MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 1

The Natural Logarithm

Overview: We review logarithm and exponential functions and explore some of their
applications.

Motivation: The logarithm is used routinely in the solution of many engineering prob-
lems, particularly in the analysis of experimental results. The natural exponential function
is one of the most widely used functions in engineering mathematics. It arises routinely in
the solution of a wide variety of practical problems. Exponential growth and decay is en-
countered frequently in engineering and science. Examples include biochemical reactors,
signal processing and general control systems analysis. Limits leading to indeterminate
forms also arise in control systems analysis amongst other areas.

Outcomes: In this review, we will work towards the following learning outcomes:

• Understand the meaning of the natural logarithm and other logarithms.

• Understand the meaning of the natural exponential function

• Solve equations involving logarithms and exponentials.

• Perform computations with exponential growth and decay

Exercises:

1. Exercise 5(b) (p. 244): 1, 4, 10.

2. Exercise 5(c) (p. 252): 2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17.

3. A bacteria culture starts with 500 bacteria and grows at a rate proportional to its
size. After 3 hours, there are 8000 bacteria.

(a) Find an expression for the number of bacteria after t hours.

(b) Find the number of bacteria after 4 hours.
(c) When will the population reach 30000?

4. Polonium-214 is a radioactive substance that decays exponentially. Given that the

half-life (i.e. the amount of time it takes for half of the initial amount to decay) is
1.4 × 10−4 seconds, find

(a) a formula for the mass of Polonium-214 that remains after t seconds, given
that we started with 50mg.
(b) Find the mass that remains after a hundredth of a second.
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 2

(c) How long would it take for the mass to decay to 40mg?

1
(Answers: 3.(a) N (t) = 500e 3 ln(16)t (b) N (4) ≈ 20159 bacteria (c) about 4 hours and 26
minutes; 4.(a) M (t) = 50e−4951t mg (b) M ( 1001
) = 1.57 × 10−20 mg (c) 4.5 × 10−5 seconds)
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 3

The Natural Logarithm

The motivation for introducing the natural logarithm function is to overcome a basic
Z
xn+1
deficiency of our integration formula xn dx = . Clearly the formula doesn’t work
n+1
1
for n = −1, i.e. we have no direct anti-derivative for the function f (x) = x−1 = .
x
However, remember that, by Part I of the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus, we
can always write down an anti-derivative for a function in the form of a definite integral. If
1
we do this for the function f (x) = , the resulting function is called the natural logarithm
x
function.

The natural logarithm function, denoted by ln, is defined as

Z x
1
ln x = dt, for all x > 0
1 t

Note that ln x can not be expressed as a simple algebraic expression in x. Nevertheless, the
natural logarithm is widely used in engineering mathematics because of its many useful
properties. Hence, we will examine its behaviour in more detail and sketch its graph.

To start with, we consider what ln x means in terms of the area under the graph of the
1
function , i.e.
t

y6

1
Ω2
Ω1
-
x 1 x t

We consider 3 possible cases.

(i) When x > 1, the value of ln x is simply given by the area Ω1 indicated in the
diagram. In this case, we clearly have ln x > 0.
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 4
Z 1
1
(ii) When x = 1, we have ln x = ln 1 = dt = 0, i.e. the value of the natural log
1 t
function is 0 at x = 1.
Z x Z 1
1 1
(iii) When 0 < x < 1, ln x = dt = − dt, which is simply − the area Ω2 indi-
1 t x t
cated in the diagram. Hence we must have ln x < 0 for all 0 < x < 1.

Note that, by the Fundamental Theorem, we get

Z x
d d 1 1

(ln x) = dt = ,
dx dx 1 t x
for x > 0, so we’ve (partly) achieved our objective of finding an anti-derivative for
1
f (x) = . In the general case, when x can also be negative, we have (this will be shown
x
in later lectures)
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
You should always include the absolute value sign, unless you can be sure that the argu-
ment of the log function on the right hand side is greater than zero.
1
Letting f (x) = ln x, note that, for x > 0, f 0 (x) = > 0, indicating that the natural loga-
x
1
rithm function is a strictly increasing function for x > 0. Furthermore, f 00 (x) = − 2 < 0
x
for all x > 0. Hence, the graph of ln x is concave down for all x > 0.

There are two other properties which we will note for now, but which we can not derive
as yet. We have ln x → −∞ as x → 0+ and ln x → +∞ as x → +∞.

Putting all of these observations together, we get the following graph of y = ln x.

y6
ln x

-
0 1 x
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 5

Note that the domain of the natural logarithm function is D = (0, ∞) and its range is
R = IR = (−∞, ∞).

Next we examine some useful algebraic properties of the natural logarithm. As we will
see later, these extend to other logarithms as well.

