle in fission yeast. It plays the role of the
A. Definite, rigid cell wall - exhibits plasticity centrosome by initiating organization of microtubule, particularly
○ Has turgor pressure during mitosis
○ Confers shape to the hypha ○ Comparable to microtubule organizing center which we find in
○ Protects the protoplast against environmental hazards, osmotic animal cells
stress ■ Important especially for the centrosomal part of the cell,
■ The protoplast represents the living material within the where cell division or mitosis happens
fungal cell E. Lipids bodies, glycogen storage particles, vacuoles
■ The cell wall would be the protective covering of this yeast ○ Cytosolic deposits or inclusions
→ It will serve as a shield against environmental F. Filasomes - vesicles associated with filamentous material, found
hazards as well as stresses, particularly osmotic numerous at the tip of actively growing hypha
stress
○ Acting as a carrier of specific antigen characteristics of the Fungal Structure: Mold
● Molds
particular cell and playing an important role in cell recognition in
○ A non-motile thallus constructed of apically elongating walled
various cell interactions
filaments
○ Acts as a filter controlling to some extent materials that enter
○ A web of filaments or hypha constitutes a mycelium
the fungal protoplast
○ Hypha - filamentous tubular structures that grow by elongation
○ Acting as the site of various extracellular enzymes engaged in
(like thread) at the tip; or by branching that contain numerous
the exchange of nutrients and products of metabolism and
nuclei distributed throughout
hydrolysis of cell wall components
■ Thallus - refer to the entire, vegetative body of the hypha
○ Acting as a reservoir of carbohydrates
■ Septum - partitions or crosswall in hyphal structure
○ Skeletal components of cell wall:
■ Chitin → Septate - where hyphal structures are interrupted at
■ β Glucan some points (at regular interval) by partitions or cross
■ Mannan walls
→ Non septate or aseptate or coenocytic - when
■ All components contribute to cell wall rigidity
portions of hyphae grow vigorously resulting in lack
○ Cell wall matrix - consists of water-soluble polysaccharide e.g.
of regularly spaced septa
α glucan and glycoprotein
○ Miscellaneous cell wall components: Melanin - production of ⇒ no partitions at all or no interruption at some
this pigment contributes to fungal virulence; improves points on the hyphal structure
resistance to environmental damage such as extreme
temperature, UV light and toxins; and is important for invasion
and dissemination.
■ Pigment is very important when it comes to maintaining
the viability as well as the integrity of the cell wall
■ This pigment contributes to the virulence, because they
are a factor for invasion and dissemination of fungal
elements

Figure. Candida Cell Wall

 Figure. Hyphal elements
● Substrate - serves as the medium for the propagation of hyphal
structure
Mycelium - several hypha tangled together into a thick mass ● Vegetative hypha - submerged into the substrate
○ They penetrate the supporting medium for them to be able to
Elements within the Hypha absorb the nutrients
● Elements that we can find within hyphal structures, which cannot be ● Aerial hypha - above the substrate or the supporting medium
observed in fungal cells ○ At the tip of the aerial hypha, there may or may not be
reproductive structures in the form of conidia or spores
Spitzenkorper - an
● Reproductive hypha - part of the hypha that bears these
organizing center
reproductive spores or conidia
necessary for long range
transport of vesicles, via
cytoskeleton. Described
as nuggets of vesicles in
the hyphal tip that is
important in the growth
process

Figure. Hyphal elements

Fungal cytoskeleton - In filamentous fungi, these are important in the Types of Hyphal elements
regulation of fungal cell morphogenesis; for the delivery of cell A. According to the presence or absence of crosswall
membrane and cell wall components to the growing hyphal tip and to ○ Septate
the septum. ○ Non septate
● Microtubules constitute the fungal cytoskeleton
● Usually evident in the growing hyphal tip or at the septal structure
itself
● Cytoskeleton are engaged in transport of vesicles going to the
growing tip or being transported to the growing tip, as well as to
the septum
○ These vesicles would have elements that will comprise the
cell membrane as well as that of the cell wall

Figure. Types of hyphal elements according to the presence or absence

Hyphal elements may be:
of crosswall
Hyphal elements
Reproductive hypha - Portion of the aerial hypha that B. According to the presence of pigmentation
bears the reproductive spores or ○ Hyaline (Moniliaceous) non pigmented or lightly pigmented
conidia ○ Phaeoid (Dematiaceous) darkly pigmented because of the
Aerial hypha - Hypha that projects above the presence of melanin in the cell wall
medium and produce reproductive
spores
Vegetative hypha - Portions of the hypha that
penetrates the supporting medium
and absorbs nutrient
 Yeast Molds
Reproduction They reproduce mostly Sexually and asexually
asexually (budding) reproduce into multicellular
form

