Research Design:

Can be defined as:

a. Overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a concise and logical plan to
tackle established research question(s) through the collection, interpretation, analysis, and
discussion of data.
b. Blueprint of the research for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data that
researcher chooses in a coherent and logical way in order to ensure that researcher will
effectively address the research problem
c. Framework for planning research and answering research questions.

Contents of Research Design:

The most common aspects involved in research design include at least followings:

1. Statement of research objectives, i.e., why the research project is to be conducted

2. Type of data needed

3. Definition of population and sampling procedures to be followed

4. Time, costs, and responsibility specification

5. Methods, ways, and procedures used for collection of data

6. Data analysis – tools or methods used to analyze data

7. Probable output or research outcomes and possible actions to be taken based on those

outcomes

Factors Affecting Research Design

The following factors affect the design of research:

1. The nature of the study;

2. The scope of the study
3. The level of the study
4. Availability of sufficient data;
5. Proper exposure to the sources of data, especially primary data;
 6. Availability of time;
7. Availability of money and manpower;
8. Impact of the various internal and external as well as controllable and uncontrollable
variables on the research project;
9. The ability, skill, knowledge, and technical background of the researcher; and
10. Utility and applicability of the research result in practice.

Creating a research design means making decisions about:

 The type of data researchers need

 The location and timescale of the research
 The participants and sources
 The variables and hypotheses (if relevant)
 The methods for collecting and analyzing data

Types of Research Design:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design
method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data.  It can
answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. Descriptive design
helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not
clear, you can conduct exploratory research. 

A. To describe the characteristics of certain groups

For example, a research group gathered information from individuals who had eaten at a
particular barbecue restaurant chain in a Pokhara to help managers develop a profile of the
“average user” with respect to income, sex, age, and so on. The managers were surprised to
learn that about half of their customers were women; they had started with the mistaken belief
that a clear majority of their customers were men.

B. To determine the proportion of people who behave in a certain way

For example, in estimating the proportion of people within a specified radius of a proposed
shopping complex who currently shop or intend to shop at the center.

C. To make specific predictions

To predict the level of sales for each of the next five years so that we could plan for the hiring
and training of new sales representatives.
D. To determine relationships between variables

It is common to use descriptive research to examine differences between groups (awareness

levels for our product are higher for men than for women in the target market).

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research design are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research design is a quantitative research design that

attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population
sample. It is a popular research design tool that allows us to collect and describe the
demographic segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research design, none of the variables are
influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research.
Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the
researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research design is generally a cross-sectional study
where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and
analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can
also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a relationship

between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the
impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one
monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable
such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research design
method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are
manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in
social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can
have participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to gain
a better understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research

design technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. This type of research requires two different groups. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value
ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a
 positive relationship between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between
the two variables. 

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate

the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn
more about the factors that create troublesome situations. Diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something
else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies.

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and

thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored
aspects of a subject and details about what, how, and why of research questions.

It is used to discover ideas and insights to generate possible explanations. It helps in exploring

the problem or situation. It is emphasized to break a broad vague problem statement into smaller

pieces or sub-problem statements that help forming specific hypothesis.

The hypothesis is a conjectural (imaginary, speculative, or abstract) statement about the

relationship between two or more variables. Naturally, in initial state of the study, we lack

sufficient understanding about problem to formulate a specific hypothesis. Similarly, we have

several competitive explanations of marketing phenomenon. Exploratory research design is used

to establish priorities among those competitive explanations.

The exploratory research design is used to increase familiarity of the analyst with problem under

investigation. This is particularly true when researcher is new in area, or when problem is of

different type.
This design is followed to realize following purposes:

1. Clarifying concepts and defining problem

2. Formulating problem for more precise investigation

3. Increasing researcher’s familiarity with problem

4. Developing hypotheses

5. Establishing priorities for further investigation

Exploratory research design is characterized by flexibility to gain insights and develop

hypotheses. It does not follow a planned questionnaire or sampling. It is based on literature

survey, experimental survey, and analysis of selected cases. Unstructured interviews are used to

offer respondents a great deal of freedom. No research project is purely and solely based on this

design. It is used as complementary to descriptive design and causal design.

5. Longitudinal Research Design

Longitudinal research design is a type of research design that involves looking at variables
over an extended period of time. This type of study can take place over a period of weeks,
months, or even years. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades.
Longitudinal studies are usually observational in nature.

Types of Longitudinal Research

There are three major types of longitudinal studies:

 Panel study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.

 Cohort study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as birth,
geographic location, or historical experience.
 Retrospective study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical information
such as medical records.

Advantages of Longitudinal Research Design:

  It can identify and relate to events. You can reveal chronology between events like long-
term and short-term changes in variables, making this ideal for medical studies.
 It helps identify and establish a particular sequence of events.
 It provides meaningful insights that might not be possible with other research types like
cross-sectional and similar studies.
 It allows researchers to trace development over a timeline instead of drawing conclusions
based on a “snapshot” of data.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive and time consuming.
 Participants tend to leave the research.
Example of Longitudinal Research: Consider a study conducted to understand the similarities or
differences between identical twins who are brought up together versus identical twins who were
not. The study observes several variables, but the constant is that the participants all have an
identical twin.

In this case, researchers would want to observe these participants from childhood to adulthood
understand how growing up in different environments influences traits, habits, and personality.
Over many years, researchers can see both sets of twins as they experience life without
intervention. Because the participants share the same genes, it is assumed that any differences are
due to environmental factors, but only attentive study can conclude.

6. Cross-Sectional Research Design

A cross-sectional research design is the type of research design which involves looking at
data from a population at one specific point in time. 

Characteristics of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

 The study takes place at a single point in time

 It does not involve manipulating variables
 It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income, gender,
etc.)
 It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population
 It can provide information about what is happening in a current population

Types of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

 An analytical study tries to answer how or why a certain outcome might occur.

 A descriptive study only summarizes said outcome using descriptive statistics.

Benefits of cross-sectional studies

 Relatively quick to conduct.
 Researchers can collect all variables at one time.
 Multiple outcomes can be researched at once.
 Prevalence for all factors can be measured.
  Suitable for descriptive analysis.
 Researchers can use it as a catalyst for further research.

Disadvantages:

 Doesn’t conclude cause and effect relationship.

 Doesn’t tell about cohort differences.
 Can report biasness

Examples of Cross Sectional: Another example of a cross-sectional study would be a medical

study examining the prevalence of cancer amongst a defined population. The researcher can
evaluate people of different ages, ethnicities, geographical locations, and social backgrounds. If a
significant number of men from a particular age group are more prone to have the disease, the
researcher can conduct further studies to understand its reasons. A longitudinal study is best to
use in this case, to study the same participants over time.  

Cross-sectional study Longitudinal study

Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct as compared Longitudinal studies may vary from a few years to even
to longitudinal studies.   decades.
A cross-sectional study is conducted at a given point in A longitudinal study requires a researcher to revisit
time. participants of the study at proper intervals.
Cross-sectional study is conducted with different samples. Longitudinal study is conducted with the same sample
 over the years.  
Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down cause-and-effect Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-effect
relationship. relationship.
Multiple variables can be studied at a single point in time. Only one variable is considered to conduct the study.
Since the study goes on for years longitudinal study tends
Cross-sectional study is comparatively cheaper.
to get expensive.

Longitudinal study Cross-sectional study

Repeated observations Observations at a single point in time

Observes the same group multiple times Observes different groups (a “cross-section”) in the pop

Follows changes in participants over time Provides snapshot of society at a given point

Variable
A variable is any property, a characteristic, a number, or a quantity that increases or decreases
over time or can take on different values in different situations.
In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as height,
age, species, or exam score.
For example:
- heart rate,
- the heights of adult males,
- the weights of preschool children,
- the ages of patients seen in a dental clinic.
Types of Variable;
Independent variable: It is a type of variable that researcher manipulate in order to affect the
outcome of an experiment If the variable is not influenced by other variables then known as
independent variables. Independent variables are always cause.
Dependent variable: Variables that represent the outcome of the experiment. The values of the
dependent variable depend upon another variable (the independent variable). Dependent
variables are effect.

Moderating Variables:
It is defined as the type of variable which changes the nature of a relationship between
the original independent and dependent variables. In other words, a variable that
influences, or moderates, the relation between two other variables and thus produces an
interaction effect.
Intervening Variable:
An intervening variable is a variable that helps explain the relationship between two variables
(dependent and independent). 

Control Variable
A control variable is a variable that is held constant to prevent it from influencing the outcome of
a study.

Extraneous or Confounding Variable Variable:

It is defined as the type of variable which is not the independent variable nor the part of the study
but may affect the dependent variable or result of the study.
Independent vs dependent vs control variables

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Independent variables (aka treatment Variables that researcher manipulate The amount of salt added to each
variables) in order to affect the outcome of an plant’s water.
experiment.

Dependent variables (aka response Variables that represent the outcome Any measurement of plant health and
variables) of the experiment. growth: in this case, plant height and
wilting.

Control variables Variables that are held constant The temperature and light in the
throughout the experiment. room the plants are kept in, and the
volume of water given to each plant.

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Confounding A variable that hides the true effect of another Pot size and soil type might affect plant
variables variable in your experiment. This can happen survival as much or more than salt
when another variable is closely related to a additions. In an experiment you would
variable you are interested in, but you haven’t control these potential confounders by
controlled it in your experiment. holding them constant.

Latent variables A variable that can’t be directly measured, but Salt tolerance in plants cannot be measured
that you represent via a proxy. directly, but can be inferred from
measurements of plant health in our salt-
addition experiment.

Composite variables A variable that is made by combining multiple The three plant health variables could be
variables in an experiment. These variables are combined into a single plant-health score
created when you analyze data, not when you to make it easier to present your findings.
measure it.

Some useful types of variable are listed below.

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Confounding A variable that hides the true effect of another Pot size and soil type might affect plant
variables variable in research. This can happen when survival as much or more than salt
another variable is closely related to a variable additions. In an experiment you would
researcher interested in, but researcher hasn’t control these potential confounders by
controlled it in research. holding them constant.

Latent variables A variable that can’t be directly measured, but Salt tolerance in plants cannot be
that represent via a representation. measured directly, but can be inferred
from measurements of plant health in our
salt-addition experiment.

Composite variables A variable that is made by combining multiple The three plant health variables could be
variables in research. These variables are combined into a single plant-health score
created when researchers analyze data, not to make it easier to present your findings.
when researchers measure it.

Examples of independent and dependent variables

Research Question Independent variable(s) Dependent variable(s)

Do tomatoes grow fastest under fluorescent,  The type of light the tomato  The rate of growth of
incandescent, or natural light? plant is grown under the tomato plant

What is the effect of diet and regular soda on  The type of soda you drink  Your blood sugar
blood sugar levels? (diet or regular) levels

How does phone use before bedtime affect 1. The amount of phone use 1. Number of hours of
sleep? before bed sleep
2. Quality of sleep

How well do different plant species tolerate 1. The amount of salt added to 1. Plant growth
salt water? the plants’ water 2. Plant wilting
3. Plant survival rate
Importance of Research:

1. Progress and good life: The importance of all research is progress and good life. Progress
results if the space of ignorance is occupied by knowledge and wisdom. The latter are the
results of good research. Knowledge and wisdom drive the mankind to live an orderly
good life.
2. Development of scientific attitude: One of the importance’s of research is to develop
scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is one that asks ‘Why’ and ‘How’ and answers are
found. This ‘Know-why’ and ‘Know-how’ attitude nurtures talents and such intellectual
talents are the great assets of society.
3. Creativity and innovativeness: One of the importance’s of research is encouragement to
creativity and innovation. New products, new processes and new uses are the means
through which the world goes dynamic. A dynamic world is not possible without
newness introduced every now and then in every walk of life. And this is possible only
through creativity and innovation. Research kindles the creativity and innovative instincts
of people and thus experiments on the possibility of new things instead of waiting for the
accidental and slow experience path to creativity and innovation.
4. Testing hypothesis and establishing theories: A very important function of research is
testing of hypothesis and establishing theories. As was already pointed out knowledge is
power. That knowledge comes from testing hypotheses and establishing new theories.
Proven hypotheses become theories.
5. Prediction and Control: Applied research has a great say in prediction and control-in
almost all walks of human endeavor   Prediction is jumping into the future and the
theories constitute the launch pad. Control looks for deviation between actual happening
and predicted happening. In the process, the theories get reevaluated and redefined.
6. Purposive development: Development = Growth + Change, Growth is uni-scaled while
change is multi-scaled. In the natural process development does take place through trial
and error through casual observations, through actual exposure and the like. But this is
evolutionary and time consuming. Revolutionary development takes fourth through
discontinuous change. Research is the seed of such dichotomous charge or even
disruptive change which contributes to purposive development.
7. Problem Solving: The importance of any research is problem solving. What is a problem?
Problem is deprivation or depreciation of something. Knowledge deprivation, efficiency
deprivation, productivity depreciation, etc exist. How can these be solved? Research into
the forces that cause deprivation and measures to contain them from causing deprivation
is needed. Thus, problem solving is a great purpose of research.
8. Schematic Evaluation: Research is also carried, out to systematically evaluate a process
or practice or an organisation to know its strengths and weaknesses so that areas for
improvement process can be identified.
9. Impact Analysis: Research is undertaken to assess the impact of certain measures or
change introduced on relevant variables. Impact studies are useful for biological, social,
business, economic and other areas of decision making.
10. Methodological Improvement: Another importance of research is improving research
methodology itself. Developments in the field of measurement and scaling are immense.
Whether these can be appropriately used in the case of particular research areas? To
answer the question research needs to be done. Validation, revalidation and devalidation
 of methodological aspects thus constitute good piece of research. And this is one of the
purposes of research. In fact, any research has a responsibility towards contribution to
methodological enrichment.

Research in Social Change:

Problems solving is the thrust of most researches. Social problems are felt directly by people and
that research by offering solutions to such problems ameliorates the conditions of people at large.
Hence the significance of research.
Research thrusts on societal  behavior  which is studied, analysed and steps needed to modify the
same to achieve certain broad goals. All our social problems could be attributed to certain
societal  behavior. So, by modifying the same in the right lines, social good is achieved.
Development of methodology to deal with social issues is one of the contributions of research.
Executive stress, worker ethics, leadership style, child labor, women illiteracy, drug addiction,
labor  absenteeism, etc are social issues related to organisations, labor units, and, such other
social groups. To deal with these issues appropriate methodology is needed. Research provides
the same.
Research contributes to societal development. The research develops scientific temper.
Creativity and innovation are developed Basic and applied new knowledge is developed. All this
adds to  up-gradation  of society. Knowledge is power. And that power is powered by research.
Formulation of new theories and reevaluation of already accepted theories are attempted by
research. There are several theories on leadership, motivation, human attitude and  behavior  and
so on. All these theories help designing suitable packages for societal  behavioral  upliftment.
Social Cohesion and Unity. Social unity in a problematic area b/w two groups or castes is only
possible due to research. Research manifests the causes of these events and gives a remedial
solution to it. So, researcher is the main factor for bringing social coherence and unity in society.
Social Planning. If someone wants to develop and bring social growth and development in a
society, social planning will be developed which is the outcome of research. In this situation
achieve the growth of society on right line is highly necessary. Social growth can possible only
when problems are solved.
Solution of Social Problems. Research also helps in the solution of social problems it is the
research through which we can find the causative factors of an existing social problem and guide
us about his solution.
Structural Changes.  Research is responsible for bringing structural changes in a social life. We
bring social and cultural change in a social situation which is the outcome of research.
Social Welfare. Social evils can be removed from society due to research. The process of social
welfare is possible due to the procedure of research through which social evils can be removed.
Social Prediction.  Research helps in making laws and the relation between social laws and their
factors. It helps to know the existence of causative factors and their magnitude and this facilitates
prediction of results.
Social Control. For smooth running of society social control is necessary. For this purpose we
apply research to a society for bringing social order and control.
Social Growth. The growth and development in a society is possible for the improvement of
living standard and it is the main function of research.
New Techniques.  l Research introduces new techniques and improves the old ones. It also
modifies the existing tools of research. It gives us the methods of knowing new ways for using
our research procedure.

Steps involved in the Scientific Research:

a. Sensing or Realizing the Problem
If researcher thinks that things are not going smoothly, there may be something wrong. So, the
first step in any scientific research is observing the situation and sensing the problem.
b. Research Problem Identification;
It is the most important step in the research process. A research problem is a specific issue,
difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that researcher will aim to address in his/her
research. A research problem identifies the destination of the research. Researcher should
identify what exactly are the problems or issues in the situation. Well defined problem means the
completion of the half research work. If the research problem is unclear and poorly defined, the
result could take a lot of time and resources will be wasted on gathering potentially useless
information and data. Without a well-defined research problem, researcher is likely to end up
with an unfocused and unmanageable project and also might end up repeating what other people
have already said

c. Theoretical Framework:

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing
theory/theories that are used for research. It focuses about the depth of subject matter under
study.
Before researcher starts research, he/she explores what theories and models other researchers
have already developed. The goal of a theoretical framework is to present and explain this
information.