Arithmetic with ln
For any two positive numbers a and b and for any exponent n,

1. ln(a b) = ln a + ln b

2. ln(a/b) = ln a − ln b

3. ln(an ) = n ln a

These 3 properties of the natural logarithm are very useful in many situations. In par-
ticular, they allow us to break up complex expressions involving products, quotients and
exponentials into a simple summation of logarithms. For example,
5
    √  1 1
ln ((3)(4)) = ln 3+ln 4, ln = ln 5−ln 3, ln 25 = 5 ln 2, ln( 2) = ln 2 2 = ln 2,
3 2
     
ln x3 (x + 3)4 = ln x3 +ln (x + 3)4 = 3 ln x+4 ln(x+3),
(x − 2)3
!
   
ln = ln (x − 2)3 −ln (x2 + 4)5 = 3 ln(x−2)−5 ln(x2 +4) etc.
(x2 + 4)5
Be careful, though, not to mix up these rules. e.g. ln(a + b) 6= ln a + ln b.

One immediate application for us is the technique of logarithmic differentiation.

This involves taking the logarithm of a complex expression to be differentiated (thereby
splitting it into more manageable parts) and then differentiating implicitly. We’ll come
back to this in later lectures.
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 6

The Exponential Function

Recall that the natural logarithm function has domain D = (0, ∞) and range R =
(−∞, ∞). Further, it is strictly increasing and hence one-to-one. Consequently, it has an
inverse.

The natural exponential function, denoted by y = ex , is defined to be the inverse of the

natural logarithm function y = ln x.

Since these functions are inverses of each other, we can immediately see that the domain
of ex is (−∞, ∞) and its range is (0, ∞). Its graph is also easily obtained from that of
ln x, i.e.

y6
ex y=x

1 r
ln x

-
1 e x
0

In particular, note that ex → 0+ as x → −∞ and ex → +∞ as x → +∞. Further, it is a

strictly increasing function and concave up throughout its domain.

The number e, which can be calculated from the definition of the natural logarithm, is
called Euler’s constant, in recognition of the famous mathematician Leonard Euler. We
have e ≈ 2.718.

Since ln x and ex are inverses of each other, the corresponding cancellation equations are
satisfied, i.e.
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 7

eln x = x, for all x > 0

ln(ex ) = x, for all real x

These are used routinely in manipulating equations and expressions involving ln and the
exponential function.
3
e.g. ln(e2 ) = 2, ln(2cos x ) = cos x ln 2, eln 3 = 3, e3 ln 2 = eln(2 ) = eln 8 = 8.

Ex: Solve the following equation for y: ln(y − 3) = 2t + t2 .

2 2 2
Soln: ln(y − 3) = 2t + t2 ⇒ eln(y−3) = e2t+t , i.e. y − 3 = e2t+t , i.e. y = 3 + e2t+t .

Ex: Solve the following equation for k: e2k = 10.

Soln: e2k = 10 ⇒ ln(e2k ) = ln(10) ⇒ 2k = ln(10), i.e. k = 12 ln(10).

Note also that the usual index laws apply to the exponential function, i.e.

1 ex1
ex1 ex2 = ex1 +x2 e−x = ex1 −x2 =
ex ex2
1 1
e.g. ex+ln 2 = ex eln 2 = 2ex , e− ln x = = .
eln x x
An interesting and useful property of the exponential function is that it is its own deriva-
tive! This is the main reason why the natural exponential function is so widely used in
all areas of science and engineering (as it provides a natural solution to many types of
differential equations).

Furthermore, it follows that the natural exponential function is also equal to its own
anti-derivative. Summarizing, we have

d Z
(ex ) = ex ex dx = ex + C
dx

The Function y = ax , a > 0

Closely related to the natural exponential function y = ex , we have a class of exponential

functions of the form y = ax , where a > 0. When a > 1, these behave in much the same
way as the natural exponential function. We will examine the cases where 0 < a ≤ 1 as
well.

Firstly, consider y = ax for any a > 0. Note that we may write a = eln a . Hence,
ax = (eln a )x = ex ln a . This alternative expression for ax allows us to differentiate the func-
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 8

tion, which we’ll come back to later i the semester.

The shape of the graph of y = ax , for various cases of a > 0.

0<a<1 y6 a>1

1
a=1

-
0 x

The Base a Logarithm

For any positive number a 6= 1, we define y = loga x to be simply the inverse of y = ax .

As for ln x, loga x is only defined for x > 0.

We have the following cancellation equations

aloga x = x, for all x > 0

loga (ax ) = x, for all real x

From the first cancellation equation, we get

 
ln aloga x = ln x, i.e. loga x ln a = ln x.
Dividing both sides by ln a, we get

ln x
loga x =
ln a
In other words, we can work out the log to any base a of any positive number x in terms
ln 2
of a ratio of natural logarithms. For example, we may calculate log10 2 as .
ln 10
This simple relationship between loga and ln also allows us to differentiate loga x easily.

Ex: Solve the following equation: log2 x − log2 (x − 1) = 1

Soln: By a property of logarithms,

x
log2 x − log2 (x − 1) = log2 ,
x−1
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 9

So the original equation becomes

x
log2 = 1, x 6= 1.
x−1
Writing this equation in exponential form, we have
x
= 21 = 2.
x−1
Now multiplying both sides of the equation by x − 1, the solution is x = 2.