- Asexual Blastospores Sporangiospores and

Conidia

- Sexual None Zygospores,Ascospores,

and Basidiospores
Beneficial Use Making of alcoholic Useful in biodegradation,
beverages which contain food production (cheese)
ethanol, used in baking,
bioremediation, industrial
ethanol production,
Figure. Types of hyphal elements according to the presence of probiotics, and food
additive or flavors
pigmentation (Left: Hyaline; Right: Phaeoid)
Health Hazard Can cause infection in Can cause allergic
individuals with reactions and respiratory
compromised immune problems
systems

Characteristics of Fungi
● Monomorphism - having only one growth phase, yeast form
○ Example: yeast and yeast-like organism
○ Geotrichum and Candida
● Dimorphism - ability of fungi to exist in two forms (e.g. yeast or
mold) depending on the growth condition
○ Example: systemic fungi (e.g. Blastomyces, Coccidioides)
○ 35-37ºC - yeast form
○ Room temperature (25ºC) - mold form
● Polymorphism - have both yeast and mold form in the same culture
○ Example: Exophiala spp.

Fungi Reproduction
● Life cycle (ontogeny) of fungi consists of:
A. Somatic phase - feeding stage
■ Characterized by occurrence of trophic activities
→ They are producing extracellular enzymes, which
they will be needing in order to be able to digest
nutrients from the supporting medium or the
substrata
■ The time wherein the fungi will have to use its enzymes to
digest nutrients from the substrata and thereby absorb this
into their cellular structure
B. Reproductive phase
Figure. Hyphal shapes ● Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually
● Racquet hyphae: Epidermophyton floccosum - dermatophyte
SEXUAL ASEXUAL
● These different morphological forms of hyphal elements are evident
There is fusion of nuclei or fusion of No fusion of nuclei or fusion of gametes
among dermatophytes or those which are causing cutaneous
gametes
mycotic infections
● Spiral hyphae: can be found among mentagrophytes ○ Fungi that reproduce sexually and or asexually are termed as
● Pectinate Body: looks like a comb or suklay perfect fungi
Differences between Yeast and Molds ○ Fungi that reproduce by asexual means are termed as fungi
imperfecti
Yeast Molds
○ In both sexual and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores
Habitat Can be found on fruit and Typically found in damp, that disperse from the parent organism into the environment
berries, in the stomach of dark, or steam-filled areas.
mammals and on skin, ■ As the dispersal of spores happens, each spore will then
among other places. Very undergo germination
common ○ Vegetative reproduction - involves the body of a fungal
Cell Unicellular Multicellular thallus. No production of seeds or spores by meiosis or
Shape Round or oval in shape Tubular, Filamentous fungi,
syngamy
threadlike
■ Happens only among the molds
Growth Appearance White and butterlike Fuzzy appearance,
consistency cottony, or grainy and can ■ There is no production of seed or spores by process of
be orange, green (usually meiosis or syngamy
observed in molds that ■ Does not require the presence of a reproductive
grow on bread and in
rotten food), black (rotten propagule
food), brown → Reproductive propagule - any material that functions
Hyphae Do not have true hyphae, Have microscopic filaments in propagating organism to the next stage of the life
instead, they form called hyphae cycle
structures called
pseudo-hyphae
 Asexual Reproduction Spore Formation
1. Fragmentation
2. Budding
Spore:
3. Fission
○ A reproductive structure of fungi and some other organisms (even
4. Spore Formation
in bacteria), containing one or more cells
Fragmentation - occurs ○ A small unit of propagule capable of giving rise to a new individual
when a fungal mycelium or ○ They are readily dispersed and are capable of germination when
a hyphal structure growth conditions are favorable
separates into pieces with ○ More resistant to adverse condition
each component growing ○ Can be derived from both asexual and sexual reproduction
into a separate hypha or
mycelium Asexual spores:
○ Produced after mitosis without involvement of meiosis
It normally happens among ○ Genetically identical
fungi that has cross walls ○ The simplest mechanism of spore formation involves the
or those which have differentiation of preformed mycelium or hyphal structure. Spores
septated hyphal structure generated are termed as thallospores.
Left: a septated hyphal structure, and at
its cross wall the break happens, and
The hyphal structure Major Types of Asexual Spores
therefore each segment is fragmented or
breaks and each ○ Sporangiospores - are spores that are produced in an enclosed,
separated into pieces
compartment separates sac-like structure, called a sporangium, at the end of the
from each other, and sporangiophores
Right: Not considered a true
becomes separate hyphal ■ Sporangiophore is the stalk that will hold the sac-like
fragmentation. Happens in a septated
structure structure which we call the sporangium
hypha, wherein there is only a portion that
■ Inside that sac is the sporangiospore
becomes fertile and starts to produce
○ Conidia - asexual spores usually produced at the tip or side of
spores within that fertile portion
hyphae or on stalk or special spore-producing structures called
conidiophores. The process of conidium formation is called
Chlamydospores - present within
conidiogenesis.
compartments or sections of the hyphal
structure