There may be many existing different theories about the research, so the theoretical framework
also involves evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most relevant ones.

It attempts to integrate the information logically so that the reason for the problem can be
conceptualized. The critical variables are examined and the association among them is identified.
All the dependent and independent variables with their association are shown logically to
develop the theoretical framework. This part of research lays the foundations that will support
researcher’s analysis, helping to interpret results and make broader generalizations.
 d. Hypothesis Formulation
It is the pre-assumed statement to show the relationship between two or more variables expressed
in testable form. It is stated on the basis of theoretical framework. A hypothesis is not just a
guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which
means researcher can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as
experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data). Hypothesis is tested by using suitable
statistical tests.
e. Research Design
It is defined as the blueprint of the research for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data
that researcher chooses in a coherent and logical way in order to ensure that researcher will
effectively address the research problem. The main function of a research design is to explain
how researcher will find answers to research questions. The research design sets out the logic of
researcher's inquiry. Research design must be valid, workable and manageable. It describes the
general framework for collection and analysis of identified data. It is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted. It consists the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of the data. It includes an outline of what the research will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of the data.
f. Data Collection:
Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find
answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes. Data can be
collected as either quantitative or qualitative. It is also known as field work. Data collection is
the primary task of the field work. It is actually an initiation of the works. Data can be usually
collected by following methods:
a. Primary Method of Data Collection (Survey, Questionnaire, Observation, Interview,
Focus Group Discussion)
b. Secondary method of data collection (Published and Unpublished Sources)
However, the procedures used to obtain the data vary depending on the research design chosen
and the source of data.
g. Data Analysis:
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data After collection of the data, it has
to be tabulated, edited, and analyzed using various statistical tools. Data can be analyzed in
several ways but should use most appropriate tool to assess the reliability of data. The unwieldy
data should necessarily be condensed into a manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
Data can be analysed in the following ways:
 1. Quantitative Analysis: Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to
understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or
cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments). It is usually of two types:
Descriptive Statistics:  In this analysis the data is presented in a meaningful way. Eg: Frequency
table, mode, median.
Inferential Statistics: In this analysis, the hypothesis is tested and generalization is done.
2. Qualitative Data Analysis: Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas,
and experiences. Eg: Thematic Analysis, Content Analysis, Textual Analysis
h. Interpretation and Generalization:
The final step of scientific research process involves interpretation and generalization of the
findings about the phenomena. After getting the findings, they must be interpreted to meet the
objectives and to generalize the results.
Through research, existing theories or practices are refined and modified. Research is a never
ending process. Findings of the previous research may be the starting of the next research.
Process of expanding the stock of knowledge is continuing process.
Data
Data can be defined as a systematic record of a particular quantity. It is the different values of
that quantity represented together in a set. It is a collection of facts and figures to be used for a
specific purpose such as a survey or analysis. When arranged in an organized form, can be called
information. It is also the qualitative and quantitative attributes of a variable or a set of variables
S.N. Quantitative Data Qualitative Data
1.       These are data that deal with These data, on the other hand, deals
quantities, values, or numbers. with quality.
2.       It is Measurable. They are generally not measurable.
3.       Expressed in numerical form. They are descriptive rather than
numerical in nature.
4.       The research methodology is The research methodology
Conclusive. Exploratory
5.       Measures quantities such as length, Narratives often make use of
size, amount, price, and even adjectives and other descriptive
duration. words to refer to data on appearance,
color, texture, and other qualities.
 6.       Statistics is used to generate and They are only gained mostly through
subsequently analyze this type of observation.
data.

7.       It is Objective. It is Subjective.

8.       The data is Structured The data is Unstructured.
9.       It Determines Level of occurrence. It determines Depth of
understanding.
10.    The uses of statistics add credence or Less reliable and objective.
credibility to it so that quantitative
data is overall seen as more reliable
and objective.
11.    The data collection techniques The data collection techniques
are:Quantitative surveys, Interviews, are:Qualitative surveys,  Focus group
Experiments methods, Documental revision, etc.
12.    A large number of representative A small number of non-
samples representative samples
13.    Develops initial understanding Recommends the final course of
action
Some parts are adopted from: https://microbenotes.com/difference-between-quantitative-and-
qualitative-data/,
Primary and Secondary Data:
a. Primary Data:

Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources, using methods like
surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with the research project in mind, directly
from primary sources. It is also known as the first hand or raw data.

The data can be collected through various methods like surveys, observations, physical testing,
mailed questionnaires, questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews,
telephonic interviews, focus groups, case studies, etc.

Some Advantages of using Primary data:

1. The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

2. There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
3. If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Some Disadvantages of using Primary data (for reluctant/ uninterested investigators):

 1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection- 

 deciding why, what, how, when to collect

 getting the data collected (personally or through others)
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies
 ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)

2.   Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-

 all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in

 there is no fake/ cooked up data
 unnecessary/ useless data has not been included

2. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies

b. Secondary Data

Secondary data is data gathered from studies, surveys, or experiments that have been
run by other people or for other research. Secondary data implies second-hand
information which is already collected and recorded by any person other than the user
for a purpose, not relating to the current research problem. It is the readily available
form of data collected from various sources like censuses, government publications,
internal records of the organisation, reports, books, journal articles, websites and so
on.

Some Advantages of using Secondary data:

1. The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection

2. It is less expensive
3. The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (“I didn’t do it”)

Some disadvantages of using Secondary data:

1. The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific data about something is
required, for instance).
2. One can only hope that the data is of good quality
3. Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about something is not possible (most
often)

PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA

Primary data refers to the first hand data Secondary data means data collected by
gathered by the researcher himself. someone else earlier.
 It is Real time data. It is Past data.

It’s process is slow and difficult. It’s process is Quick and easy.

It’s source is Surveys, observations, It’s source is Government publications,

experiments, questionnaire, personal websites, books, journal articles, internal
interview, etc. records etc.

It is Expensive. It is Economical or cheap.

The collection is Long. The collection is Short.

Always specific to the researcher's needs. May or may not be specific to the researcher's
need.

It is available in Crude form It is available in Refined form

It is More accuracy and reliable. It is Relatively less accuracy and reliable.

Methods of Quantitative Data Collection:

Data is collected through a structured questionnaire asking questions starting with “how much”
or “how many.” As the quantitative data is numerical, it represents both definitive and objective
data. Furthermore, quantitative information is much sorted for statistical and mathematical
analysis, making it possible to illustrate it in the form of charts and graphs.  

Interviews

Interviewing people is a standard method used for data collection. However, the interviews
conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured, wherein the researchers ask only a
standard set of questionnaires and nothing more than that.  Quantitative interviews are sometimes
referred to as survey interviews because they resemble survey-style question-and-answer
formats. They might also be called standardized interviews. The difference between surveys and
standardized interviews is that questions and answer options are read to respondents rather than
having respondents complete a questionnaire on their own. As with questionnaires, the questions
posed in a standardized interview tend to be closed ended. There are instances in which a
quantitative interviewer might pose a few open-ended questions as well. In these cases, the
coding process works somewhat differently than coding in-depth interview data. In quantitative
interviews, an interview schedule is used to guide the researcher as he or she poses questions and
answer options to respondents. An interview schedule is usually more rigid than an interview
guide. It contains the list of questions and answer options that the researcher will read to
respondents. Whereas qualitative researchers emphasize respondents’ roles in helping to
determine how an interview progresses, in a quantitative interview, consistency in the way that
questions and answer options are presented is very important. The aim is to pose every question-
and-answer option in the very same way to every respondent. This is done to minimize
interviewer effect, or possible changes in the way an interviewee responds based on how or when
questions and answer options are presented by the interviewer. Quantitative interviews may be
recorded, but because questions tend to be closed ended, taking notes during the interview is less
disruptive than it can be during a qualitative interview. If a quantitative interview contains
openended questions, however, recording the interview is advised. It may also be helpful to
record quantitative interviews if a researcher wishes to assess possible interview effect.
Noticeable differences in responses might be more attributable to interviewer effect than to any
real respondent differences. Having a recording of the interview can help a researcher make such
determinations. Quantitative interviewers are usually more concerned with gathering data from a
large, representative sample.

There are three major types of interviews conducted for data collection 

 Telephone interviews: For years, telephone interviews ruled the charts of data collection
methods. However, nowadays, there is a significant rise in conducting video interviews
using the internet, Skype, or similar online video calling platforms. 
 Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect data directly from the
participants. It helps in acquiring quality data as it provides a scope to ask detailed
questions and probing further to collect rich and informative data. Literacy
requirements of the participant are irrelevant as F2F interviews offer ample
opportunities to collect non-verbal data through observation or to explore complex and
unknown issues. Although it can be an expensive and time-consuming method, the
response rates for F2F interviews are often higher. 
 Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is nothing but a similar setup of the
face-to-face interview where the interviewer carries a desktop or laptop along with him
at the time of interview to upload the data obtained from the interview directly into the
database. CAPI saves a lot of time in updating and processing the data and also makes
the entire process paperless as the interviewer does not carry a bunch of papers and
questionnaires. 

Surveys/questionnaires

Survey research is a quantitative method whereby a researcher poses some set of predetermined
questions to an entire group, or sample, of individuals. Survey research is an especially useful
approach when a researcher aims to describe or explain features of a very large group or groups.
This method may also be used as a way of quickly gaining some general details about one’s
population of interest to help prepare for a more focused, in-depth study using time-intensive
methods such as in-depth interviews or field research. In this case, a survey may help a
researcher identify specific individuals or locations from which to collect additional data.
Surveys or questionnaires created using online survey software are playing a pivotal role in
online data collection be is quantitative or qualitative research. The surveys are designed in a
manner to legitimize the behavior and trust of the respondents. More often, checklists and rating
scale type of questions make the bulk of quantitative surveys as it helps in simplifying and
quantifying the attitude or behavior of the respondents. 

There are two significant types of survey questionnaires used to collect online data for
quantitative market research. 

 Web-based questionnaire: This is one of the ruling and most trusted methods for internet-
based research or online research. In a web-based questionnaire, the receive an email
containing the survey link, clicking on which takes the respondent to a secure online
survey tool from where he/she can take the survey or fill in the survey questionnaire.
Being a cost-efficient, quicker, and having a wider reach, web-based surveys are more
preferred by the researchers. The primary benefit of a web-based questionnaire is
flexibility; respondents are free to take the survey in their free time using either a
desktop, laptop, tablet, or mobile. 
 Mail Questionnaire: In a mail questionnaire, the survey is mailed out to a host of the
sample population, enabling the researcher to connect with a wide range of audiences.
The mail questionnaire typically consists of a packet containing a cover sheet that
introduces the audience about the type of research and reason why it is being
conducted along with a prepaid return to collect data online. Although the mail
questionnaire has a higher churn rate compared to other quantitative data collection
methods, adding certain perks such as reminders and incentives to complete the survey
help in drastically improving the churn rate. One of the major benefits of the mail
questionnaire is all the responses are anonymous, and respondents are allowed to take
as much time as they want to complete the survey and be completely honest about the
answer without the fear of prejudice. 

Observation

In this method, researchers collect quantitative data through systematic observations by using
techniques like counting the number of people present at the specific event at a particular time
and a particular venue or number of people attending the event in a designated place. More often,
for quantitative data collection, the researchers have a naturalistic observation approach that
needs keen observation skills and senses for getting the numerical data about the “what” and not
about “why” and ”how.” 

Naturalistic observation is used to collect both types of data; qualitative and quantitative.
However, structured observation is more used to collect quantitative rather than qualitative data. 

 Structured observation: In this type of observation method, the researcher has to make
careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in a more comprehensive or
structured setting compared to naturalistic or participant observation. In a structured
observation, the researchers, rather than observing everything, focus only on very
specific behaviors of interest. It allows them to quantify the behaviors they are
 observing. When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers – it
is often described as coding, which requires a clearly defining a set of target
behaviors. 

Document Review 

Document review is a process used to collect data after reviewing the existing documents. It is an
efficient and effective way of gathering data as documents are manageable and are the practical
resource to get qualified data from the past. Apart from strengthening and supporting the
research by providing supplementary research data document review has emerged as one of the
beneficial methods to gather quantitative research data. 

Three primary document types are being analyzed for collecting supporting quantitative research
data 

 Public Records: Under this document review, official, ongoing records of an organization

are analyzed for further research. For example, annual reports policy manuals, student
activities, game activities in the university, etc. 
 Personal Documents: In contrast to public documents, this type of document review deals
with individual personal accounts of individuals’ actions, behavior, health, physique,
etc. For example, the height and weight of the students, distance students are traveling
to attend the school, etc. 
 Physical Evidence: Physical evidence or physical documents deal with previous
achievements of an individual or of an organization in terms of monetary and scalable
growth. 
Conclusion 
Quantitative data is not about convergent reasoning, but it is about divergent thinking. It deals
with the numerical, logic, and an objective stance, by focusing on numeric and unchanging data.
More often, data collection methods are used to collect quantitative research data, and the results
are dependent on the larger sample sizes that are commonly representing the population
researcher intend to study. 

Although there are many other methods to collect quantitative data, those mentioned above
probability sampling, interviews, questionnaire observation, and document review are the most
common and widely used methods either offline or for online data collection. 

Quantitative data research is comprehensive, and perhaps the only data type that could display
analytic results in charts and graphs. Quality data will give you precise results, and data analysis
is probably the essential component, which will not only hamper the integrity and authenticity of
your research but will also make the findings unstable if you have weak data. Therefore, it does
not matter what method you chose to collect quantitative data, ensure that the data collected is of
good quality to provide insightful and actionable insights. 
Methods used for qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection methods serve the primary purpose of collecting textual data for
research and analysis. The collected research data is used to examine

1. knowledge around a specific issue or a program, experience of people,

2. meaning and relationships, and
3. social norms and contextual or cultural practices demeaning people or impacting a
cause.
The qualitative data is textual or non-numerical. It covers mostly the images, videos, texts, and
written or spoken words by the people. You can opt for any digital data collection methods, like
structured or semi-structured surveys, or settle for the traditional approach comprising individual
interviews, group discussions, etc. 

Data at hand leads to a smooth process ensuring all the decisions made are for the business’s
betterment. Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory, and they are usually more
focused on gaining insights and understanding the underlying reasons by digging deeper.
Although quantitative data cannot be quantified, measuring it or analyzing it might become an
issue. Due to the lack of measurability, qualitative data collection methods are primarily
unstructured or structured in rare cases – that too to some extent. 

Qualitative Interview
Qualitative interviews are sometimes called intensive or in-depth interviews. These interviews
are semistructured; the researcher has a particular topic about which he or she would like to hear
from the respondent, but questions are open ended and may not be asked in exactly the same way
or in exactly the same order to each and every respondent. In in-depth interviews, the primary
aim is to hear from respondents about what they think is important about the topic at hand and to
hear it in their own words. Conducting Qualitative Interviews Qualitative interviews might feel
more like a conversation than an interview to respondents, but the researcher is in fact usually
guiding the conversation with the goal in mind of gathering information from a respondent. A
key difference between qualitative and quantitative interviewing is that qualitative interviews
contain openended questions. In a qualitative interview, the researcher usually develops a guide
in advance that he or she then refers to during the interview (or memorizes in advance of the
interview). An interview guide is a list of topics or questions that the interviewer hopes to cover
during the course of an interview. It is called a guide because it is simply that—it is used to guide
the interviewer, but it is not set in stone. Even after the interview guide is constructed, the
interviewer is not yet ready to begin conducting interviews. The researcher next has to decide
how to collect and maintain the information that is provided by participants. It is probably most
common for qualitative interviewers to take audio recordings of the interviews they conduct.
Recording interviews allows the researcher to focus on her or his interaction with the interview
participant rather than being distracted by trying to take notes.

Characteristics of unstructured questionnaires are:

 - Can be referred to as in-depth interviews.
- They have very little structure at all.
- The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number
of topics, sometimes as few as just one or two.
- The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the
interviewee and his/her previous response.
- This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail.
- They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a
specific topic without there being a structure or a preconceived plan or
expectation as to how they will deal with the topic.

Characteristics of semi structured questionnaires are:

- Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews.

- A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher
wants to cover.
- A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the
interviewee.
- The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under
investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and
interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail.
- Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to encourage the
interviewee if they are looking for more information or find what they are
saying interesting.
- This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to
elaborate or to follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the
interviewee is saying.
- Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be
sure to be addressing.