Exponential Growth and Decay

In many problems in engineering, science and economics, we are come across statements
of the form

The rate of change of a function at a point is proportional to the value of the

function at that point.

In terms of a function y(t), we may state this mathematically as

dy
= k y(t) (0.1)
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. In many cases, we are also told what the value
of y is at a certain value of t, i.e. we have a condition of the form

y(0) = y0 , (0.2)

where the value y0 is a given number. Equation (0.2) is called an initial condition (even
when it is prescribed for another value of t besides t = 0).

Furthermore, equation (0.1) is a simple example of what we refer to as a differential equation,

because it involves not just the function itself, but also its derivative. Together, the differ-
ential equation (0.1) and the initial condition (0.2) constitutes what we call an initial value
problem.

Let us find the general solution to the differential equation (0.1). Note that the function
y(t) = 0 will always satisfy the differential equation (0.1). To see what other forms the
solution may take, we now assume that y 6= 0. Then
dy 1 dy
= ky ⇒ = k.
dt y dt
Integrating both sides w.r.t. t, we have
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 10

!
Z
1 dy Z Z
dy
dt = k dt, i.e. = kt + C.
y dt y
Note how the integral on the left hand side is now w.r.t. y. We have
ln |y| = kt + C.
Now we take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, i.e.
eln |y| = ekt+C , i.e. |y| = ekt eC .
Note that eC > 0, so the absolute value on the left hand side makes sense. If we want to
remove the absolute value, we get
y = ±eC ekt ,
i.e. the coefficient of ekt on the right hand side may be positive or negative. Since y(t) = 0
is also a solution of the differential equation, we can state that the general solution takes
the form
y(t) = Aekt ,
where the constant A can take on any real value, positive, negative or zero. Having found
the general solution of the differential equation (0.1), we can use the initial condition (0.2)
to determine the value of the constant A. We have
y(0) = Ae0 = A = y0 .
Hence, we may write the (particular) solution of the initial value problem (0.1) and (0.2)
as

y(t) = y0 ekt

Assuming that y0 > 0, there are two basic types of behaviour that result, depending on
the value of k.

If k > 0, the magnitude of y(t) is increasing at an exponential rate, i.e.

y6

y0
-
0 t

If k < 0, the magnitude of y(t) is decreasing at an exponential rate, i.e.

MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 11

y6

y0

-
0 t

Hence, the behaviour which results from the original statement we considered is known
as either exponential growth or as exponential decay, depending on whether k is positive
or negative.

This type of behaviour is observed in a number of real world phenomena such population
growth and radioactive decay.

Ex: A simple population growth model.

Consider a population of a particular species and let y(t) denote the density of the pop-
ulation at time t. In order to keep the mathematics simple, we make the following
assumptions:
• The population is sufficiently large to be modeled by a continuous density function
y(t).

• Amongst the population, the proportion of reproducing individuals remains constant

and so does their fertility rate.

• The population exists in an isolated location with no migration in or out of this

location.

• There are no deaths. (Although we could easily model deaths by reducing the birth
rate.)
Under these assumptions, the growth rate of the population density is just equal to the
rate at which births occur, ky(t), where k > 0. We may hence write
dy
= ky.
dt
We also suppose that the initial population density is y0 , i.e. y(0) = y0 . Hence we are
faced with our familiar initial value problem and the solution may be written as
y(t) = y0 ekt .
To see what sort of numbers are generated by an exponential growth situation, suppose
that y0 = 1, 000, k = 0.1 and t is measured in years. Then
MATH1020 Calculus for Engineers - Review of Logarithms and Exponentials 12

y(1) = 1, 000 e0.1 ≈ 1, 100,

y(5) = 1, 000 e0.5 ≈ 1, 650,
y(10) = 1, 000 e1 ≈ 2, 700,
y(20) = 1, 000 e2 ≈ 7, 400,
y(100) = 1, 000 e10 ≈ 22, 026, 450!

Given some basic data, we can also work out the value of the constants y0 or k. For
example, suppose that a population has a current density of 3,000. If it reaches a density
of 10,000 in 10 years time, what will it be in 20 years? To answer this question, we need
to figure out y0 and k. If we let the present correspond to t = 0, we must have y0 = 3, 000,
so that y(t) = 3, 000 ekt . At t = 10, we then have
10, 000 10
y(10) = 3, 000 e10k = 10, 000, i.e. e10k = = .
3, 000 3
Taking the natural logarithm of this equation, we have
10 1
 
10k = ln = ln(10) − ln(3), i.e. k = (ln(10) − ln(3)) ≈ 0.12.
3 10
Hence, y(t) = 3, 000 e0.12t . After 20 years, the population is therefore
y(20) = 3, 000 e(0.12)(20) ≈ 33, 070.