Budding - the pinching off

of an offspring from the
parent cell. The offspring
cell is genetically identical
to the parent

The cell division that

Figure. Sporangiospores
happens is mitosis

This is considered as a
The parent cell and the nucleus divides
form of cytokinesis
mitotically and the daughter cell that is
produced then moves on one side of its
cell wall or cell membrane. As the
daughter cell pushes against the cell wall,
there will be a protrusion which eventually
becomes enlarged. In that enlarged part,
the daughter cell will transfer or migrate
into that particular portion until eventually
it pinches off from its parent cell.

Fission - simple splitting of

a cell into two daughter
cells Figure. Types of asexual spores (Left: Sporangiospores; Right: Conidia)

Methods of Conidiogenesis
● Blastic
○ Conidia differentiate via expansion form the conidiogenous
cell
■ Conidiogenous cell - part or portion of a hyphal structure
that becomes fertile and is capable of producing spores
In the parent cell, there is the appearance or conidia
of a constriction. This constriction ○ The cell wall of this cell is locally weakened and the
deepens until the parent cell separates developing conidium bulges out and is delineated by a
into two daughter cells septum
 ■ The portion that becomes fertile is usually weakened Presence of annellophore a special spore bearing structure that will
and from there, the developing conidium will emerge, hold those conidia. The conidia emerges from the inner wall of a fertile
and be separated or delineated from the rest by the hypha.The outer wall that is left out or the remnants will form a ring
septum beneath the conidia, which we call as annellation.
A. Holoblastic - expansion of a cell includes the complete cell ● Thallic
wall (inner and outer wall) of the conidiogenous cell ○ A preexisting cell differentiates into a conidium
B. Enteroblastic - the (inner) cell wall of the conidiogenous cell ○ The entire length of the body (the thallus) is involved in the
is disrupted and the conidium appears through an opening in conidiogenesis process, it becomes fertile
the cell wall A. Holothallic - involves the entire cell wall (inner and outer
wall) of the hypha
■ Entail both production of the conidia bearing the inner
and the outer cell wall
■ Examples: microconidia and macroconidia
■ Macroconidia - coming from dermatophyte organisms
■ We also consider the chlamydospores as developing
through a holothallic process
→ Also a one classic example of a spore that is
produced asexually by means of fragmentation
B. Thallic-arthric - conidia produced in succession along the
entire length of the hypha
Figure. Blastoconidia (Holoblastic) ■ Segmentation process happens at areas, it will involve
The conidia are formed by buds. They are developed by a budding the entire length of the hyphal structure. However, as the
process, involving both the inner and outer cell wall of the fertile part of entire length is considered fertile and if that hyphal
the hypha structure presents cross walls, each portion will just be
fragmented and then separated into pieces
■ Normally happen under the process of fragmentation

Figure. Poroconidia (Holoblastic)

The conidia will emerge from an opening or a hole on the
conidiogenous cell.

Figure. Holothallic conidiogenesis

Figure. Phialoconidia (Enteroblastic)

Presence of a phialophore, a special spore bearing structure that will
hold those conidia. It is called phialoconidia because the shape of the
stalk-like structure is similar to that of a vase. It is only the inner wall of
the fertile hyphal structure that will produce the conidia. As it continually
produces the conidiospores, these conidia can come as a chain-like
structure from the phialide

Figure. Thallic-arthric conidiogenesis

Figure. Annelloconidia (Enteroblastic) ● Holo - entire hyphal structure becoming fertile
 ● Holoarthric - the septated hyphal structure that becomes fertile Reproduction of Fungi
then undergoes or are broken into pieces on sides of its cross wall
thereby forming fragments
○ Image: displays fragmentation
● Enteroarthric - the entire hyphal structure becomes fertile but not
the inner and the outer wall will be engaged in the conidiogenesis,
but rather it will only be the inner wall
○ There will be portions of the inner wall that becomes fertile,
and this will be noted as an enlargement on the fertile hypha
○ The outer cell wall does not participate in the conidiogenesis
process, therefore it is possible that there will be portions in
the hyphal structure that is left as an empty shell
○ Image: Dark colored - fertile part that develops into a conidia
■ Spaces in between - empty shell

For plasmogamy to happen, they must first be compatible that they will
be attracted to one another. And the attraction of these different hypha
or mating types is made possible by the release of a so-called
pheromone, usually coming from the female parent mycelia. After their
attraction, then comes the fusion of their cytoplasm (plasmogamy)

Take note that the haploid nuclei do not fuse right away, rather at first
they will co-exist in the mycelium. This is what we call the heterokaryotic
Figure. Methods of Conidiogenesis stage.