Qualitative surveys: 

To develop an informed hypothesis, many researchers use qualitative surveys for data

collection or to collect a piece of detailed information about a product or an issue. If you want to
create questionnaires for collecting textual or qualitative data, then ask more open-ended
questions. To answer such questions, the respondent has to write his/her opinion or perspective
concerning a specific topic or issue. Unlike other qualitative data collection methods, online
surveys have a wider reach wherein many people can provide you quality data that is highly
credible and valuable. 
  Paper surveys
The paper questionnaires are frequently used for qualitative data collection from the participants.
The survey consists of short text questions, which are often open-ended. These questions’ motive
is to collect as much detailed information as possible in the respondents’ own words. More often,
the survey questionnaires are designed to collect standardized data hence used to collect
responses from a larger population or large sample size. 

 Online surveys 
An online survey or a web survey is prepared using a prominent online survey software and
either uploaded in a website or emailed to the selected sample size with a motive to collect
reliable online data. Instead of writing down responses, the respondents use computers and
keyboards to type their answers. With an online survey questionnaire, it becomes easier and
smoother to collect qualitative data. In addition to that, online surveys have a wider reach, and
the respondent is not pressurized to answer each question under the interviewer’s supervision.
One of the significant benefits that online surveys offer is that they allow the respondents to take
the survey on any device, be it a desktop, tablet, or mobile. 

Focus group discussions:

Focus groups resemble qualitative interviews in that a researcher may prepare an interview guide
in advance and interact with participants by asking them questions. In an interview, usually one
member (the research participant) is most active while the other (the researcher) plays the role of
listener, conversation guider, and question asker. Focus groups, on the other hand, are planned
discussions designed to elicit group interaction and “obtain perceptions on a defined area of
interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment” (Krueger & Casey, 2000, p. 5). [1] In this
case, the researcher may play a less active role than in a one-on-one interview. The researcher’s
aim is to get participants talking to each other and to observe interactions among participants.

Focus group discussions can also be considered a type of interview, but it is conducted in a group
discussion setting. Usually, the focus group consists of 8 – 10 people (the size may vary
depending on the researcher’s requirement). The researchers ensure appropriate space is given to
the participants to discuss a topic or issue in a context. The participants are allowed to either
agree or disagree with each other’s comments. 

Focus groups are typically more dynamic than interviews. The researcher takes the role of
moderator, posing questions or topics for discussion, but then lets the group members discuss the
question or topic among themselves. Participants may ask each other follow-up questions, agree
or disagree with one another, display body language that tells us something about their feelings
about the conversation, or even come up with questions not previously conceived of by the
researcher. It is just these sorts of interactions and displays that are of interest to the researcher.
A researcher conducting focus groups collects data on more than people’s direct responses to her
or his questions; the group interaction is a key focal point. Due to the nature and unpredictability
of group interaction, and the fact that focus group researchers generally want to draw out group
interaction, focus groups tend to be qualitative rather than quantitative.
With a focused group discussion, researchers know how a particular group of participants
perceives the topic. Researchers analyze what participants think of an issue, the range of
opinions expressed, and the ideas discussed. The data is collected by noting down the variations
or inconsistencies (if any exists) in the participants, especially in terms of belief, experiences,
and practice. 

The participants of focused group discussions are selected based on the topic or issues for which
the researcher wants actionable insights. For example, is the research is about the recovery of
college students from drug addiction, the participants have to be a college student, studying and
recovering from the drug addiction. Other parameters such as age, qualification, financial
background, social presence, and demographics are also considered but not primarily, as the
group needs diverse participants. Frequently, the qualitative data collected through focused
group discussion is more descriptive and highly detailed. 

Pros

 Information obtained is usually very detailed.

 Cost-effective when compared to one-on-one interviews.

 It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.

Cons

 Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject matter.

 Bias might still be evident.

 Requires interviewer training

 The researcher has very little control over the outcome.

 A few vocal voices can drown out the rest.

 Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.

Characteristics of a focus group are:

- Smaller groups may limit the potential on the amount of information

collected, and more may make it difficult for all participants to participate
and interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the
information given.
- Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and
macro view of the investigation.
 - Members of the focus group should have something in common which is
important to the investigation.
- Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to
be mindful of the group dynamics of both situations.

Observations: 

Qualitative Observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather

information or data. It is a lot more time consuming than quantitative observation but the sample
size used is much smaller and the research is extensive and a lot more personal.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight,
smell, touch, taste and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead
characteristics.

Observation is one of the traditional qualitative data collection methods used by researchers to
gather descriptive text data by observing people and their behavior at events or in their natural
settings. In this method, the researcher is completely immersed in watching or seeing people by
taking a participatory stance to take down notes. Aside from taking notes, different techniques
such as videos, photographs, audio recordings, tangible items like artifacts, and souvenirs are
also be used. 

There are two main types of observation,

 Covert: In this method, the observer is concealed without letting anyone know that they
are being observed. For example, a researcher studying the rituals of a wedding in
nomadic tribes must join them as a guest and quietly see everything that goes around
him. 
 Overt: In this method, everyone is aware that they are being watched. For example, A
researcher or an observer wants to study the wedding rituals of a nomadic tribe. To
proceed with the research, the observer or researcher can reveal why he is attending the
marriage and even use a video camera to shoot everything around him. 
Observation is a useful qualitative data collection method, especially when one want to study the
ongoing process, situation, or reactions on a specific issue related to the people being observed.
Even when one want to understand people’s behavior or their way of interaction in a particular
community or demographic, onecan rely on the observation data. If researcher fails to get quality
data through surveys, interviews, or group discussions, he/she relies on observation. It is the best
and trusted qualitative data collection method to generate qualitative data as it requires equal to
no efforts from the participants. 

Characteristics of observation method are

- Can offer a flavour for what is happening.

 - Can give an insight into the bigger picture.
- Can demonstrate sub-groups.
- Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research.
- People or environment can be observed.

Sampling:
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for
the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population. In other words, the
process of selecting a sample from a population using special sampling techniques called
sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process itself that the sample selected is
representative of the population.

A good sample is one which satisfies all or few of the following conditions:

1. Representativeness: When sampling method is adopted by the researcher, the basic

assumption is that the samples so selected out of the population are the best
representative of the population under study. Thus good samples are those who
accurately represent the population. Probability sampling technique yield representative
samples. On measurement terms, the sample must be valid. The validity of a sample
depends upon its accuracy.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate (unbiased) sample is one which exactly represents the population. It is free from
any influence that causes any differences between sample value and population value.
3. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliable. The sample size should be
such that the interpretations drawn from the sample are accurate to a given level of
confidence to represent the entire population under study.

The size of sample depends on number of factors. Some important among them are:

1. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the universe: Selection of sample depends on the

nature of the universe. It says that if the nature of universe is homogeneous then a small
sample will represent the behavior of entire universe. This will lead to selection of small
sample size rather than a large one. On the other hand, if the universe is heterogeneous in
nature then samples are to be chosen as from each heterogeneous unit.
2. Number of classes proposed: If a large number of class intervals to be made then the size
of sample should be more because it has to represent the entire universe. In case of small
samples there is the possibility that some samples may not be included.
3. Nature of study: The size of sample also depends on the nature of study. For an intensive
study which may be for a long time, large samples are to be chosen. Similarly, in case of
general studies large number of respondents may be appropriate one but if the study is of
technical in nature then the selection of large number of respondents may cause difficulty
while gathering information.
Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a chance (non-zero
probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately determined.

It is mainly used in quantitative research. If one wants to produce results that are representative
of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

Sample statistics thus produced, such as sample mean or standard deviation, are unbiased
estimates of population parameters, as long as the sampled units are weighted according to their
probability of selection. All probability sampling have two attributes in common: (1) every unit
in the population has a known non-zero probability of being sampled, and (2) the sampling
procedure involves random selection at some point. 

There are four main types of probability sample.

Simple Random Sampling:
In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given population, all sample frame have an equal
probability of being selected. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of
selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has
the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This
minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual
results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it
relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results. It is a reliable method of obtaining information
where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each
individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample. It is the simplest and
most common method of sampling. In general, random sampling may be drawn into two ways
namely- lottery method and random number method. he probability of selecting any set of n units
out of a total of N units in a sampling frame is N C n.

Advantages:
a. It is more representative than non-probability sampling.
b. It is free from biasness.
c. The maximum information can be obtained in short period of time at minimum
cost.
d. The sampling error and efficiency of the estimate can be calculated in random
sampling.
Disadvantages:
a. It needs upto date list of population which is impossible to get in practice.
b. The sample drawn by this method may be highly scattered. So it may b quite time
consuming and costly.
c. The result obtained by this method may not represent the population if the sample size is
not sufficiently large.
d. If the population is more heterogeneous the result obtained from this method may be
inaccurate.
e. Simple random sampling can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of
the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population.
 f. Simple random sampling can be bulky and dull when sampling from a large target
population. I
Systematic Random Sampling:
Systematic sampling (also known as interval sampling) relies on arranging the study population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size). It is
important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly
chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select
every 10th name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of probability
sampling.
For example, suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that starts in a poor area
(house No. 1) and ends in an expensive district (house No. 1000). A simple random selection of
addresses from this street could easily end up with too many from the high end and too few from
the low end (or vice versa), leading to an unrepresentative sample. Selecting (e.g.) every 10th
street number along the street ensures that the sample is spread evenly along the length of the
street, representing all of these districts. (Note that if we always start at house #1 and end at
#991, the sample is slightly biased towards the low end; by randomly selecting the start between
#1 and #10, this bias is eliminated.
This process will ensure that there is no overrepresentation of large or small firms in your
sample, but rather that firms of all sizes are generally uniformly represented, as it is in your
sampling frame. In other words, the sample is representative of the population, at least on the
basis of the sorting criterion.

Advantages:
a. It is very simple and easy to use.
b. It takes less time, labor and money.
c. The result obtained by using this technique is more reliable.
Disadvantages:
a. If the population listing is biased, sample may not represent the population.
b. The items of the population must be arranged in some order otherwise the result obtained
will be misleading.
 c. Systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list.
d. Systematic sampling is that even in scenarios where it is more accurate than SRS, its
theoretical properties make it difficult to quantify that accuracy.
Stratified Sampling:
When the population holds a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by these
categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population,
out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. The ratio of the size of this random
selection (or sample) to the size of the population is called a sampling fraction. In stratified
sampling, the sampling frame is divided into homogeneous and non-overlapping subgroups
(called “strata”), and a simple random sample is drawn within each subgroup.  To draw samples
from each stratum, simple random sampling procedure is used. The size of the sample drawn
from the strata may or may not be proportional to the size of the population size of the strata.

Advantages:
a. It gives most representative sample.
b. The estimate by this method is more efficient than simple random sampling.
c. The stratification reduces the cost and administrative difficulties.
d. It is the best method for a large and heterogeneous population.
e. Dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable researchers to draw
inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalized random
sample
f. Utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical estimates.
g. ocuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.
h. Allows use of different sampling techniques for different subpopulations.
i. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation.
j. Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between strata by
sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size.
Disadvantages:
a. It may give fallacious conclusion.
b. The process of stratification takes more time and money.
c. It is difficult to stratify the population and divide the sample size into different strata.
d. Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.
e. Is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a probability sampling technique where researchers divide the
population into multiple groups (clusters) for research. Researchers then select random
groups with a simple random or systematic random sampling technique for data
collection and data analysis. In other words, cluster sampling is defined as a sampling
method where the researcher creates multiple clusters of people from a population where
they are indicative of homogeneous characteristics and have an equal chance of being a
part of the sample. Cluster sampling is a sampling plan used when mutually
homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical
population. It is often used in marketing research. In this sampling plan, the total
population is divided into these groups (known as clusters) and a simple random
sample of the groups is selected. The elements in each cluster are then sampled. If all
elements in each sampled cluster are sampled, then this is referred to as a "one-stage"
cluster sampling plan. If a simple random subsample of elements is selected within each
of these groups, this is referred to as a "two-stage" cluster sampling plan. A common
motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce the total number of interviews and costs
given the desired accuracy. 

Advantages:
1. If the population under study is infinite, it is useful.
2. Consumes less time and cost: Sampling of geographically divided groups requires less
work, time, and cost. It’s a highly economical method to observe clusters instead of
randomly doing it throughout a particular region by allocating a limited number of
resources to those selected clusters.
3. Convenient access: Researchers can choose large samples with this sampling technique,
and that’ll increase accessibility to various clusters.
4. Data accuracy: Since there can be large samples in each cluster, loss of accuracy in
information per individual can be compensated.
 5. Ease of implementation: Cluster sampling facilitates information from various areas and
groups. Researchers can quickly implement it in practical situations compared to other
probability sampling methods.

Disadvantages:
a. The reliability decreases with the increase in cluster.
b. If the population size is large, enumeration of the sampling units with the selected cluster
is difficult.
c. Complexity: Cluster sampling are more sophisticated and requires more attention with
how to plan and on how to analyze (i.e.: to take into account the weights of subjects
during the estimation of parameters, confidence intervals, etc.)
Cluster sampling Stratified sampling
Elements of a population are randomly selected to be The researcher divides the entire population into even segments
a part of groups (clusters). (strata).
Members from randomly selected clusters are a part Researchers consider individual components of the strata
of this sample. randomly to be a part of sampling units.
Researchers maintain homogeneity between clusters. Researchers maintain homogeneity within the strata.
The researchers or statisticians primarily decide the strata
Researchers divide the clusters naturally.
division.
The key objective is to minimize the cost involved The key objective is to conduct accurate sampling, along with a
and enhance competence. properly represented population.
Multistage Sampling
In this method, sampling is done in various stages, At first, the population is divided into large
sample unit (cluster) then random selection is done to get small unit of sample. The initial
selected sample is again sampled to get a small unit of sample. This process of sampling is
repeated till we get the required sample.
Advantages

 Cost and speed that the survey can be done in

 Convenience of finding the survey sample
 Normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample
 It is more flexible than other methods.
 This method is very useful if the area of study is very large.
Disadvantages

 Not as accurate as Simple Random Sample if the sample is the same size
 More testing is difficult to do
 It is less efficient than other methods.
 In this method, errors are likely to be larger than other techniques.
Non-Probability Sampling Method:
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. 

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

Nonprobability sampling is a sampling technique in which some units of the population have
zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection cannot be accurately determined.
Typically, units are selected based on certain non-random criteria, such as quota or convenience.
Because selection is non-random, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of
sampling errors, and may be subjected to a sampling bias.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That
means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In

these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population. Therefore,
information from a sample cannot be generalized back to the population. Types of non-
probability sampling techniques include:
Convenience Sampling:

A convenience sample is a type of non-probability sampling method where the sample is taken
from a group of people easy to contact or to reach. Convenience sampling is a non-probability
sampling technique where samples are selected from the population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher. For example, standing at a mall or a grocery store and
asking people to answer questions would be an example of a convenience sample. This type of
sampling is also known as grab sampling or availability sampling. There are no other criteria to
the sampling method except that people be available and willing to participate. In addition, this
type of sampling method does not require that a simple random sample is generated, since the
only criterion is whether the participants agree to participate. Researchers choose these samples
just because they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that
represents the entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in some
research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire population. It is one of
the reasons why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is the most common non-
probability sampling method, because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of
the sample.

Quota Sampling:

Quota sampling is a method for selecting survey participants that is a non-probabilistic version
of stratified sampling. This method is used in case of large data in making investigation
concerning public opinions. A definite quota is fixed for each social class, different age groups,
different region, etc. for interviews within that quota. From each group, investigator selects
sample by choice to a required number. Thus, quota sampling involves the representation of the
entire population and each group has its proper representation in the sample. Quota sampling is
useful when time is limited, a sampling frame is not available, the research budget is very tight
or detailed accuracy is not important. Subsets are chosen and then either convenience or
judgment sampling is used to choose people from each subset. The researcher decides how many
of each category are selected.

Puroposive or Judgemental Sampling:

In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely on the
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those people
who they think fit to participate in the research study. Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a
scientific method of sampling, and the downside to this sampling technique is that the
preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus, this research technique
involves a high amount of uncertainty. This is used primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being researched, or when the interest of the research is on
a specific field or a small group. Different types of purposive sampling include:

 Deviant case – The researcher obtains cases that substantially differ from the
dominant pattern (a special type of purposive sample). The case is selected in order to
obtain information on unusual cases that can be specially problematic or specially
good.
 Case study – The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic
or of small size.
 Ad hoc quotas – A quota is established (e.g. 65% women) and researchers are free to
choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.

Advantages:

a. When a sample of small size is o be drawn, it is more useful method.

b. It is simple and easy to select.
c. When the quick decisions are needed, this method is appropriate.

Disadvantages:

a. It is not scientific method and can not be taken in general use.

b. The investigator may be biased and inefficient.
 c. If the population size is large, it cannot be used.