Terminologies Heterokaryotic happens between the plasmogamy and karyogamy

stage. It is a prelude to karyogamy. In the heterokaryotic stage, the
Terminologies
unfused nuclei coming from the parent mycelium, they will just be
Annelloconidium - conidium produced from an annelide
combining with one another but not necessarily going into fusion. They
Aplanospores - non motile sporangiospores will just be sticking to each other, and the fusion of the nuclei will
Arthroconidia - asexual conidium produced directly form the hyphae and happen at karyogamy.
released from this structure through fragmentation
Basidiospore - sexual spore formed on a basidium following karyogamy
and meiosis Karyogamy: The haploid nuclei of these compatible mates will fuse,
Blastoconidium - asexual spore produced blastically either singly or thereby having the product zygote. These zygote will then undergo the
synchronously in chain from the parent cell meiotic division. After meiosis, that’s the time they ill be producing the
Chlamydospores - swollen thick walled vesicles that do not reproduce haploid spores. These haploid spores in the environment can undergo
Chlamydoconidium - asexual spore produced directly from the hyphae, have germination to form either a mycelia and repeat the sexual reproduction
thickened walls and is larger than the surrounding process again, or some of them after germination goes or enters into an
hyphal cells
asexual reproduction stage.
Endospore - spore formed within a spherule by cleavage of the
cytoplasm
Fertile hyphae - mycelia from which the reproductive structures form
Macroconidium - the larger of the two types of conidia produced through
holothallic mode of conidiogenesis
Phialoconidia - conidium borne from a phialide
Poroconidium - holoblastic conidium produced through pores in the cell
wall of the conidiogenous cell or conidiophore
Sporongiospore - primary asexual reproductive structures formed in a sac
called sporangium
Zygospore - round thick walled spore formed in a zygosporangium by
fusion of the tips of two compatible hypha

Sexual Reproduction
● Meiosis in fungi occurs at a different point in the reproductive life
cycle than in other higher eukaryotes
Three Stages of Sexual Reproduction of Fungi
Plasmogamy - Union or fusion of haploid cells of compatible mating
types
- May involve two different hyphal structure but there
should be portions of that two different hyphal structure
that are compatible with each other, that there would be Figure. Sexual reproduction of Ascomycota
a possible union or fusion of their haploid cells We must remember that all the three phases happen in all types of
Karyogamy - Fusion of the two haploid nuclei perfect fungi.
Meiosis - Newly-produced diploid cell can undergo meiosis to ● Ascogonium and antheridium - the two represent the mating
regenerate haploid cells, and this often is as a response
to nutrient limitation strain where the male strain is known as the antheridium, which
 holds or carries with it the male gamete. The female strain is
known as the ascogonium, which carries the female gamete
○ This mating pair will be attracted to each other, not
immediately undergoing fusion.
● Ascocarp - represents the fruiting body, the one that will generate
the ascospores
○ When the ascogonium and antheridium come together and
fuse together, they now form the dikaryotic hypha. The
dikaryotic hypha will then become a fruiting body.
○ Karyogamy:
■ The dikaryote/fused hyphal structure represented by the
dikaryotic hypha wherein the nuclear structures have
already fused, you now have the zygote
■ The zygote will be the one to undergo meiosis.
○ All of these stages will happen inside the fruiting body of the
ascomycetes called as the ascocarp
○ After meiosis, from that zygote will emerge four haploid
nuclei
■ These haploid nuclei can undergo mitosis to double the
number of ascospores
→ in the ascocarp
■ Then these ascospores will be released into the
environment, undergo germination, develop into a hyphal
structure or mycelia, or it can enter into the asexual
reproduction stage

Figure. Glomeromycota (formerly known as Zygomycota)

Sexual Reproduction of Glomeromycota

● Three processes of: plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis
● There should be two mating hyphal structure, one can be stated as
positive and one negative for them to be attracted to one another
● As they are attracted, they grow side by side with one another,
producing branches
○ As they grow towards each other, the tip of these branches
will now develop the gametangia
○ Gametangia - the structure that contains the gametocytes
■ The gametes in here will be fusing to form a zygote
○ The zygote will undergo meiosis to produce the zygospores
■ The zygospores are enclosed in a zygosporangium,
which is none other than the gametangia

Figure. Sexual reproduction by Basidiomycota Taxonomy of Fungi

The basidiomycetes do not have an asexual reproduction stage. But ● Over 100,000 named fungal species
they have the capability of producing sexual spore, and the process will ○ Only a few species are known to be pathogenic
be the same as that of the ascomycetes in the general sexual ● Estimated 1-10 million undiscovered
reproductive cycle, wherein you have a plasmogamy, a karyogamy, and ● Basis of Taxonomic Classification:
a meiosis ○ Species may be recognized and defined on the basis of its
asexual state (Anamorph); but its sexual identity (Telemorph)
Prior to plasmogamy, there should be two mating strains coming from may have a different name
two different hyphal structures, but these hyphal structures should be ○ It is based on the mechanism and spores that result from
compatible to one another sexual reproduction
■ Ex.: Ascomycota
Attraction → fusion of haploid nuclei → forming dikaryotic mycelia → ● Sexual spores (ascospores) - produced through a
karyogamy, wherein the dikaryote (diploid nuclei) will enter into a meiotic different mode of sexual reproduction
division → spores are contained in a club-shaped structure which we ● Spores are enclosed in a sac called the ascus
call as the basidium → haploid nuclei will undergo meiotic division to ■ Ex. Basidiomycota
become basidiospores → basidiospores are disseminated and ○ Taxonomic classification depends on pigmentation, growth
germinated and becomes a mycelium temperatures, the pattern of conidiogeny and/or sporogeny
appearance of microscopic structures
 GROUP CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES
Review of Fungal Phyla
Glomeromycota Order Mucorales: Mucoromycotina
Subphyla: profuse to gray to white, Genera: Actinomucor, Phylum Key Reproductive Feature
- Mucoromycotina aerial mycelia; hyaline Apophysomyces, Chytridiomycota (chytrids) Motile spores with flagella
- Entomophthoromycotin sparsely septate hypha Cokemyces,
a
Cunninghamella,
- Kickxellomycotina
- Zoopagomycotina Asexual reproduction: Lichtheimia, Mucor,
sporangiospores and Rhizomucor, Rhizopus,
sporangiophores Saksenaea,
Syncephalastrum Zygomycota (zygote fungi) Resistant zygosporangium as sexual
Sexual reproduction: stage
zygospores
Ascomycota Molds have septate Microsporum spp.
Class Ascomycetes hyphae Trichophyton spp.
Scedosporium boydii
Sexual reproduction
involves a sac or ascus in
Ascomycota (sac fungi) Sexual spores borne internally in sacs
which karyogamy and
called asci
meiosis occur producing
ascospores

Asexual reproduction:
conidia
Basidiomycota Sterile mold Filobasidiella neoformans
(teleomorph)
Sexual reproduction
results in four progeny Cryptococcus neoformans
basidiospores supported (anamorph) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Sexual spores borne externally on
by club shaped basidium club-shaped structures called basidia
Mushroom
Hypha have complex
septa. Clamp connections
occur at the septation in
the vegetative hypha
Fungi Imperfecta Artificial grouping of the Coccidioides immitis,
(Deuteromycetes) imperfect fungi for which Paracoccidioides
the teleomorph or sexual brasiliensis
reproduction has not been
discovered

Anamorphic state is Candida albican

characterized by asexual
conidia

Medically Important Groups of Fungi

Medically Important Groups of Fungi
Phylum Typical Key Characteristics Approximate
Examples Number of
Living Species

Ascomycota Yeasts, Develop by sexual 32,000

truffles, morels means; ascospores
are formed inside a
sac called an ascus;
asexual reproduction
is also common

Imperfect Aspergillus, Sexual reproduction 17,000

fungi Penicillium has not been
observed; most are
thought to be
ascomycetes that
have lost the ability to
reproduce sexually

Basidiomycot Mushrooms, Develop by sexual 22,000

a toadstools, mean; basidiospores
are borne on
rusts
club-shaped
structures called
basidia; the terminal
hyphal cell that
produces spores is
called a basidium;
asexual reproduction
occurs occassionally