Snowball Sampling:

In snowball sampling, researcher starts by identifying a few respondents that match the criteria
for inclusion in his/her study, and then asks them to recommend others they know who also meet
his/her research’s selection criteria. Thus the sample group is said to grow like a rolling
snowball. As the sample builds up, enough data are gathered to be useful for research. This
sampling technique is often used in hidden populations, such as drug users or sex workers, which
are difficult for researchers to access. As sample members are not selected from a sampling
frame, snowball samples are subject to numerous biases. Snowball sampling helps researchers
find a sample when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample
size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program.
Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to
form a considerably good size sample.
Advantages

1. Locate hidden populations: It is possible for the surveyors to include people in

the survey that they would not have known but, through the use of social
network.
2. Locating people of a specific population: There are no lists or other obvious
sources for locating members of the population (e.g. the homeless, users of illegal
drugs). The investigators use previous contact and communication with subjects
then, the investigators are able to gain access and cooperation from new subjects.
The key in gaining access and documenting the cooperation of subjects is trust.
This is achieved that investigators act in good faith and establish good working
relationship with the subjects.
3. Methodology: As subjects are used to locate the hidden population, the researcher
invests less money and time in sampling. Snowball sampling method does not
require complex planning and the staffing required is considerably smaller in
comparison to other sampling methods.
Snowball sampling can use in both alternative or complementary research methodology. As an
alternative methodology, when other research methods can not be employed, due to challenging
circumstancing and when random sampling is not possible. As complementary methodology
with other research methods to boost the quality and efficiency of research conduct and to
minimize the sampling bias like quota sampling.
Disadvantages

1. Community bias: The first participants will have a strong impact on the sample.
Snowball sampling is inexact and can produce varied and inaccurate results. The
method is heavily reliant on the skill of the individual conducting the actual
sampling, and that individual's ability to vertically network and find an
appropriate sample. To be successful requires previous contacts within the target
areas, and the ability to keep the information flow going throughout the target
group.
 2. Non-random: Snowball sampling contravenes many of the assumptions
supporting conventional notions of random selection and
representativeness However, social systems are beyond researchers' ability to
recruit randomly. Snowball sampling is inevitable in social systems.
3. Unknown sampling population size: There is no way to know the total size of the
overall population.
4. Anchoring: Another disadvantage of snowball sampling is the lack of definite
knowledge as to whether or not the sample is an accurate reading of the target
population. By targeting only a few select people, it is not always indicative of
the actual trends within the result group. Identifying the appropriate person to
conduct the sampling, as well as locating the correct targets is a time-consuming
process such that the benefits only slightly outweigh the costs.
5. Lack of control over sampling method: As the subjects locate the hidden
population, the research has very little control over the sampling method, which
becomes mainly dependent on the original and subsequent subjects, who may add
to the known sampling pool using a method outside of the researcher's control.
Voluntary Responsive Sampling:

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of

access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey). Voluntary response
samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more likely
to volunteer than others.

Methods of Primary Data Collection:

Interview:
It is the scientific investigation technique based on the process of verbal communication between
two persons in order to collect information. Interview is a method of data collection that involves
two groups of people, where the first group is the interviewer (the researcher(s) asking questions
and collecting data) and the interviewee (the subject or respondent that is being asked questions).
An interview is generally a qualitative research technique which involves asking open-ended
questions to converse with respondents and collect elicit data about a subject. The interviewer in
most cases is the subject matter expert who intends to understand respondent opinions in a well-
planned and executed series of questions and answers. Interviews are similar to focus groups and
surveys when it comes to garnering information from the target population but are entirely
different in their operation – focus groups are restricted to a small group of 6-10 individuals
whereas surveys are quantitative in nature. Interviews are conducted with a sample from a
population and the key characteristic they exhibit is their conversational tone.

Fundamental Types of Interviews in Research

A researcher has to conduct interviews with a group of participants at a juncture in the research
where information can only be obtained by meeting and personally connecting with a section of
their target audience. Interviews offer the researchers with a platform to prompt their participants
and obtain inputs in the desired detail. There are three fundamental types of interviews in
research:

 Structured Interviews:

Structured interviews are defined as research tools that are extremely rigid in their operations are
allows very little or no scope of prompting the participants to obtain and analyze results. It is
thus also known as a standardized interview and is significantly quantitative in its approach.
Questions in this interview are pre-decided according to the required detail of information.

Structured interviews are excessively used in survey research with the intention of maintaining
uniformity throughout all the interview sessions.

They can be closed-ended as well as open-ended – according to the type of target population.
Closed-ended questions can be included to understand user preferences from a collection of
answer options whereas open-ended can be included to gain details about a particular section in
the interview.

Advantages of structured interviews:

 Structured interviews focus on the accuracy of different responses due to which
extremely organized data can be collected. Different respondents have different type of
answers to the same structure of questions – answers obtained can be collectively
analyzed.
 They can be used to get in touch with a large sample of the target population.
 The interview procedure is made easy due to the standardization offered by structured
interviews.
 Replication across multiple samples becomes easy due to the same structure of interview.
 As the scope of detail is already considered while designing the interview, better
information can be obtained and the researcher can analyze the research problem in a
comprehensive manner by asking accurate research questions.
 Since the structure of the interview is fixed, it often generates reliable results and is quick
to execute.
 The relationship between the researcher and the respondent is not formal due to which the
researcher can clearly understand the margin of error in case the respondent either
degrees to be a part of the survey or is just not interested in providing the right
information.
Disadvantages of structured interviews:
 Limited scope of assessment of obtained results.
 The accuracy of information overpowers the detail of information.
 Respondents are forced to select from the provided answer options.
 The researcher is expected to always adhere to the list of decided questions irrespective
of how interesting the conversation is turning out to be with the participants.
 A significant amount of time is required for a structured interview.  

 Semi-Structured Interviews:
Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable amount of leeway to the researcher to probe the
respondents along with maintaining basic interview structure. Even if it is a guided conversation
between researchers and interviewees – an appreciable flexibility is offered to the researchers. A
researcher can be assured that multiple interview rounds will not be required in the presence of
structure in this type of research interview.

Keeping the structure in mind, the researcher can follow any idea or take creative advantage of
the entire interview. Additional respondent probing is always necessary to garner information for
a research study. The best application of semi-structured interview is when the researcher doesn’t
have time to conduct research and requires detailed information about the topic.

Advantages of semi-structured interviews:

 Questions of semi-structured interviews are prepared before the scheduled interview
which provides the researcher with time to prepare and analyze the questions.
 It is flexible to an extent while maintaining the research guidelines.
 Researchers can express the interview questions in the format they prefer, unlike the
structured interview.
 Reliable qualitative data can be collected via these interviews.
 Flexible structure of the interview.
Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews:

 Participants may question the reliability factor of these interviews due to the
flexibility offered.
 Comparing two different answers becomes difficult as the guideline for
conducting interviews is not entirely followed. No two questions will have
the exact same structure and the result will be an inability to compare are
infer results.   

 Unstructured Interviews:

Also called as in-depth interviews, unstructured interviews are usually described as

conversations held with a purpose in mind – to gather data about the research study. These
interviews have the least number of questions as they lean more towards a normal conversation
but with an underlying subject.

The main objective of most researchers using unstructured interviews is to build a bond with the
respondents due to which there are high chances that the respondents will be 100% truthful with
their answers. There are no guidelines for the researchers to follow and so, they can approach the
participants in any ethical manner to gain as much information as they possibly can for their
research topic.

Since there are no guidelines for these interviews, a researcher is expected to keep their approach
in check so that the respondents do not sway away from the main research motive. For a
researcher to obtain the desired outcome, he/she must keep the following factors in mind:
  Intent of the interview.
 The interview should primarily take into consideration the participant’s interest and
skills.
 All the conversations should be conducted within permissible limits of research and the
researcher should try and stick by these limits.
 The skills and knowledge of the researcher should match the purpose of the interview.
 Researchers should understand the do’s and don’ts of unstructured interviews.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
 Due to the informal nature of unstructured interviews – it becomes extremely easy for
researchers to try and develop a friendly rapport with the participants. This leads to
gaining insights in extreme detail without much conscious effort.
 The participants can clarify all their doubts about the questions and the researcher can
take each opportunity to explain his/her intention for better answers.
 There are no questions which the researcher has to abide by and this usually increases the
flexibility of the entire research process.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:

 As there is no structure to the interview process, researchers take time to execute these
interviews.
 The absence of a standardized set of questions and guidelines indicates that the reliability
of unstructured interviews is questionable.
 In many cases, the ethics involved in these interviews are considered borderline
upsetting.

Methods of Research Interviews:

There are three methods to conduct research interviews, each of which is peculiar in its
application and can be used according to the research study requirement.

Personal Interviews:

Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions are asked
personally directly to the respondent. Direct Personal Interview requires an interviewer or a
group of interviewers to ask questions from the interviewee in a face to face fashion. 

It can be direct or indirect, structured or structure, focused or unfocused, etc. Some of the tools
used in carrying out in-person interviews include a notepad or recording device to take note of
the conversation—very important due to human forgetful nature. Non-verbal communication
likes gestures and facial expressions give meaning to the respondent answer.

Advantage:

 Higher response rate.

 When the interviewees and respondents are face-to-face, there is a way to adapt the
questions if this is not understood.
  More complete answers can be obtained if there is doubt on both sides or a particular
information is detected that is remarkable.
 The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the interviewee’s body language
at the time of asking the questions and taking notes about it.
Disadvantages:

 They are time-consuming and extremely expensive.

 They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee, since they may be self-
conscious and not answer truthfully.
 Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling an appointment in
workplaces or going from house to house and not finding anyone.
 Therefore, many interviews are conducted in public places, such as shopping centers or
parks. There are even consumer studies that take advantage of these sites to conduct
interviews or surveys and give incentives, gifts, coupons, in short; There are great
opportunities for online research in shopping centers.
 Among the advantages of conducting these types of interviews is that the respondents
will have more fresh information if the interview is conducted in the context and with
the appropriate stimuli, so that researchers can have data from their experience at the
scene of the events, immediately and first hand. The interviewer can use an online
survey through a mobile device that will undoubtedly facilitate the entire process.
Telephonic Interviews:

Telephonic interviews are widely used and easy to combine with online surveys to
carry out research effectively. The interviewer contacts respondents by telephones.
This method uses a structured interview schedule.

Advantages:

 To find the interviewees it is enough to have their telephone numbers on hand.

 They are usually lower cost.
 The information is collected quickly.
 Having a personal contact can also clarify doubts, or give more details of the questions.
Disadvantages:

 Many times researchers observe that people do not answer phone calls because it is an
unknown number for the respondent, or simply already changed their place of
residence and they cannot locate it, which causes a bias in the interview.
 Researchers also face that they simply do not want to answer and resort to pretexts such
as they are busy to answer, they are sick, they do not have the authority to answer the
questions asked, they have no interest in answering or they are afraid of putting their
security at risk.
 One of the aspects that should be taken care of in these types of interviews is the kindness
with which the interviewers address the respondents, in order to get them to cooperate
 more easily with their answers. Good communication is vital for the generation of
better answers.
Email or Web Page Interviews:
Online research is growing more and more because consumers are migrating to a more virtual
world and it is best for each researcher to adapt to this change.

The increase in people with Internet access has made it popular that interviews via email or web
page stand out among the types of interviews most used today. For this nothing better than an
online survey.

More and more consumers are turning to online shopping, which is why they are a great niche to
be able to carry out an interview that will generate information for the correct decision making.

Advantages of email surveys:

 Speed in obtaining data

 The respondents respond according to their time, at the time they want and in the place
they decide.
 Online surveys can be mixed with other research methods or using some of the previous
interview models. They are tools that can perfectly complement and pay for the
project.
 A researcher can use a variety of questions, logics, create graphs
and reports immediately.
Undoubtedly, the objective of the research will set the pattern of what types of interviews are
best for data collection. Based on the research design, a research can plan and test the questions,
for instance, if the questions are the correct and if the survey flows in the best way.

In addition there are other types of research that can be used under specific circumstances, for
example in the case of no connection or adverse situations to carry out surveyors, in these types
of occasions it is necessary to conduct a field research, which can not be considered an interview
if not rather a completely different methodology.

To summarize the discussion, an effective interview will be one that provides researchers with
the necessary data to know the object of study and that this information is applicable to the
decisions researchers make.

Observation
It is the process of recognizing and noting people, objects and occurrences rather than asking for
information. Communication with people is absent in this method. It allows everybody to study
people in their natural setting without influencing their behavior. Observational data consists of
detailed information about groups or situations.
Methods of Observation:
1.Covert and Overt Observation
Covert Observation: There is not identification of the researcher so that the subjects behavior is
not influenced by his or her presence. The researcher observes the situations from a distance.
Overt Observation: There is identification of the researcher and the researcher explains about the
purpose of observation. The problem with this method is that the subject teds to modify their
behavior when they know they are being watched.
2.Structured and Unstructured Observation
Structured Observation: It is the systematic and highly predetermined method of data collection.
The main purpose of this observation is to quantify behavior. It dos not give the complete picture
of the situation or behavior under study.
Unstructured Observation: It is the holistic way to observe and record behavior without the use
of a pre-determined guide. It attempts to provide as complete and selective description as
possible.
Advantages of Observation:
 It is free from subjective biasness.
 Data is not affected by past behavior or future intentions.
 Natural behavior of the group can be observed.
Disadvantages of Observation:
 It is expensive.
 Obtained information is limited.
 Unforeseen events may interfere observational task.

Questionnaire

It is the formal list of the questions designed to gather responses from respondents on a given
topic. It is an efficient data collecting mechanism since the researcher knows exactly what is
required and how to measure the variable of interest. It involves the several steps including
writing question items, organizing the question items on a questionnaire, administering the
questionnaire and so on.

Characteristics of the Good Questionnaire

-It should be short and simple

-Questions should proceed in a logical sequence

-Technical terms and vague expressions must be avoided.

-Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present.

-Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided

-The physical appearances – quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract the attention of
the respondent

Types of Questions in Questionnaire:

a. Open Questions

Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Open-ended
questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they like in their own words.
For example: “can you tell me how happy you feel right now?” Open questions are often
used for complex questions that cannot be answered in a few simple categories but require
more detail and discussion. Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the
respondent to elaborate on their answer.

b. Closed Questions

Closed questions structure the answer by only allowing responses which fit into pre-decided
categories. Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal data. The category can
be restricted to as few as two options, i.e., dichotomous (e.g., 'yes' or 'no,' 'male' or 'female'),
or include quite complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose (e.g.,
polytomous). Closed questions can also provide ordinal data (which can be ranked). This
often involves using a continuous rating scale to measure the strength of attitudes or
emotions. For example, strongly agree / agree / neutral / disagree / strongly disagree / unable
to answer. It is cheap at cost.

Types of Questionnaire:

a. Self Administered

In this method, the respondents usually complete self-administered questionnaires.

 Online Questionnaire: It is done by sing the email, internet or the website.

 Mail Questionnaire: It is done by posting the questionnaires to respondents who

return them by post.

 Delivery and Collection Questionnaire: It is done by hand to hand to each respondent

and collecting later.

b. Interviewer Administered Questionnaire

It is generally administered by the researcher him or her or by any other interviewer.

  Telephone Questionnaire: The researcher contacts the respondents and administers
questionnaires by using the telephone. The accurate information and response are
essential conditions for a good telephone questionnaire. The respondents selected for the
telephone questionnaire need to be informed before hand by email or telephone or fixing
appointment about the study.

 Interview Schedule: It is administered by the interviewer by physically meeting the

respondent and asking the questions face to face. It uses schedule device which is the set
of questions. It provides opportunity to the researcher to rapport with the respondents.

Advantages –

⦁ Free from bias of interviewer

⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give

⦁ Respondents have adequate time to give answers

⦁ Respondents are easily and conveniently approachable

⦁ Large samples can be used to be more reliable

Disadvantages–

⦁ Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire

⦁ Control over questions is lost once it is sent

⦁ It is inflexible once sent

⦁ Possibility of ambiguous or omission of replies

⦁ Time taking and slow process

Methods of Secondary Data Collection

A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may either be
published data or unpublished data. Published data are available in :
a. Publications of government
b. technical and trade journals
c. reports of various businesses, banks etc.
d. public records
e. statistical or historical documents.
Unpublished data may be found in letters, diaries, unpublished biographies or work.
Before using secondary data, it must be checked for the following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data – Who collected the data? From what source? Which methods? Time?
Possibility of bias? Accuracy?
2.Suitability of data – The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studies and
then carefully scrutinize the data for suitability.
3.Adequacy – The data is considered inadequate if the level of accuracy achieved in data is
found inadequate or if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry.
Unit of Analysis:
The unit of analysis is the major entity that researcher is analyzing in his/her study. In other
words, units of analysis are the objects of study within a research.
Types of Unit of Analysis:
Individuals
Individuals are the most common units of analysis within sociological research. This is the case
because the core problem of social research is understanding the relationships between
individuals and society, so we routinely turn to studies composed of individual people in order to
refine our understanding of the ties that bind individuals together into a society. Taken together,
information about individuals and their personal experiences can reveal patterns and trends that
are common to a society or particular groups within it, and can provide insight into social
problems and their solutions. For example, researchers at the University of California-San
Francisco found through interviews with individual women who have had abortions that the vast
majority of women do not ever regret the choice to terminate the pregnancy. Their findings prove
that a common right-wing argument against access to abortion--that women will suffer undue
emotional distress and regret if they have an abortion--is based on myth rather than fact.
Groups
Social Researchers are keenly interested in social ties and relationships, which means that they
often study groups of people, be they large or small. Groups can be anything from romantic
couples to families, to people who fall into particular racial or gender categories, to friend
groups, to whole generations of people (think Millennials and all the attention they get from
social scientists). By studying groups social researchers can reveal how social structure and
forces affect whole categories of people on the basis of race, class, or gender, for example. Social
researchers have done this in pursuit of understanding a wide range of social phenomena and
problems, like for example this study that proved that living in a racist place leads to Black
people having worse health outcomes than white people; or this study that examined the gender
gap across different nations to find out which are better or worse at advancing and protecting the
rights of women and girls.
Organizations
Organizations differ from groups in that they are considered more formal and, well, organized
ways of collecting people together around specific goals and norms. Organizations take many
forms, including corporations, religious congregations and whole systems like the Catholic
Church, judicial systems, police departments, and social movements, for example. Social
scientists who study organizations might be interested in, for example, how corporations like
Apple, Amazon, and Walmart impact various aspects of social and economic life, like how we
shop and what we shop for, and what work conditions have become normal and/or problematic
within the U.S. labor market. social researchers who study organizations might also be interested
in comparing different examples of similar organizations to reveal the nuanced ways in which
they operate, and the values and norms that shape those operations.
Cultural Artifacts

Social researchers know that we can learn a lot about our society and ourselves by studying the
things that we create, which is why many of us cultural artifacts. Cultural artifacts are all the
things that are created by humans, including the built environment, furniture, technological
devices, clothing, art and music, advertising and language--the list is truly endless. Social
researchers who study cultural artifacts might be interested in understanding what a new trend in
clothing, art, or music reveals about the contemporary values and norms of the society that
produces it and those who consume it, or they might be interested in understanding how
advertising might impact norms and behavior, especially in terms of gender and sexuality, which
has long been fertile ground for social science research.

Social Interactions
Social interactions also take a wide variety of forms and can include anything from making eye
contact with strangers in public, purchasing items in a store, conversations, engaging in activities
together, to formalized interactions like weddings and divorces, hearings, or court cases. Social
researchers who study social interactions might be interested in understanding how larger social
structures and forces shape how we behave and interact on a daily basis, or how they shape
traditions like Black Friday shopping or weddings. They might also be interested in
understanding how social order is maintained. Research has shown that this is done in part
by intentionally ignoring each other in crowded public spaces.

Research Proposal 

A research proposal is a document that provides a detailed description of the intended program.
A research proposal is a document written with the goal of presenting and justifying your interest
and need for conducting research on a particular topic. It must highlight the benefits and
outcomes of the proposed study, supported by persuasive evidence. A research proposal
describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will do the research. It is
like an outline of the whole research process that gives a reader a summary of the information
discussed in a project. The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will do, why it
should be done, how you will do it and what you expect the result. 

A research proposal is known as a work plan, prospectus, outline, statement of intent, or draft
plan. It is an individual's or company's offer to produce a product or render service to a potential
buyer or sponsor. It is essentially a roadmap, showing clearly the location from which a journey
begins the destination to be reached and the methods of getting it. The proposal tells us what,
how, where and to whom will be done. It must also show the benefit of doing research. 
Components of a research proposal 
 1. Title

2. Introduction Part 

2.1 Background of the Study

2.2 Statement of the Problem

2.3 Objectives

2.4 Hypothesis/Research Questions

2.5 Rational/Significance of the Study 

3. Literature Review (Theoretical and Empirical review) 
4. Research Methodology 
4.1 Study Area
4.2 Research Design
4.3 Nature and Sources of Data
4.4 Study Population, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
4.5 Tools/Techniques of Data Collection
4.6 Validity and Reliability of Data
4.7 Ethical Consideration 
4.8 Method of Data Analysis 5. Work Plan 6.
Limitation of the Study
7. References
8. Budget
9. Annex 
Title 
The first section of the research proposal will give the title. The function of the title is
to encapsulate in a few words the essence of your research. Its main purpose is to reflect
the essentials and intensions of the proposed research. 
The title of the proposed research work must be clear, concise and descriptive. 
• It should be within the researcher's real interest. 
• It should reflect the contents of the proposed study. 
• Have the researcher real interest. Contain issues that have a link with theory. 
 •The title should include key terms that readily identify the scope and nature of the study and
should be typed using all capital letters. 
• The title should clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. 
•It should be as short as possible. 
Introduction:
The introduction is written to provide a background or context related to your research problem.
It is important to frame the research question while writing the proposal.
The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your research, so make sure it concisely
explains what you want to do and why. It should:

 Introduce the topic
 Give background and context
 Outline your problem statement and research question(s)

Some important questions to guide your introduction include:

 Who has an interest in the topic (e.g. scientists, practitioners, policymakers, particular
members of society)?
 How much is already known about the problem?
 What is missing from current knowledge?
 What new insights will your research contribute?
 Why is this research worth doing?

If your proposal is very long, you might include separate sections with more detailed information
on the background and context, problem statement, aims and objectives, and importance of the
research.

The introduction usually covers the following elements:

 What is the purpose of your research or study?

 Mention the background information and significance before you introduce your research
question.
 Introduce your research question in a way that its significance is highlighted by setting
the stage for it.
 Briefly mention the issues that you are going to discuss and highlight in your study.
 Make sure that you identify the independent and dependent variables in the title of your
study.
 If there is a hypothesis or a theory related to your research, state it in the introduction.

Background Information 
Background information tells the reader of the proposal what you are proposing to do and why it
is important. This section introduces the subject matter of the topics. It includes the subject
matter from world, regional and national wise scenario. So, it needs some literature review in the
theme to review and cite the opinions those need to be understood to know with issues chosen
for the research. 
Statements of the Problem 
This is the focal point of the research. This section states the problem to be researched. Through
the knowledge generated in various parts of the world, importance to do research at proposed
place and theme is justified. Effective problem statements answer the question “why does
this research need to be conducted?" 
It provides a clear and concise description of the issues that need to be addressed.  This section
reviews various literature review related to the theme. Through these facts, the gap between the
previous and current work will be identified. These are more elaborated form of objectives. After
stating the problem, some research questions were followed. 
Objective of the Study 
A clear statement of objectives is a must. These need to be spelled out clearly and exactly when
do we do we hope to be able to achieve in the study. Objectives can be academic or applied or
both but they should be short and to the point. The objective functions to inform the readers of
the expressed purposed research effort. It is essentially an extended title that sets the stage for
the remaining sections of the proposal. In many proposals the objectives may suffice.
Formulation of hypothesis is not a necessity. The objectives should be stated using action verbs
that are specific enough to be measured: e.g. to compare...., to explore...., to identify ....., to
compare..to describe....., to determine....... to assess....., to analyze...., to explain....., etc. 
Do not use vague non-action verbs such as: to appreciate..., to understand...., to believe.... 
Objectives should also be S.M.A.R.T. - which means they should be:
Specific – be precise about what you are going to do.
Measurable –you will know when you have reached your goal.
Achievable – Don't attempt too much - a less ambitious but completed objective is better than an
over-ambitious one that you cannot possible achieve.
Realistic – do you have the necessary resources to achieve the objective (time, money, skills,
etc).
Time constrained – determine when each stage needs to be completed. Is there time in your
schedule to allow for unexpected delays. 
Objectives of the research can be expressed as general objective and specific objectives. 
General objective reflects the topics and specific objectives are possible supportive and
measurable objectives for general objective. 
Hypothesis 
Hypothesis is a formal statement of the relationship between variables to be investigated. You
should state: it is what you are going to test.  Hypothesis must be clear. The researcher must
make sure that there are methods available to test them. Hypothesis without the appropriate
method of testing them are non-researchable. 
The inability to frame good testable hypothesis is one of the major problems that researchers
face. This inability tells much about the research ability of the proposer. 
A hypothesis must be framed in such a way that it is conceivable to unambiguously test it. A
good but simple course in statistics, or much practice, will give some information as to how to
frame hypotheses. 
Significance of the Study:
The significance of your research will identify the importance of your work. It should be mainly
stated in the introductory paragraph. You must highlight how your research is beneficial to the
development of science and society in general. Similarly, you can also state its contribution to
the field in both the broader and narrow sense.
Literature Review 
It is the survey of scholarly articles, bools and other sources. It’s important to show that you’re
familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review convinces the
reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that
you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said.The following are the
basic purposes of the literature review.

 To give reference to the researchers whose study has been a part of your research.
 To help you construct a precise and clear research question.
 To critically evaluate previous literature information related to your research.
 To understand research issues relevant to the topic of your research.
 To convince the reader that your research is an important contribution to the relevant
niche.
Conceptual/ theoretical framework 
It shows how the variables under study are related. It Can be stated in diagrammatic or model
term. 
Methodology to be Followed 
This is the most important section of the proposal. The success or failure of a research project
may very well depend on the methodology used. This section explains how you are going to
conduct your research and the method you choose for your research question. Explain why the
specific method is suitable for your research and how will it help you attain your research goals.
Your research methodology will give you an organized plan for the research. So the proposal
should state precisely the methods to be used. Sections that might be included under this heading
are as follows: 
• Study Area 
• Research Design 
• Nature and Sources of Data 
• Sampling Design(Study Population, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure) 
• Tools/Techniques of Data Collection 
• Validity and Reliability of Data 
• Ethical Consideration 
• Method of Data Analysis  
Study Area 
It includes the description of the area in which research is going to be conducted. The rational of
choosing this arca for the related topics must be clearly mentioned in this section. 
Research Design 
The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to your research
questions. The research design sets out the logic of researcher's inquiry. Research design must be
valid, workable and manageable. We integrate the information logically. 
It describes the general framework for collection and analysis of identified data. It is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It consists the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of the data. It includes an outline of what the research will
do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of the data. It
includes whether the study is cross-sectional or longitudinal. It also mentions whether the
research is descriptive, exploratory, and analytical or any others. 
Nature and Sources of Data 
It includes whether the nature of data is qualitative or quantitative. It also includes whether the
sources of data is primary or secondary. 
Sampling Process (Study Population, Sample Size and Sampling procedure) 
The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target population. If the sample size is
large enough, it will not be cost effective and it also takes long time. On the other hand, if the
sample size is insufficiently small, it will not be representative of the total population. So,
deciding a suitable sample size, we should compromise between cost effectiveness and
representativeness of the sample. In this sense, a suitable sample size is a minimally adequate
sample size. In this section, we must mention about the sample size as well as population size. If
you are taking all the unit of population, it is census. Further, in order to answer the research
questions, there is a need to select a sample which will be the most representative of the
study population. This unit presents the steps to go through to conduct sampling. So, you have to
mention about the sampling method to select the sample from the population. Further you have
to mention the characteristics of the respondents with whom you are going to collect data. 
Tools/Techniques of Data Collection 
Data collection is also known as field work. Data collection is the primary task of the field work.
It is actually an initiation of the research works. Questionnaire, interview schedules,
observation schedules are used in data collection. However, the procedures used to obtain the
data vary depending on the research design chosen and the source of data. In this section, you
have to mention the tools and techniques to collect the data. How do you collect quantitative
data? How do you collect qualitative data? How do you collect primary data? How do you
collect secondary data? If you have to conduct any Focus group discussion or Key informant
interview or any cases, you have to mention how many FGDs you are going to conduct. You
have to mention how many Klls will you conduct and with whom you are going to take this
interview. You have to mention whether you are going to use structured or unstructured
questionnaire. You have also to mention if you are using checklist for FGDs and Kils. 
Validity and Reliability of Data 
Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how
well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a
measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure. 
How you will assure the validity and reliability of your study, you have to mention clearly. If
you have done any pre-test before conducting the final survey, you have to mention it. If you
have used any standard tools which are valid and already used, you have to mention it. 
Ethical Consideration 
If your research harms any of your respondents either physically or mentally, you have to take
ethical approval from the appropriate institute before starting data collection. There are two
types of consents i.e. verbal and written. If your research do not harm the respondents or do not
harm the respective environment, you have to take at least verbal consent to continue your
interview,  you have to mention the rational of your research and the benefit towards respondents
from your research. 
Method of Data Analysis 
After collection of the data, it has to be tabulated, edited, and analyzed using various statistical
tools. Data can be analyzed in several ways but should use most appropriate tool to assess the
reliability of data. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a manageable groups
and tables for further analysis. Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. 
This section shows how the data will be analyzed. You have to mention what type of statistics
i.e. descriptive or inferential statistics will be used. It depends upon the specific objectives of the
research, If you have qualitative data, you have to analyze manually or you have to use other
qualitative data analysis techniques. If your objective is only to describe, or to explore, to find, to
evaluate, you can use descriptive statistics. But if your objective is to find the factors associated
with some dependent categorical variable, then you have to use chi-square test. 
If you have to find the determinant of some dependent variable, you have to use the following
techniques of analysis: If your dependent variable is continuous type, you can use regression
analysis after checking its assumptions. If your dependent variable has two output responses, you
can use binary logistic regression analysis. If your dependent variable has more than two
categories, you can use multinomial logistic regression analysis. And there are also other
techniques to analyze it. If you have nominal and ordinal data, you can use non-parametric test. 
If you have to find the relationship between two continuous variables, you have to apply
correlational analysis. 
If you have to use regression analysis, you have to mention regression model indicating
dependent and independent variables. If you have any other techniques to meet your objective,
you have to mention clearly the steps of these techniques in this section. 
Work Plan/Gantt chart 
You have to mention the plan of your activities with time framework. It should include duration
of study, tentative date of starting the project and work schedule.
Limitation of the Study 
The limitations of a study are its flaws or shortcomings which could be the result of
unavailability of resources, small sample size,, flawed methodology, etc. No study is completely
flawless or inclusive of all possible aspects. Therefore, listing the limitations your study reflects
honesty and transparency and also shows that you have a complete understanding of the
topic. The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology
that impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research. They are
the constraints on generalizability, applications to practice, and/or utility of findings that are the
result of the ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method used to establish
internal and external validity or the result of unanticipated challenges that emerged during the
study. In this section, limitation of the study must be explained. 
References:
Your research proposal must include proper citations for every source you have used, and full
publication details should always be included in the reference list. To create citations quickly and
easily. In some cases, you might be asked to include a bibliography. This is a list of all the
sources you consulted in preparing the proposal, even ones you did not cite in the text, and
sometimes also other relevant sources that you plan to read. The aim is to show the full range of
literature that will support your research project.
Budget