Zygomycota Rhizopus Develop sexually and 1,050

asexually;
(black bread
multinucleate hyphae
mold) lack septa, except for
reproductive
structures; fusion of
hyphae leads directly
to formation of a
zygote, in which
meiosis occurs just
before it germinates
 OUTLINE ○ Types of Ascocarps
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS - MYCOLOGY 1
■ Apothecium - cup shaped asci are produced inside a cup
Reproduction of Fungi
- Sexual Reproduction ○ Paraphyses - spaces in between apothecium;
- Asexual Reproduction 2 packing hypha
Taxonomy 3 ■ Cleistothecium - ascocarp is enclosed (no opening); B
Why are Fungi Pathogenic to Humans? 4
- Determinants of Pathogenicity ■ Gymnothecium - similar to cleistothecium except the
Diseases Attributed to Fungi other wall of the ascocarp are loosely organized; asci are
- Mycoses released through the wall openings; there are spaces in
- Mycotoxicoses
- Hypersensitivity Reactions 5
between the walls; A
Antifungal Susceptibility Testing and Therapy ■ Ascostroma - asci are produced in locules (cavities) in
- Antifungal Agents hard masses of supporting hypha called strome; E
- Antifungal Susceptibility Testing
■ Perithecium - flask shaped with an opening where
LEGEND
BLACK TEXT COLORED TEXT ascospores are released; flask shaped fruiting body; D
Based from ppt Based from lecture proper

Reproduction of Fungi
Reproduction of Fungi
Fungi can be:
● Holomorph - whole fungus
○ Composed of the sexual and asexual phase
○ There’s different name for sexual and asexual phase
○ We are going to focus about asexual spores
○ In most references, the name is based from anamorph (asexual)
○ Telemorph form of fungus can proceed to asexual reproduction to give
rise to anamorph
● Fungi Imperfecti - Deuteromycota
○ There are fungi that do not possess a sexual state
○ Examples: Candida, Torulopsis, Epidermophyton
Figure. Types of ascomata
Sexual Reproduction
● Fusion of nuclei of two opposing matching strains ● Basidiospores
● Gives rise to the telemorph or teleomorph or perfect state ○ Spores are formed inside a basidium (club-shaped reproductive
structure)
Three Distinct Phases of Sexual Reproduction
1. Plasmogamy - haploid donor cell (+) penetrates the cytoplasm of
recipient cell (-)
- First phase where there is a donor and recipient cell; donor cell
penetrates the cytoplasm of the recipient cell - it would allow
diffusion of two cytoplasms of both cells
2. Karyogamy - fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a zygote
- Donor and recipient cells are both haploid
- Zygote as end product - it becomes diploid
3. Meiosis - gives rise to haploid nucleus (sexual spores) Figure. Basidiospore
- Sexual spores undergo germination to form mycelium; it then
becomes a fungi possessing hypha elements and other ● Zygospores - thick walled spores formed by fusion of 2 hyphal
components to produce spores (asexual) strands (homothallic); seen in members of Zygomycetes

Sexual Spores (BAZDO: Basido, Asco, Zoo, Oo - spore)

● Ascospores
○ Spores enclosed in an ascus following karyogamy
○ Usually there are 8 ascospores inside an ascus
○ Fruiting body: Ascocarp (formed by multiple ascus or asci)
○ Apical pore - where ascospores are released

Figure. Zygospore

● Oospores - fusion of cells from 2 separate non-identical hypha

Figure. Ascospores within an ascus

Figure. Oospore

Figure. Diagrammatic representation of some fruiting structures of Ascomycota

 ASEXUAL - Aerial Reproduction: Conidiogenesis
Can occur in two forms:
1. Blastic - protoplasm of the conidiogenous cell is blown out or blasted to form
a conidium
○ Ex.: seen in Candida
2. Thallic - no development of conidium until a septum is formed between the
conidium and the parent cell. The conidium originates from the whole of the
parent cell
○ Ex.: Dermatophytes and Coccidioides

Figure. Reproduction of Fungi

Asexual Reproduction Conidiogenesis: Blastic Forms

● Gives rise to the anamorph or imperfect state ● Blastoconidia
○ Simplest form and produced by
● No change of genetic material; it would primarily be mitosis (cell
budding
division) ○ Pseudohypha forms as in cases
● Synanomorphs - if a single fungus is able to produce multiple of Candida
distinct anamorphs ○ If blastoconidia fails to break with
the mother cell, it forms a
- Reproduce hypha elements pseudohypha
● Involves vegetative reproduction and aerial reproduction (for
aerial production, it involves the reproduction of asexual
spores)
Vegetative Reproduction
● Fragmentation - hypha element detaches forming new individual ● Poroconidia
(fungi); forms arthroconidia ○ Formed by the daughter cell by
pushing through a minute pore in
the parent cell
○ A type of asexual spore that
arises from very small minute
pore in the conidiogenous cell -
poroconidium

● Phialoconidia - conidia emerges from

Figure. Fragmentation a phialide (flask shaped); this is a
fertile hypha; from the phialide, it forms
● Budding - formation of blastoconidia (in yeasts) from mother cell; phialoconidium
○ Ex.: As seen in Aspergillus and
division is unequal or asymmetric Phialophora; Penicillium
● Fission - symmetrical division; Schizosaccharomyces (type of fungi
undergoing fission)