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative relationship between two or more variables which direct the research
activity to test it.
A hypothesis is a testable prediction which is expected to occur which can be a false or a true
statement that is tested in the research to check its authenticity.
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis
to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it.
Sometimes, it is very difficult to start a research without having a valid foundation. Hence, the
research builds a logical relationship between various phenomena to start working on the
research. This logical relationship is relevant to the theme of the research. This logical
relationship between various phenomena is called a hypothesis. This logical relationship or
testable assumption gives a direction to the research. specifies the focus of the research and helps
in framing research techniques.
For instance, a researcher, working on a topic 'Discrimination against Women in a Rural
Society', will construct the following hypotheses:
• Higher the illiteracy in a society, higher will be the discrimination against the women • Higher
the patriarchy in a society, higher will be the discrimination against the women • Higher the
traditional practices in a society. higher will be discrimination against the women
Similarly. a researcher working on a topic 'Extent of Use of Family-Planning Practice in an area'
will devise the following hypothesis:
• Higher the standard of education, higher will be the use of family-planning practice • Higher
the availability of family-planning services. higher will be the use of family planning practice
Similarly. a researcher working on a topic 'Extent of Use of Family-Planning Practice in an area'
will devise the following hypothesis:
• Higher the standard of education, higher will be the use of family-planning practice • Higher
the availability of family-planning services. higher will be the use of family planning practice •
Higher the standards of living, higher will be the use of family-planning practice
■ Characteristics of Hypothesis
1. Empirically Testable 2. Simple and Clear 3. Specific and relevant 4. Predictable 5.
Manageable
■ Importance of Hypothesis
1. It gives a direction to the research. 2. It specifies the focus of the researcher. 3. It helps in
devising research techniques. 4. It prevents from blind research. 5. It ensures accuracy and
precision. 6. It saves resources - time, money and energy.
■ TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
The types of hypotheses are as follows:
1. Simple Hypothesis 2. Complex Hypothesis 3. Working or Research Hypothesis 4. Null
Hypothesis 5. Alternative Hypothesis 6. Logical Hypothesis 7. Statistical Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a hypothesis that reflects a relationship between two variables -
independent and dependent variable.
Examples:
• Higher the unemployment, higher would be the rate of crime in society. • Lower the use of
fertilizers. lower would be agricultural productivity. • Higher the poverty in a society. higher
would be the rate of crimes.
Complex Hypothesis
A complex hypothesis is a hypothesis that reflects relationship among more than two variables.
Examples:
• Higher the poverty, higher the illiteracy in a society, higher will be the rate of crime (three
variables - two independent variables and one dependent variable) • Lower the use of fertilizer,
improved seeds and modern equipments, lower would be the agricultural productivity (Four
variable - three independent variables and one dependent variable) • Higher the illiteracy in a
society, higher will be poverty and crime rate. (three variables - one independent variable and
two dependent variables)
Working Hypothesis
A hypothesis, that is accepted to put to test and work on in a research, is called a working
hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that is assumed to be suitable to explain certain facts and
relationship of phenomena. It is hoped that this hypothesis would generate a productive theory
and is accepted to put to test for investigation.
It can be any hypothesis that is processed for work during the research. O Alternative Hypothesis
If the working hypothesis is proved wrong or rejected. another hypothesis (to replace the
working hypothesis) is formulated to be tested to generate the desired results - this is known as
an alternate hypothesis.
As the name mentions. it is an alternate assumption (a relationship or an explanation) which is
adopted after the working hypothesis fails to generate required theory. Alternative Hypothesis is
denoted by
Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that expresses no relationship between variables. It negates
association between variables.
Examples:
• Poverty has nothing to do with the rate of crime in a society. • Illiteracy has nothing to do with
the rate of unemployment in a society.
A null hypothesis has its purpose. A null hypothesis is made with an intention where the
researcher wants to disapprove. reject or nullify the null hypothesis to confirm a relationship
between the variables. A null hypothesis is usually made for a reverse strategy - to prove it
wrong in order to confirm that there is a relationship between the variables. A null hypothesis is
denoted by Ho.
Statistical Hypothesis
A hypothesis. that can be verified statistically. is known as a statistical hypothesis.
It can be any hypothesis that has the quality of being verified statistically. It means using
quantitative techniques. to generate statistical data. can easily verify it. It can also be said that the
variables in a statistical hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to test it
statistically.
Logical Hypothesis
A hypothesis. that can be verified logically, is known as a logical hypothesis.
It is a hypothesis expressing a relationship whose inter-links can be joined on the basis of logical
explanation. It is can be verified by logical evidence. Being verified logically does not
necessarily mean that it cannot be verified statistically. It may or may not be verified statistically
but it can be verified logically.
Case Study:
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event,
organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical,
and business research.
A case study involves an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular case or
cases, within a real-world context. For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an
individual patient or ailment; case studies in business might cover a particular firm's strategy or a
broader market; similarly, case studies in politics can range from a narrow happening over time
(e.g., a specific political campaign) to an enormous undertaking (e.g., a World War).
A case study is an appropriate research design when one want to gain concrete, contextual, in-
depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key
characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.
Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the social and natural sciences.
Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief
system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (N=1), but may
include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods,
all within the same case study). Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called
cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research.
Case studies are good for describing, comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects
of a research problem.
Case studies have commonly been seen as a fruitful way to come up with hypotheses and
generate theories. Classic examples of case studies that generated theories includes
Darwin's theory of evolution (derived from his travels to the Easter Island), and Douglass North's
theories of economic development (derived from case studies of early developing states, such as
England).
Case studies are also useful for formulating concepts, which are an important aspect of theory
construction.
Ethnography:
Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular
community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word
“ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces
afterwards.
Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a
group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics.
The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and
practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and
interactions of people within a particular context.
By becoming immersed in a social environment, researcher may have access to more authentic
information and spontaneously observe dynamics that researcher could not have found out about
simply by asking.
Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a
general theory or test a hypothesis, it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture,
allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting. Ethnography is a time-
consuming method. Ethnographic research can run the risk of researcher bias. There are often
also ethical considerations to take into account.
Structured Interview:
A structured interview (also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-administered
survey) is a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research and aims to
ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same
order. Structured interviews are a means of collecting data for a statistical survey. In this case,
the data is collected by an interviewer rather than through a self-administered questionnaire.
Interviewers read the questions exactly as they appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of
answers to the questions is often fixed (close-ended) in advance, though open-ended questions
can also be included within a structured interview.
A structured interview also standardises the order in which questions are asked of survey
respondents, so the questions are always answered within the same context. This is important for
minimising the impact of context effects, where the answers given to a survey question can
depend on the nature of preceding questions. Though context effects can never be avoided, it is
often desirable to hold them constant across all respondents. By doing so, structured interviews
often have increased validity.
Semi-Structured Interview:
A semi-structured interview is a method of research used most often in the social sciences. While
a structured interview has a rigorous set of questions which does not allow one to divert, a semi-
structured interview is open, allowing new ideas to be brought up during the interview as a result
of what the interviewee says. The interviewer in a semi-structured interview generally has a
framework of themes to be explored. Semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative
research.
The specific topic or topics that the interviewer wants to explore during the interview are
typically thought about well in advance—especially during interviews for research projects. It is
generally beneficial for interviewers to have an interview guide prepared. An interview guide is
an informal grouping of topics and questions that the interviewer can ask in different ways for
different participants. Interview guides help researchers to focus an interview on the topics at
hand without constraining them to a particular format. This freedom can help interviewers to
tailor their questions to the interview context/situation, and to the people, they are interviewing.
Since a semi-structured interview is a combination of an unstructured interview and a structured
interview, it has the advantages of both. The interviewees can express their opinions and ask
questions to the interviewers during the interview, which encourages them to give more useful
information, such as their opinions toward sensitive issues, to the qualitative research. And they
could more easily give the reasons for their answers during the interviews. Plus, the structured
part of semi-structured interviews gives the interviewers reliable, comparable qualitative data as
well.
Even though a semi-structured interview has several advantages, it needs time for the
interviewers to prepare and do research before actually starting the interview. And in order to
make the results reliable, interviewers need to meet an adequate number of people to conduct the
interview. Since it allows people to freely express their thoughts, the interviewers need to
carefully plan the questions to make sure they can get the answers they want, which also requires
good communication and interviewing skills. Interviewers are responsible for the confidentiality
of the interviews.
Unstructured Interview;
An unstructured interview or non-directive interview is an interview in which questions are not
prearranged. These non-directive interviews are considered to be the opposite of a structured
interview which offers a set amount of standardized questions. They tend to be more informal
and free flowing than a structured interview, much like an everyday conversation. Probing is
seen to be the part of the research process that differentiates the in-depth, unstructured interview
from an everyday conversation. This nature of conversation allows for spontaneity and for
questions to develop during the course of the interview, which are based on the interviewees'
responses. The chief feature of the unstructured interview is the idea of probe questions that are
designed to be as open as possible. It is a qualitative research method and accordingly
prioritizes validity and the depth of the interviewees' answers. One of the potential drawbacks is
the loss of reliability, thereby making it more difficult to draw patterns among interviewees'
responses in comparison to structured interviews. Unstructured interviews are used in a variety
of fields and circumstances, ranging from research in social sciences, such as sociology, to
college and job interviews. Fontana and Frey have identified three types of in depth,
ethnographic, unstructured interviews - oral history, creative interviews (an unconventional
interview in that it does not follow the rules of traditional interviewing), and post-
modern interviews.

BASIS FOR
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

Meaning Structured Interview is one in Unstructured Interview refers to an

which a particular set of interview in which the questions to
predetermined questions are be asked to the respondents are not
prepared by the interviewer in set in advance.
advance.

Data collection Quantitative Qualitative

Research Descriptive Exploratory

Type of Questions Closed-ended questions Open-ended questions

Factors evaluated Explicit Implicit

Used by Positivist Interpretivist

Application To validate results, when the To probe personal details of the

number of candidates is quite candidate, so as to judge if he is the
large. right person for the job.
 BASIS FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

Meaning Questionnaire implies a form Interview is a formal conversation

consisting of a series of written or between the interviewer and
printed multiple choice questions, respondent wherein the two
to be marked by the informants. participates in the question answer
session.

Form Written Oral

Nature Objective Subjective

Questions Closed Ended Open Ended

Information Factual Analytical

provided

Order of questions Cannot be changed, as they are Can be changed as per need and
written in an appropriate sequence. preference.

Cost Economical Expensive

Time Informant's own time Real time

Communication One to many One to one

Non-response High Low

Identity of Unknown Known

respondent

BASIS FOR SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

COMPARISON
 BASIS FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

Meaning Survey refers to the collection, Questionnaire implies a form

recording and analysis of containing a list of ready made
information on a particular subject, questions, delivered to people for
an area or a group of people. obtaining statistical information.

What is it? Process of collecting and analyzing Instrument of data collection

data

Time Time consuming process Fast process

Use It is conducted on the target It is distributed or delivered to the

audience. respondents.

Questions Open/close ended Closed ended

Answers Subjective or Objective Objective

BASIS OF RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

COMPARISON

Meaning Research Method implies the Research methodology signifies

methods employed by the way to efficiently solving research
researcher to conduct research. problems.

What is it? Behavior and instrument used in Science of understanding, how

the selection and construction of research is performed methodically.
the research technique.

Encompasses Carrying out experiment, test, Study different techniques which

surveys and so on. can be utilized in the performance
of experiment, test, surveys etc.

Comprise of Different investigation techniques. Entire strategy towards

 BASIS FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

achievement of objective.

Objective To discover solution to research To apply correct procedures so as to

problem. determine solutions.

BASIS FOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL RESEARCH REPORT

COMPARISON

Meaning Research proposal refers to a brief Research Report refers to a

and cogent synopsis of the document that systematically,
proposed research in a written coherently and methodically
form. presents the research work in a
written form.

Written in Future Tense Past Tense

Preparation At the beginning of the project After the completion of the project

Length Short Comparatively long

Deals with Problem or topic to be Results of the completed research

investigated. work.

Determines What will be researched, why the What is researched, what sources
research is important and how the are used to collect data, how the
researched will be conducted? data is collected, what are the
findings, what are the
recommendations for future
research?

Chapters Introduction, Literature Review, Introduction, Literature Review,

Research Methodology Research Methodology, Results,
Interpretation and Analysis,
Conclusion and Recommendation
 BASIS FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

BASIS FOR EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

COMPARISON

Meaning Explorartory research means a Descriptive research is a research

research conducted for formulating that explore and explain an
a problem for more clear individual, group or a situation.
investigation.

Objective Discovery of ideas and thoughts. Describe characteristics and

functions.

Overall Design Flexible Rigid

Research process Unstructured Structured

Sampling Non-probability sampling Probability sampling

Statistical Design No pre-planned design for analysis. Pre-planned design for analysis.

Survey Research Definition

Survey is an extensive cross sectional approach, where a number of cases are considered at a
particular time and the data is gathered to study the opinions, behavior, attitudes, habits, desires,
values and beliefs etc. (the characteristics of certain population are studied).

Survey is a type of research to obtain information by gathering data from a particular sample of
a given population, through personal or impersonal means, to study its characteristics.
1. Personal means, The Interviews
2. Impersonal means, Questionnaires, Mails, Telephone etc. The findings are finally
generalized.
In education, the surveys are used for many purposes, e.g. knowledge level, curriculum,
administration, educational policies, programme and such other fields. Educational problems are
dealt through descriptive surveys by which they are identified and then means and measures are
introduced to solve these problems.

Steps in Survey Research

In order to conduct a research of survey type, the following important steps are to be taken.
 1. Defining the purpose and objective of the study i.e. the problem, why to conduct a
research and what is its worth, the clear objectives formulation etc. are included in
the first step of survey research.
2. Selecting and defining the target population, i.e. upon which the study is based.
3. Choosing and selecting techniques for data gathering. (i.e. the instrument like
interview, questionnaire etc. to be used for data collection). The selection of
instrument depends upon the cost, applicability and the research design.
4. A major and good representative (sample) of the population is to be taken (i.e. this
is the step of sampling).
5. The process of data gathering (or simply the step of executing the research), where
the interviews, questionnaires or any other instrument is used for which the
questions are pre designed.
6. The questionnaire (if used) is then followed up. The questions asked from the
interviewee are answered, evaluated and hence the process of data gathering is
completed.
7. The data gathered is processed, analyzed, and interpreted, from which the results
are concluded and the findings are then generalized.
8. The whole study is then presented in the form of research report (called survey
report) for the purpose of transmission and further study. Thus the survey type of
research is completed while following the above 8 steps.
Survey Research Design
Conducting accurate surveys has utmost importance in market research where companies spend
huge amount of money on findings about people needs and want. Accurate research can lead the
company to success while inaccurate research can cost millions.

The survey research design is a powerful tool for knowing the market trends. It is helpful both
on large and small scale i.e. judging public opinion with quality designed surveys can lead to
successful strategies.
1. Establishing the Aims of Your Research
2. Researching and Determining Your Sample Group
3. Methodology means choosing methods to reach people.
4. Structuring and Designing the Questionnaire
5. Cover Note specify your identify objective and who the subject can contact you
back.
6. Types of Question or question structure
7. Analyzing Your Results
8. At the end be self-critic while concluding survey research design.
What is Research Design
Research design is a pre-planned sketch for the explanation of a problem. It is the first step to
take and the whole research. Study will conduct on the basis of this research design. It gives us
a due that how the further process would be taking place and how would be the research study
carry into classification, interpretation and suggestions. This is a guideline for the whole work.
Definitions of Research Design
Some of the researcher & sociologists has given their definitions.
 1. Vimal Shah: “Research Design is a plan of study whether controlled or
uncontrolled and subjective as well as objective”.
2. Ackoff: “It is the process of making decisions before the situation arises in which
the decisions are to be carried out after for control”.
3. Miller: “Researcher Design is a planned sequence of the entire process involved in
the conducting of as research study”.
4. E.A. Suchaman: “It is a series of guide lines or steps to keep one in right path”.
5. Kerlinges: “Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigations to
obtain answers to the research questions”.
It has been concluded from the above definitions that, “It is pre-proposed sketch, outlines or plan
which is prepared for the undertaking of the whole study is future”.

Characteristics of a Good Research Design

Following are some of the main characteristics of research design.

1. Objectivity
2. Precision
3. Reliability
4. Validity
5. Generalization
Types of Research Design
There are different types of research design depend on the nature of the problem and objectives
of the study. Following are the four types of research design.

1. Explanatory Research Design

2. Descriptive Research Design
3. Diagnostic Research Design
4. Experimental Research Design
Explanatory Research Design
In explanatory research design a researcher uses his own imaginations and ideas. It is based on
the researcher personal judgment and obtaining information about something. He is looking for
the unexplored situation and brings it to the eyes of the people. In this type of research there is no
need of hypothesis formulation.

Descriptive Research Design

In descriptive research design a researcher is interested in describing a particular situation or
phenomena under his study. It is a theoretical type of researcher design based on the collection
designing and presentation of the collected data. Descriptive research design covers the
characteristics of people, materials, Scio-economics characteristics such as their age, education,
marital status and income etc. The qualitative nature data is mostly collected like knowledge,
attitude, beliefs and opinion of the people. Examples of such designs are the newspaper articles,
films, dramas, and documentary etc.
Diagnostic Research Design
Here researcher wants to know about the root causes of the problem. He describes the factors
responsible for the problematic situation. It is a problem solving research design that consists
mainly:

1. Emergence of the problem

2. Diagnosis of the problem
3. Solution for the problem and
4. Suggestion for the problem solution
Experimental Research Design
In this type of research design is often uses in natural science but it is different in social sciences.
Human behavior cannot be measured through test-tubes and microscopes. The social researcher
use a method of experiment in that type of research design. One group is subjected to experiment
called independent variables while other is considered as control group called dependent
variable. The result obtained by the comparison of both the two groups. Both have the cause and
effect relationship between each other.

Meaning of Research Problem

The term problem has been derived from a Greek word which means anything thrown forward or
a question proposed for situation or a matter stated for examination.

Definition of Research Problem

Following are some of the important definitions of research problem
1. R.S Woodworth: “A problem is a situation for which we have no ready made
solution”.
2. John Dewey: “A problem represents the information’s acquired by a researcher
and seeks solution for it”.
3. K. Person: “A problem is that situation if we modified will bring solution in the
difficulty”.
4. Gibson: “A problem is really a spring board for a leap in to the unknown”.
We can say from the above definitions that, problem is a disturbing situation which needs a
solution.