● Annelloconidia - conidia formed from

an annellide
○ As the conidia are released, a
distinct ring of cellular material is
left leaving behind a distinct saw
toothed (scar or rings)
Figure. Budding and Fission
appearance at the side of the
Aerial Reproduction parent cell
○ Ex.: Scopulariopsis; Exophiala
● Spore production
○ Carried out by Fruiting Bodies
■ Conidiogenous cells
→ Ex.: Phialides (flask shaped; phialoconidia) and
Annellides (give rise to annelloconidia)
→ Production of conidia
→ Fertile cells that produce asexual spores (conidia)
○ Carried out by Sporangium (fruiting bodies with closed sacs)
■ Production of sporangiospores (asexual spores of
zygomycota; they are inside the sporangium)
 Conidium
● Produced in a manner that does not involve cleavage
● Produced singly or in long chains or clusters by conidiophores

Figure. Club-shaped conidia

Microconidia - smaller,
unicellular; borne on the sides
of the hypha; tear shaped or
pyriform
Chlamydoconidia - thick
walled, resistant resting
spores; terminal if it is found
end of hyphal element;
intercalary if in between;
sessili if found on the sides;
Candida albicans can form
Chlamydoconidia
○ Produced by rounding
up and enlargement of
● Conidia can be born in: the terminal hyphal cells
○ Singly
○ Long chains (Catenulate)
○ In clusters
● Metulae are sterile cells (not fertile); phialides are supported by the metulae Arthroconidia -
which is supported by the conidiophores rectangular/barrel shaped
conidia; derived from the
fragmentation of the mycelium
at the septum
○ Presence of dysjunctor
(disjunctor ; empty cells)
cells giving a checkered
appearance found in
between Arthroconidia
○ It may be seen in
Coccidioides and
Geotrichum

ASEXUAL - Aerial Reproduction: Sporangiospores

Conidiogenesis: Thallic Forms
Sporangiospores:
Macroconidia (Fuseaux) ● Asexual spores of Zygomycetes; Rhizopus
○ Large septate, spindle ● Borne in a sporangium
shaped or club shaped ● Sporangium held by sporangiophore
○ May be thick or thin ● Columella is swollen part of the sporangium
walled, spiny ● Horizontal hyphal element that connects one sporangiophore to another is
(echinulate) or smooth Stolon
wall surface ● Rhizoids are rhizopus that are examples of zygomycetes
○ May appear as a
dicytospore/muriform;
can be an aleurispore;
dicytospore looks like a
mosaic

Taxonomy
● Most causative agents of infections are found in 4 groups of fungi
○ Order Mucorales - Phylum Glomeromycota (Zygomycetes)
○ Phylum Ascomycota
○ Phylum Basidiomycota
○ Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota)

Figure. Cylindrical macroconidia, Fusiform macroconidia,

Club shaped macroconidia
 GROUP CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
Zygomycota ● Rapidly growing usually found ● Rhizopus
in soil ● Absidia or Lichtheimia
● Saprophytic ● Mucor
● Usually contaminants ● Rhizomucor
● Opportunistic fungal infections
● Hyphal elements are
coenocytic/ aseptate/
pauciseptate
● Mycelia: profuse, gray-white
aseptate or sparsely septate
● Asexual reproduction: Figure. Amanita mushroom
zygospores
Ascomycota ● Production of sexual spores ● Aspergillus ○ Ergot Alkaloids
called ascospores ● Pseudallescheria boydii
● With cross walls ● Trichophyton
■ Causes ergotism or St. Anthony’s Fire
● Asexual reproduction is via ● Penicillium ■ Derived from Claviceps purpurea
conidia (arthroconidia, ○ Infects the grains (rye)
blastoconidia)
● Molds have septate hyphae ■ Alkaloids: Ergotamine and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
Basidiomycota ● Sexual reproduction results in ● Cryptococcus
→ Effect: Vascular and Neurologic effects
four progeny basidiospores neoformans → Development of Gangrene and Convulsions
supported by a club-shaped (Filobasidiella
basidium neoformans)
● Hyphae have complex septa
Deuteromycota ● Imperfect fungi ● Coccidioides immitis
● Most causes of mycoses ● Paracoccidioides
belong to this group brasiliensis
● Candida albicans

Why are Fungi Pathogenic to Humans?

● Determinants of Pathogenicity:
○ Thermotolerance - there are yeast at body temperature while
mold at room temperature Figure. Claviceps purpurea
○ Adaptation to a parasitic lifestyle -
○ Adhesins
○ Use of enzymes to attach host tissues
○ Dimorphism - can be in a yeast or mold formation depending
on temperature; Coccidoides, histoplasma, blastomyces,
sporothrix; infection by inhalation in mold
○ Evasion of immune response; survives intracellularly
○ Presence of cell wall molecules that are barriers that resist lysis
by phagocytes and antifungal agents
○ Toxin production

Diseases Attributed to Fungi

● Mycoses Figure. Gangrene
● Mycotoxicoses ○ Aflatoxins
● Hypersensitivity Reactions ■ Toxins (coumarin derivatives) produced by Aspergillus
flavus
Mycoses
● Mycotic infections; infections from different part of the body ■ Infects humans and animals affecting also the economy;
● Practical classification of fungi common in improperly stored peanuts
A. Superficial or Cutaneous Mycoses (for dead skin and hair for → Fungi grows if staple commodities are improperly
Superficial while skin, hair and nails for Cutaneous; no immune stored
response involved; direct contact) → Aflatoxins can enter the food chain infecting livestock
B. Subcutaneous Mycoses (deep layer of skin; infected through ⇒ Humans are infected when spoiled grains and
traumatic puncture) peanuts are ingested
C. Systemic Mycoses (primary mycoses that affect multiple → Can lead to: Hepatic Carcinoma and Liver Damage
organs; affects the lungs) → Aflatoxin B1
D. Opportunistic Mycoses (affects immunocompromised patients
which may develop disease; saprophytic and affects healthy
individuals which do not develop disease)

Mycotoxicoses
● Ingestion of mycotoxins
○ Toxins coming from Amanita Mushroom
○ Ingestion and inhalation of toxins
■ Amanitin and Phalloidin: psychoactive effects and
hepatotoxins
 ● Potassium iodide - for cutaneous/lymphatic sporotrichosis

Antifungal Susceptibility Testing

● Disk Diffusion Method
○ Simple, rapid, cost-effective method for Candida species
○ For Candida
■ Inoculum: compare to 0.5 McFarland Std
■ Medium: MHA with 2% glucose and 0.5 µg/mL methylene
blue
■ Disk: Fluconazole and Voriconazole
● Broth Dilution Testing
○ For determination of MIC breakpoints for yeasts, filamentous
fungi, Cryptococcus
○ For Yeast and Filamentous Fungi
■ RPMI 1640 with Morphine Propanesulfonic Acid
○ For C. neoformans
■ Yeast Nitrogen Broth
● E-Test (Epsilometer test)
Figure. Aflatoxin
○ For fungal susceptibility test; provides MIC value for antifungal
Hypersensitivity Reactions susceptibility
● Allergies
○ Manifested by asthmatic reaction (mediated by IgE) Thank you for listening and don’t forget to read your textbook as
■ Eosinophilia and “wheal and flare” skin test reaction well
○ Due to immediate hypersensitivity response to spores
○ Common in aspergillus

Antifungal Susceptibility Testing and Therapy

● Designed to give information in aiding the clinician in selecting the
antifungal agent to treat a specific fungal disease

Antifungal Agents
Polyene Macrolide Antifungals
● Amphotericin B (Source: Streptomyces nodosus)
○ For: deep seated fungal infections (Candida, Cryptococcus,
Mucorales)
○ Binds ergosterol (component of cell membrane of fungi) to
alter selective permeability
○ Toxic: Kidney (nephrotoxic)
● Nystatin (Source: S. noursei)
○ Local antifungal to treat oral or vulvovaginal candidiasis
● Griseofulvin (Source: Penicillium species)
○ Oral agent for dermatophytosis that are not responsive to
azoles
○ Binds microtubular proteins (important for cell division)
● Fluorocytosine (Flucytosine)
○ Acts synergistically with amphotericin B to treat Candida and
Cryptococcus
○ Inhibits protein synthesis
Azole Antifungal Agents
● Disrupt cell membrane by interfering with synthesis of ergosterol
● Common with dermatophyte infections
● Clotrimazole and Miconazole
○ Mild cases of dermatophytosis
● Fluconazole - Oral or IV administration
○ For Candida or Cryptococcus
● Ketoconazole - oral or topical
○ Mild cases of paracoccidioidomycosis
● Itraconazole - similar to ketoconazole; effective in aspergillosis,
sporotrichosis, cryptococcosis, and onychomycosis
Echinocandins
● Semisynthetic lipopeptides that target fungal cell wall
● Inhibit glucan synthesis (1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase)
Allylamines
● Terbinafine and Naftifine - lipophilic; interfere cell wall synthesis
○ Topical treatments for skin, nail fungal infection
● Selenium sulfide - for tinea versicolor