Identification of Research Problem

Identification is a sense of consciousness and awareness about a social phenomena. Identification
of a problem is very difficult and have no specific rules and principles but following are some
sources for identification of a social problem.
1. Researcher Knowledge
2. Keen observation
3. Careful Investigation
4. Cause and effect relationships
Research Problem Formulation Components & Condition
Components of Research Problem Formulation
Research always stated from the words “what and why” and then the selection of suitable
answers for these words. According to Morton, the important research components are the
following three.

1. What a person wants to know?

2. Why a person wants to know?
3. Possible answers for these questions.
Conditions for Problem Formulation
Some of the important conditions for problem formulation are as under.

1. Knowledge about the selected area

2. Knowledge about the problem
3. Critical mind of the researcher
4. Availability of the resources
5. Research equipment & tools
6. Analysis experience
7. Findings and report writing
Research Proposal Process of Problem Formulation
Following are the main steps to take in the formulation of a research proposal.

1. Title of the problem

2. Statement of the problem
3. Overview of literature
4. Conceptual Framework
5. Objectives of the study
6. Hypothesis designing
7. Scope and universe
8. Tools of data collection
9. Methodology
10. Time Budgeting
11. Cost estimation
12. Research Report
Types of Research Problem, Theoretical, Applied & Action
There are three types of research problem
1. Theoretical research problem
2. Applied research problem
3. Action research problem
Theoretical Research Problem
It is the theoretical explanation of a research problem. It gives only theory and meaning of the
problem. It defines the problem theoretically. This type of research has no need of hypothesis
and verification.
Features
1. It is exploratory
2. It is theoretical in nature
3. It provides basic meaning
Applied Research Problem
An applied social research problem is a practical use of the theoretical knowledge. In that type
the field work and visits to the problematic situation is necessary. It has the design of hypothesis
and verification.

Features
1. It is practical in nature
2. It has exploratory hypothesis
3. It wants the verification
Action Research Problem
Action research problem is that one for which the immediate solution is required. It has millions
of problems in the world that type of research is continuous and needs quick solution in
emergency basis.

Features
1. It is welfare oriented.
2. It is service oriented.
3. It is sensitive and immediate decision required for solution.
Selection of Research Problem
There are some suggestion for the graduate students and researchers which are drawn from the
different areas of education, social sciences as well as psychology. There are two factors in the
selection of topic external and personal. External criteria involves how the topic is important
for the field, availability of both data and data collection methods and the administration is
cooperative or not. Personal Criteria means researcher own interest, time and cost. Criteria for
selection of research problem depends on the following characteristics.
Personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would
select that problem for his research work.
Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If
these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection
place, then the selection of the problem is easy.
Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the selection of
research problem. If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher tends towards the
selection of the problem.
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Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of
the research problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well
collection of the research data. He can bitterly select a problem.
Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness of the
problem is the main motivation for a researcher to attend it.
Time-lines of the Problem. some problems take little time for its solution while others take
more time. So, it depends on the time in which we have to complete his research work.
Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be
selected.
Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem
must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The
researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem.
Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem.
Characteristic of Research Problem
Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a great effort. Selection of
research topic is the first step to success.

1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It should not distract
people.
2. If a topic is well define is the only way to successful research. The topic should not
create doubt and double impression.
3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if necessary otherwise
focus of simplicity.
4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There are different rules of
titling, a researcher must aware before writing a research title.
5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a researcher should also be
considered. Topic should not be obsolete and it should have great importance in the
current day.

Types of Research on the Basis of Purpose

Following are the different types of research on the basis of purpose.
Pure Research
Pure research is theoretical type not a practical one. Pure research is the knowledge of facts and
theories to give us satisfaction of knowledge and understanding. It discovers general principles
for a problem solution. Following are some of the features.

1. It keeps the foundation of initial study.

2. It discovers new facts.
3. It gives theoretical reports for solution.
Applied Research
Applied research is the implementation of theoretical study upon a problematic situation. It
applied its theories and facts to know about the nature of the problem and give a concrete shape
for the solution. This is practical work in the field. Following are the features of such type of
research.

1. It tests and verifies theories

2. It discovers new facts
3. It gives immediate answer to a question
Action Research
Action research is based on the taking of immediate action on a happening, event or situation.
The researcher is actively involved in the solution of the problems. Second World War created
many types of problems for which action research was necessary. These problems including
(flood, epidemic, earthquake, fire) etc. features are as under.

1. It is quick service oriented

2. It is taking immediate action
3. It is sensitive to time and place
Evaluation Research
This type of research is an evaluation of some programs working for the construction of
problematic areas. It is the dankness of implemented programmes about their effects and positive
solution. There are three main types of evaluation.

1. Concurrent evaluation-means continuous process

2. Phase or periodic evaluation-stage wise.
3. Terminal evaluation-Evaluation after the completion of the programme.
Inter Disciplinary Research
It is the study of structure or functions of a particular discipline or comparison of one discipline
with another. In other words it is the comparison of a developmental stage. It is also called co-
ordinate research. Features are the following.

1. It is a cooperative research
2. It helps in study the whole phenomena
It brings comparison in different disciplines

Types of Research on the Basis of Method

Research can be divided on the basis of different approaches & Methods. On the basis of method
research has the following types.

Historical Research
Historical research is that type in which the facts are collected from past events. In this type of
research historical approaches are used for preparing data in order to solve a problematic
situation.

Descriptive Research
In descriptive research a researcher observe a problem and write an article about its causes and
effects. It is the personal ideas of a researcher. He writes a story which gives knowledge about
the root causes of problems. It’s also show causal and effect relationship.

Ex-post-Facto Research
In this type of research a researcher study the varying influence of two identical factors. It
studies the influence of cause-effect & effect-cause upon each other. Two variables are used in
this research. One is called independent while other is called dependent variable. If we want to
see the impact of Arabic & English education in the future, a careful study of past events is
required because it depends on past knowledge. In simple words in this research the investigator
bring over the past study, identifies the present and make planning for future.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is based on experiments. It this type of research the two variables, i.e.
independent & dependent are taken and their critical examination is carried out. These are
observed, tested and verified in case of validity. Experimental research may be conduct in
laboratory or field.

Field Study
Field study is the practical work in a given area. a research gees to the field and observe the
problematic situation and then make a design of its collected data. This type of data would be
more accurate due to the self-observation of the researcher and its participation in community.

Social Research Methodology Meaning, Definition & Objectives

Meaning of Social Research
Social Research is a composite of two words “re means again” and search which means to find
or to dig or to discover. So the whole word means a process of finding or digging again & again.
Literally, research means investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts or additional
information. In pure and social sciences, research means to discover answers to questions by the
applications of scientific methods and procedures.

Definition of Social Research

Different social scientists & researcher has defined the word differently. Some of their views are
as under.

Goode & Hatt: It is a systematic method of discovering new facts and verifying old ones with
their sequence interrelationship and caused explanation.
Webster’s Dictionary: “defines it as a careful and critical investigation is the light of newly
discovered facts.
Johoda: “It is a continuous investigation for facts is order to solve a problematic situation”,
Roger Bennet: “Research is the discovering of facts through systematic and scientific process.
Fogg: “It is the systematic process of pre-planned inquiry”.
In the light of the above definitions & meaning concluded that, research is a systematic &
scientific method of discovering new facts & verifying old ones is order to solve a problematic
situation.

Objectives of Social Research

Following are the important objectives of social research:

Academic Objectives
Academic objectives of Research has the following categories

1. To find new propositions

2. To discover new facts
 3. To propose and intimate knowledge for academicians
Utilitarian Objectives
it contains the following sub-objectives.

1. To find the various causes for problem

2. To provide principles of problem solution
3. To give remedies for a social problem

Definition of social research is a scientific study about society and how people behave and
affect each other.
Social research investigates outside the direct experience of researchers and helps to explain how
communities are formed, for example, economic growth, the implementation of legal, politics or
etc.
Scopes of Social Research are:
1. Demographic and Social Statistics, Methods and Computation
Demography is the study of changes and population trends using resources such as birth data,
death and disease and others.
Social Statistics, Methods and Computational involve the collection and analysis of quantitative
and qualitative data.

2. Developmental Study, Human Geography and Environmental Planning

Developmental study is a multidisciplinary branch of social sciences that discusses about various
social and economic issues related to the development or study of poor countries.
Human geography studies people, society and culture, especially regarding the impact on the
environmental changes.
Environmental planning explores decision-making process in managing the system of human and
nature relationship.
3. Economics, Management and Business Study
Economics tries to understand how individuals interact in the social structure to answer key
questions about the production and exchange of goods and services.
Management and Business Study explore various aspects related to business management such
as strategic and operational, organizational psychology, work relationship, marketing,
accounting, finance and logistics.
4. Education, Social Anthropology and Linguistics
Education is one of the most important social sciences that explores how people learn and
develop.
Social anthropology is the study of how society and human social structures are organized and
understandable.
Linguistics focuses on language and how people communicate through the spoken voice and
words.
5. Legal, Economic and Social History
Legal focuses on the rule made by the government and people to make sure the society becoming
more orderly.
Economic and Social History see the past events to learn from history and to more understand
the process of contemporary society.
6. Politics and International Relations
Politics focuses on democracy and the relationship between humans and policy at all levels from
the individual to the national and international levels.
International Relation is the study of relationship among countries, including the role of other
organizations.
7. Psychology and Sociology
Psychology studies the human mind and tries to understand how people and groups experience a
variety of emotions, ideas, and awareness.
Sociology involves a group of people, not individuals, and tries to understand how people relate
to each other and function as a society or a social sub-group.
8. Technology Study
Technology Study relates to the role of technology in society, the policy and debates that form
modern technology.
9. Social Policy
Social policy is interdisciplinary and subject concerned on community responses analysis to
social needs with focus on the aspects of society, economy and the implementation of policies to
improve social justice.
ESEARCH: MEANING, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is an essential and powerful tool is leading man towards progress. Without systematic
research there would have been very little progress. John W. Best has rightly said “The secret of
our cultural development has been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering
new truths, which in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better products”.

Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life. New products, new facts, new concepts
and new ways of doing things are being found due to ever increasing significant research in the
physical, the biological, the social and the psychological fields. Research today is no longer
confined to the science laboratory. The manufacturers, the agricultural experts and the
archeologists are carrying on research in their respective spheres, besides, the sociologists,
anthropologists, economists and educationists.

C.C. Crawford, “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a
problem than would be possible under ordinary means.”

Francis Bacon, “Research is a power of suspending judgement with patience of meditating with
pleasures of asserting with caution, of correcting with readiness of arranging thought with
scrupulous plan.”

SCOPE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Social research as a scientific tool to study and analyze social problems has immense value. It
studies them in a purely scientific spirit i.e. with a view to understand their structure. A social
scientist records and collects significant facts and figures of social problems and this in turn
 makes possible correct generalizations about them. The basic scope of social research is to
understand sooner or later but correctly the nature of social events and processes and though this
is done without any motive of particular reforms the conclusions cannot be ruled out. In brief,
following are the scope of social research.

i.      Knowledge Building: Generalizations drawn have a certain effect on the established corpus of

knowledge. A general proposition having been established as an outcome of research may extend
the bounds of knowledge existing at a point in time. It may, if it does not fit a certain body of
existing knowledge in the sense of not arguing well with the expectations that can be legitimately
drawn from it, exert pressure on the scientist to bring about certain amendments or modifications
in this body of knowledge in view of the discordant note struck by this new general proposition.
Contrarily, if the generalization fits the established corpus of knowledge, it lends added credence
to it.

Thus the new statements of generality emanating as research outcomes serve as scales for
verification of the existing system of knowledge is only repeating the obvious. As has been noted
research involves testing to find out whether the empirical observations presented as general
statements are in accord with the predictions that may be made on the basis of the existing body
of knowledge. If such is not the case, the system needs to be revised or even rejected. An
important aspect of scientific activity is verification of conclusions which have found place in the
established system of knowledge.

ii.      Study of Social Problem: Where there is knowledge, ignorance cannot exist. The best way of
removing superstitions, blind beliefs etc. is to transplant true knowledge in their stead. For
example,  before the intensive social research came into crime the social causes of crime were not
realized and people thought that propensity to crime was inherited. But now all this has changed.

The scourge of ignorance is one greatest block to social progress. It breeds superstitions and
blind faith in traditions, it keeps orthodoxy alive. By unraveling the intricate and complex
phenomenon of popular beliefs, social research enables us to attack vigorously the citadels of
orthodoxy of stop its growth. Gradually new knowledge seeps in popular mind and thus
superstitions become diluted and ultimately removed. The key to the solution of social problems
is their accurate and unbiased analysis and thereby to understand the causal factors responsible
for them. The analysis of an untrained observer is not dispassionate and precise. Only a social
scientist is competent to undertake this task. Social scientists have successfully analyzed the
problems of regionalism, casteism, linguism, communalism etc.

iii.      Theory making and policy making: The extended, corrected and verified knowledge may be
put to two possible uses:
a.    Theoretical. Knowledge thus acquired may be used for constructing theoretic models. In other
words, knowledge may be organized into propositions and these propositions may then be
meaningfully articulated to form a more abstract conceptual system affording estimations about a
class of thing or phenomena governed by a specified set of conditions. Such use of knowledge is
often labeled as theory-oriented and the activities of a scientist who seeks knowledge for the sake
of building theories of, ‘non-utilitarian’ import are often known as ‘pure’ ‘basic’ or
‘theoretical’ research. Knowledge for the sake of knowledge i.e. only for the satisfaction of
‘knowing’ is the attitude that underlies scientific activity of this order.

b.   Practical. The researches which seek knowledge will be used mainly for policy making which can
be used to solve various problems confronted by our society. They may serve some practical
ends which are often called ‘applied’ ‘action-oriented’ or ‘practice-oriented’. We shall be
considering this aspect in greater details when an action oriented research has to be taken up.
One should not consider these two orientations as comprising a perfect dichotomy. There is
nothing as practical as a good theory and that endeavours to solve practical problems have many
a time given birth to theories i.e. practice is quite often “blessing for the development of theory”.
Theory helps us to identify gaps in our knowledge and seek to bridge them with institutive,
impressionistic or extensional generalizations.

Laws propagate when they are united in a theory. As Karl Jespers said ‘It is only when using
methodologically classified sciences that we know what we know and what we do not know.
This way, theory constitutes a crucially important guide to designing of fruitful research.’

 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the
significance of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress
possible. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development
of logical habits of thinking and organisation.

The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational
problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for
government and business.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to
probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can
devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.

Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature
of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such
information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic
structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for
the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations
research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the
solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be
termed as optimisation problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as
they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the
determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market) behaviour. All these are of great
help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking business decisions.
Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given
knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its
supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an
integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a
projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn depends on
 business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment
programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and financing plans.
Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know
for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in
social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what
it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate
in the case of social science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body
of principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked
to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”

In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:

(a)  To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure;

(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;

(c)  To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work;

(e)  To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a
better way.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data about groups of
individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a questionnaire form is sent
usually by post to the persons concerned, with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
1. According to Goode and Hatt, “It is a device for securing answers to questions by using
a form which the respondent fills in himself”.
2. According to G. Lundburg, “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to
which illiterate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under social
stimuli.”
3. According to G. A. Lundberg, “Fundamentally the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to
which illiterate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behavior under these
stimuli”.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data about groups of
individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a questionnaire form is sent
usually by post to the persons concerned, with a  request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
There is a vast variety of questionnaires that have been classified in several ways. P. V. Young
has confined all the major types of questionnaires into three type’s viz. structured, unstructured
and pictorial questionnaire.
1. Structured Questionnaires: According to P.V. Young structured questionnaires are those
which pose definite, concrete and pre-ordained questions, i.e., they are prepared in advance and
not constructed on the spot during the questioning period.
This questionnaire uses highly standardized techniques and set of pre-determined questions. It
includes both closed and open ended questions.
 Closed Ended Questions: It is used when categorized data are required or when
the researcher want to make various classifications for his study.
Example of closed end question is: “How many from your family are educated?” Only
one/two/three/four/five or more than five.
Here the respondent goes through all those given responses and chooses one which is true for his
situation.
 Open Ended Questions: The open ended responses are free and spontaneous
expression on the part of the informant who is not limited in his replies to a
particular question posed on him.
Example of open ended question is: “What are you thinking about the educational qualification
of your family members?”.
Here the subject can write freely and frankly their concrete views with no directions from the
researcher. The open-ended responses are used chiefly for intensive studies of a limited number
of cases or for preliminary exploration of new problems and situation.
2. Unstructured Questionnaires:Unstructured questionnaires are frequently referred to as
‘interview guides’, also aim at precision and contain definite subject matters area, the coverage
of which is required during the interview. The researcher is also having a greater freedom to ask
any supplementary question of the respondents.
This is characterized by a greater flexible approach in questioning the respondents. It is of a non-
directive type which involves relatively much less standardization of techniques and operation.
Here the respondents have the freedom to express any event that seems significant to them, to
give their own definition of an event or a situation and to narrate any particular incident of his
life.
3. Pictorial questionnaire: Pictures have been used in some questionnaires in order to promote
some interest and motivation among the respondents for answering the questions. It is useful for
those respondents who are least educated. Pictorial techniques have been used extensively in
studies of social attitudes and prejudices in children.
Thus, a questionnaire helps us to provide the speediest and simple technique of gathering data
about groups of individuals scattered in a wide and extended field.

ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
The questionnaire is regarded as the most useful research tool. As an instrument of science, it has
great potentialities when it is properly used. If it is eliminated, progress in many areas of research
would be greatly handicapped. The following are the chief advantages –
1. Economical: It is an economical way of accumulating information. It is economical both
for the sender and for the respondent in time, effort and cost. The cost of conducting the study
with the help of questionnaire method is very low. In questionnaire the researcher has to spend
for paper printing and postage only. There is no need to visit each and every respondent
personally. So it does not require high cost for conduct of the research.
2. Accessibility to widespread respondents: When the respondents are separated
geographically, they can be reached by correspondence which saves travel cost.
3. Rapidity: Replies may be received very quickly in questionnaire method. In this case
there is no need to visit the respondent personally or continue the study over a long period.
4. Suitable in Special Type of Response: The information about certain personal, secret
matters can be best obtained through questionnaire method. For example, information about a
sexual relationship, marital relationship, secret desires etc., can be easily obtained by keeping the
names of the respondents anonymous.
5. Repetitive Information: Compared to other methods like schedule, interview or
observation, questionnaire method is regarded as more useful and cheap, where the repetitive
information has to be collected at regular interval.
6. An Easier Method: Questionnaire is comparatively an easier method to plan, construct
and administer. It does not require much technical skill or knowledge.
7. It Puts Less Pressure on the Respondents: It puts less pressure on the respondents for
immediate response. He can answer it at his own leisure, whereas interview or observation
demands specific fixation of time and situation.
8. Uniformity: It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention on all the significant items.
As it is administered, in a written form, its standardized instructions for recording responses
ensure some uniformity. Questionnaire does not permit much of variation.
9. Useful Preliminary Tool: Questionnaire may be used as a preliminary tool for
conducting a depth study later on by any other method.
10. Greater Validity: Questionnaire has some unique merits as regards validity of
information. In methods like interview and observation, the reliability of responses depends on
the way the investigator has recorded them. Here they may present biased or prejudiced
information of their own. But in questionnaire method, the responses given by the subjects are
available in their own language and version. Therefore, it cannot be wrongly interpreted by the
researcher.
11. Greater Anonymity: Questionnaire ensures anonymity to its respondents. The
respondents have a greater confidence that they will not be identified by anybody for giving a
particular view or opinion. They feel more comfortable and free to express their view in this
method.
12. Most Flexible Tool for Data Collection: Questionnaire is no doubt the most flexible
tool in collecting both quantitative and qualitative information.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. The mailed questionnaires can be used only for educated people. This restricts the
number of respondents.
2. The return rate of questionnaires is low. The common return rate is 30 to 40 per cent.
3. The mailing address may not be correct which may omit some eligible respondents. Thus,
the sample selected many a time is described as biased.
4. Sometimes different respondents interpret questions differently. The misunderstanding
cannot be corrected.
5. There may be bias in the response selectivity because the respondent having no interest in
the topic may not give response to all questions. Since the researcher is not present to explain the
meaning of certain concepts, the respondent may leave the question blank.
6. Questionnaires do not provide an opportunity to collect additional information while they
are being completed.
7. Researchers are not sure whether the person to whom the questionnaire was mailed has
himself answered the questions or somebody else has filled up the questionnaire.
8. Many questions remain unanswered. The partial response affects the analysis.
9. The respondent can consult other persons before filling in the questionnaire. The
responses, therefore, cannot be viewed as his opinions.
10. The reliability of respondent’s background information cannot be verified. A middle-
class person can identify himself as rich person or a person of intermediate caste can described
himself as upper-caste person.
11. Since the size of the questionnaire has to be kept small, full information cannot be
secured form the respondents.
12. There is lack of depth or probing for a more specific answer.
Key Informant Interview (KII)
Key informant interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews with people who know what is
going on in the community. The purpose of key informant interviews is to collect information
from a wide range of people—including community leaders, professionals, or residents—who
have first hand knowledge about the community. These community experts, with their
particular knowledge and understanding, can provide insight on the nature of problems and
give recommendations for solutions. The following are two common techniques used to
conduct key informant interviews:
• Telephone Interviews
• Face-to-Face Interviews
When to conduct key informant interviews:
• To get information about a pressing issue or problem in the community from a limited
number of well-connected and informed community experts.
• To understand the motivation and beliefs of community residents on a particular issue.
• To get information from people with diverse backgrounds and opinions and be able to ask in-
depth and probing questions.
• To discuss sensitive topics, get respondents’ candid discussion of the topic, or to get the
depth of information you need. Individual or small group discussions (two to three people
maximum) create a comfortable environment where individuals can have a frank and open in-
depth discussion.
• To get more candid or in-depth answers. The focus group dynamic may prohibit you from
candidly discussing sensitive topics or getting the depth of information you need. Sometimes
the group dynamic can prevent some participants from voicing their opinions about sensitive
topics.
Advantages of Key Informant Interviews:
• Detailed and rich data can be gathered in a relatively easy and inexpensive way
• Allows interviewer to establish rapport with the respondent and clarify questions
• Provides an opportunity to build or strengthen relationships with important community
informants and stakeholders
• Can raise awareness, interest, and enthusiasm around an issue
• Can contact informants to clarify issues as needed
Disadvantages of Key Informant Interview:
• Selecting the “right” key informants may be difficult so they represent diverse backgrounds
and viewpoints
• May be challenging to reach and schedule interviews with busy and/or hard-to-reach
respondents
• Difficult to generalize results to the larger population unless interviewing many key
informants

Research is a process of executing various mental acts for discovering and examining facts and
information to prove the accuracy or truthfulness of your claims or conclusions about the topic
of your research.
 Research requires you to inquire or investigate about your chosen research topic by asking
questions that will make you engage yourself in top-level thinking strategies of interpreting,
analyzing, synthesizing, criticizing, appreciating, or creating to enable you to discover truths
about the many things you tend to wonder about the topic of your research work. (Litchman
2013).
It promotes people’s interdependence or interpersonal relationships that the world needs for
solving its societal problems.  Research studies happen in any field of knowledge.
Anthropology, Business, Communication, Education, Engineering, Law, and Nursing, among
others, turn in a big number of research studies that reflect varied interests of people.
Importance of Research in Daily Life  Resulting from internal aspects, people cannot measure
worldviews but can know them through numbers. Obtaining world knowledge in this manner
directs you to do a research called Qualitative Research. This is a research type that puts
premium or high value on people’s thinking or point of view conditioned by their personal
traits.  As such, it usually takes place in soft sciences like social sciences, politics, economics,
humanities, education, psychology, nursing, and all business-related subjects. Importance of
Research in Daily Life  In a qualitative research, the reality is conditioned by society and
people’s intentions are involved in explaining cause-effect relationships. Things are studied in
their natural setting, enough for you to conclude that qualitative research is an act of inquiry or
investigation of real-life events. Importance of Research in Daily Life  The scientific approach
of research gives stress to measurable and observable facts instead of personal views, feelings,
or attitudes. It can be used in researches under the hard sciences or STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, Medicine) and natural sciences (Biology, Physics, Chemistry). Importance of
Research in Daily Life  The naturalistic approach is people-oriented and focuses on discovering
the real concept or meaning behind people’s lifestyles and social relations.  It is useful in
social sciences, which to others exists as soft sciences. Considered as soft sciences are
Anthropology, Business, Education, Economics, Law, Politics, and all subjects aligned with
business and all those focused on helping professions such as, Nursing, Counseling, Physical
Therapy, and the like. (Babbie 2013) Importance of Research in Daily Life  From a social
science researcher’s viewpoint, these qualitative data resulting from naturalistic approach of
research serves as the basis for determining universal social values to define ethical or unethical
behavior that society ought to know, not only for the benefit of every individual and community
but also for the satisfaction of man’s quest for knowledge. (Sarantakos 2013; Ransome 2013)
Importance of Research in Daily Life  In the field of Humanities, man’s social life is also
subjected to research studies. However, researchers in this area give emphasis not to man’s
social life, but to the study of the meanings, significance, and visualizations of human
experiences in the fields of Fine Arts, Literature, Music, Drama, Dance, and other artistically
inclined subjects. Importance of Research in Daily Life Researches in these subjects happen in
any of the following humanistic categories:  Literature and Art Criticism where the
researchers, using well-chosen language and appropriate organizational pattern, depend
greatly on their interpretative and reflective thinking in evaluating the object of their study
critically. Importance of Research in Daily Life Researches in these subjects happen in any of the
following humanistic categories: 1. Philosophical Research where the focus of inquiry is on
knowledge and principles of being and on the manner human beings conduct themselves on
earth. 2. Historical Research where the investigation centers on events and ideas that took
place in man’s life at a particular period. Importance of Research in Daily Life  Just like in other
subjects under soft sciences such as marketing, man’s thoughts and feelings still take center
stage in any research studies.  The importance of any researches in any of these two areas in
business are to increase man’s understanding of the truths in line with markets and marketing
activities, making him more intelligent in arriving at decisions about these aspects of his life.
Research types that are useful for these areas are the basic and applied research. (Feinberg
2013) Importance of Research in Daily Life  Qualitative research is important in promoting a
full understanding of human behavior or personality traits in their natural setting.  Research is
instrumental for positive societal changes.  It engenders respect for people’s individuality as it
demands the researcher’s careful and attentive stand toward people’s world views. Importance
of Research in Daily Life  Research helps in a way of understanding and interpreting social
interactions.  Research increases the researcher’s interest in the study as it includes the
researcher’s experience or background knowledge in interpreting verbal and visual data. • It
offers multiple ways of acquiring and examining knowledge about something.

What Is Research?

Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the

stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this
stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm
the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop
new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the
validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior
projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied
research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D)
of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research
depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and
sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, artistic, economic, social, business,
marketing, practitioner research, life, technological etc.

Research has been defined in a number of different ways.

A broad definition of research is given by Godwin Colibao – “In the broadest sense of the word,
the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge.’’

Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell who states that – “Research is a
process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic
or issue”. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and
present an answer to the question.

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as “a studious

inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws”

Importance of research

Research is actually an act of studying something carefully and extensively in order to attain
deep knowledge in the same. For being successful, research should be systematic, arranged,
summarized and recorded properly. Research is not only a process that is limited to the field of
science. It can, as well, cater to people and scholars from artistic, historic or any other field
where an individual is willing to do extensive study to get relevant information. Research can be
creative, exploring or just reassuring in nature. Each one of us does some or the other research in
our lifetime for sure. Research can affect a subject both positively and negatively and can be
constructive or destructive in nature. Some people believe that research is mostly destructive in
nature. However, you need to understand that it’s not the results from a research that determine
its use; it’s the people who handle the results. In the following lines, we have just tried to
emphasize the importance of research.

Significance of Research

To Gather Necessary Information

Research provides you with all necessary information in field of your work, study or operation
before you begin working on it. For example, most companies do research before beginning a
project in order to get a basic idea about the things they will need to do for the project. Research
also helps them get acquainted with the processes and resources involved and reception from the
market. This information helps in the successful outcome of the project.

To Make Changes

Sometimes, there are in-built problems in a process or a project that is hard to discover. Research
helps us find the root cause and associated elements of a process. The end result of such a
research invokes a demand for change and sometimes is successful in producing changes as well.
For example, many U.N researches have paved way for changes in environmental policies.

Improving Standard Of Living

Only through research can new inventions and discoveries come into life. It was C.V Raman’s
research that prompted invention of radio communication. Imagine how you would have
communicated had Graham Bell not come out with the first ever practical telephone! Forget
telephones, what would have happened if Martin Cooper did not present the world the concept of
mobile phones! Addicted as we are to mobile phones, we need to understand that all the luxuries
and the amenities that are now available to us are the result of research done by someone. And
with the world facing more and crisis each day, we need researchers to find new solutions to
tackle them.

 For A Safer Life

Research has made ground breaking discoveries and development in the field of health, nutrition,
food technology and medicine. These things have improved the life expectancy and health
conditions of human race in all parts of the world and helped eradicate diseases like polio,
smallpox completely. Diseases that were untreatable are now history, as new and new inventions
and research in the field of medicine have led to the advent of drugs that not only treat the once-
incurable diseases, but also prevent them from recurring.
 To Know the Truth

It has been proved time and again that many of established facts and known truths are just cover
ups or blatant lies or rumors. Research is needed to investigate and expose these and bring out
the truth.

Research form an important aspect in any profession. As per the dictionary meaning Research is
a systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.

The primary purpose of any research is of discovering, interpretation and analysis of information
so to enhance human knowledge.

Top 5 Major Objectives of Social Research

This article throws light on the five major objectives of social research, i.e,

(1)Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols,

(2) Generalization,

(3)Verification of Old Facts,

(4) Extension of Knowledge,

(5) Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application.

1. Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols:

While, dealing with things the scientist remains at the concrete level. He is able to purposefully
handle things for experimentation. But at this level his results are at best limited to the particular
thing in a specific situation and none else. Therefore the concepts symbolizing the things and
their properties are also dealt with, so as to make much sense to conduct controlled inquiries
through abstract notions. Use of concepts or symbols in the process of manipulation not only
reduces the content and load of the things but also provides the scientist with greater facility and
effect.

2. Generalization:

The sole purpose with which manipulation of things, concepts or symbols is undertaken is to
arrive at statements of generality. It implies that the findings of controlled investigation should
be a conclusion which will enable us to expect that under certain class of conditions influencing
a class of things, something will happen in a generalized manner, notwithstanding its degree.

But in any case the absence is generality cannot characterize science. Therefore the propositions
derived on the basis of observations and through manipulation of things, concepts or symbols
may vary in their levels of generality, may maintain a high or low degree but should never reach
the null point.

Otherwise those will move beyond the framework of science. In this regard, Slesinger and
Stepheson have given the example of a physician or automobile mechanic as playing the role of a
researcher. Whereas the automobile mechanic endeavors to generalize about the automobiles, the
physician attempts to make ailments for a given class of patients.

3. Verification of Old Facts:

A major purpose of social research is verification of conclusions which have already been
accepted as established facts. Since there is no place for complacency in the arena of science, the
established system of knowledge always warrant frequentative scrutiny so as to confirm whether
or not the observations are in accordance with the predictions made on the basis of the
established corpus of knowledge. In case it is confirmed, the empirical observation strengthens
the established system of knowledge. Otherwise in the light of the research outcome, the system
of established corpus of knowledge calls for revision or even rejection.

4. Extension of Knowledge:

As a sequel to generalization the seemingly inconsistencies in the existing corpus of knowledge

are brought into light and attempts are made to reconcile these inconsistencies. The new general
proposition, established as an outcome of research also identifies gaps in the established system
of knowledge. A gap in knowledge implies the inadequacy of the theory as well as the failure of
a conceptual scheme to explain and account for certain aspects of a social phenomenon.

The gap is bridged up in the light of the new empirical observations. Thus knowledge gets
expanded. The expansion of systematic knowledge occurs at least in a couple of ways. First in
cognizing certain aspects of phenomena which were not examined in these terms prior to the
advent of the new general proposition.

Secondly in the light of new observation, the phenomena under investigation may be
incorporated in a comparatively large class of phenomena, so as to be governed by a uniform
law. As a result, the new system of knowledge not only accumulates more units under its
conceptual scheme, but also appreciates greater depth of understanding and bettering of
predictions.

5. Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application:

By seeking to explain the unexplained social phenomena, clarifying the doubtful one and
correcting the misconceived facts relating to it, social research provides the scope to use the
fruits of research in two possible ways:

(a) Theory building

(b) Practical application.

In its basic or pure form social research gathers knowledge for the sake of it, for building a
theory in order to explain human behavior in its totality, only for the satisfaction of knowing. For
construction of theoretic models, the researcher organizes knowledge into propositions and then
meaningfully articulated those propositions to constitute a more abstract conceptual system
pertaining to a class of phenomena, influenced by a certain class of conditions.

In its practical or applied form, social research gathers information regarding the betterment of
quality of life in social settings. The findings of social research are used as the means to an end,
not construed just as an end in itself From its utilitarian point of view the results of social
research provide decision makers with proper guidelines for policy making, social welfare,
amelioration of practical problems, mitigation or resolution of social conflict and tensions as well
as rectification and removal of social evils.