Idebe Physics 4 1
Idebe Physics 4 1
Idebe Physics 4 1
TOPICS:
1. Waves
2. Electromagnetism
3. Radioactivity
4. Thermionic emission
5. Electronics
6. Elementary astronomy
7. Geophysics
Terms Used
1. Period: Is the time taken by the wave to repeat itself.
OR Is the time taken for the wave to complete one cycle.
It is represented by letter T. Its SI unit is second (s)
2. Amplitude: Is the maximum displacement of the wave from the equilibrium position.
It is represented by letter A. Its SI unit is meter (m).
3. Crest: Is the point of maximum positive displacement of the wave from
the equilibrium position
Examples:
1. Sound waves have a frequency of 16 kHz. What is the periodic time for the
waves?
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟏 𝑰 𝟏
From: 𝒇 = →𝑻= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒔
𝑻 𝒇 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
2. A radio station transmits waves at a frequency of 95.6 MHz. What is the
wavelength of the waves transmitted? (c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝑴𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛, c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇 →
𝒗
𝝀=𝒇=
𝟗𝟓.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔
= 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
Electromagnetic Wave:
Is the type of wave which does not require a medium to transfer energy.
Mechanical Wave:
Is the type of waves in which a medium is required to transfer energy.
Difference between Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves
Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves
Are disturbances which are Are disturbances made up of
transported through a medium due to electric and magnetic fields
particle to particle interaction
Requires a material medium to Do not requires materials
transfer energy medium to transfer energy
Cannot travel through vacuum Can travel through vacuum
Examples are water waves, sound Examples are X – rays, Visible
waves etc light etc
Transverse Wave
Is the mechanical wave in which particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of movement of the wave.
For example, water wave
This wave enables a duck in a lake floating in the same position as the wave
passes (This is due to the vertical displacement of water waves ie transversely )
Diagram:
This vibration of medium cause a boat on the ocean moves up and down while
the waves themselves move toward the shore
Properties of Waves
Reflection of waves
Refraction of waves
Interference of waves
Diffraction of waves
𝒗𝟏
But the ratio , is the refractive index of the second medium
𝒗𝟐
relative to the first medium
N.B
The length of water waves in shallow water is usually shorter than in deep water
When wave is refracted into a less medium, the speed of wave increases and vice versa
When wave is refracted into a less medium, the wave length of wave
increases and vice versa
Individual task
1. During the day sound from distant sources are not very clear unlike during the night
ANS: During the day sound waves are refracted upwards from the hot earth, while
at night, sound waves are refracted downwards, hence are much louder.
2. Give reason why the amplitude of the wave does not change as it crosses the
boundary
ANS: Because there is no LOSS of energy therefore amplitude does not change
Interference of Waves
Is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of
greater, lower, or the same amplitude
OR
Is the pattern formed when two or more waves overlap in medium
Types of Interference
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Principle of Superposition
It states that
“The resultant displacement at any points is equal to the sum of the
displacements of different waves at the point”
When crest and trough meet at the same point in the opposite direction results
smaller amplitude than individual, this refers as destructive interference
N.B
Soft sound occurs in regions where sound waves interfere destructively
Loud sound occurs where sound waves interfere constructively
Node: Is a point on a stationary wave where particles have zero displacement
Antinode: Is a point on a stationary wave where particles have maximum displacement
Diffraction of Waves
Diffraction: Is the change in the direction of waves as they pass through an opening
or around a barrier in their pass
OR Is the spreading of waves around obstacles
NB:
It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but not possible to see light. This is because
sound waves have longer wavelengths therefore are more readily diffracted unlike
light waves , which have very short wavelengths therefore not readily diffracted
Diffraction of wave is greater when the wave length and width of the gap is the same
We hear someone sound even she/he behind the building due to diffraction of wave sound
Sound Waves
Sound wave is a longitudinal wave that produced by vibrating object.
For example, turning fork
Propagation of Sound Wave
Sound travels by vibration of particles to transfer energy to the next particles
until the sound reaches another point
Qn: Why solid materials transfer sound faster than liquid/gas
Answer: The molecules/particles of solid materials are packed together
Mechanism of Hearing
Earflap collect sound waves, which pass through the ear canal to hit drum
which results vibrations of interconnected bones where vibrate cochlea fluid
through (oval window) results vibrations of hair cells which transform
mechanical energy to electrical impulses, which transmitted to the brain where
they are decoded and interpreted as sound
N.B Hearing: Is the process by which the ear transforms sound vibrations in the
external environment into nerve impulses that are conveyed to the brain
where they are interpreted as sounds
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 12
Echo
Echo is a reflected sound which is heard distinctly from the original sound
Since sound waves go and bounce back its distance becomes 2d.
𝟐𝒅
Hence speed (v) of sound associated with echo is calculated by, v =
𝒕
NB: Always echo reaches the ear more than 0.1s
𝟐𝒅
From: v =
𝒕
Then: 2d = v x t = 0.1 x 340, d = 17m
Therefore: An obstacle must be at least 17 m away for a distinct echo to be heard
Examples
1. An echo sounder produces a pulse and an echo is received from the sea – bed
after 0.4 seconds. If the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s, calculate the
depth of the sea –bed
Soln:
Given: v = 1500 m/s, total time = 0.4 s
2𝑠 𝒗𝒕 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎.𝟒
From: 𝑣 = 𝑡
→ 𝒔=
𝟐
=
𝟐
= 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎
8. A person stands 100 m from the foot of a tall building claps his hands and hears
an echo 0.588 seconds later .Calculate the velocity of sound in air (ANS: 340 m/s)
9. The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s, Find the wavelength in water of sound
wave of frequency 660 Hz if the velocity of sound in water is 1. 32 km/s
10. A source of sound produces waves of wavelength 0.8 m in air. The same source
of sound produces waves of wavelength 4.0 m in air. If the velocity of sound in air
is 332 ms-1 , find the velocity of sound in water (ANS: v = 332 m/s)
11. How far does sound travel in air when a turning fork of frequency 250 Hz
completes 50 vibrations? The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎)
12. A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 100 kHz in air. If this sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (i) the reflected sound (ii) the transmitted
21. The wavelength of signals from a radio transmitter is 1500m and the frequency is
the 200 KHz. To what speed does the radio wave travel?.What is the wavelength
of a transmitter operating at 1000 KHz? (ANS: V = 3 x 108 m/s, 𝝀= 3. 0 x 102m)
22. A certain wave has a periodic time of 0.04 second and travels at 30 x 107 m/s Find
its wavelength. (ANS: = 1.2 x 107 m)
23. A signal is sent to the seabed from the bottom of a ship. The signal comes back in
one – fifth of a second .How deep is the water?
25. Sound travels 1.7 Km in 5 seconds .The time between a flash of lightning and the
thunder is 10 s. How far away is the storm?
26. Explain how bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything
Uses of Echo
Used to find depth of ocean (lakes)
Looking at babies in the womb ( pre – natal scanning ) by Ultrasound
To detect the submarines
To detect large groups of fish
To detect the wrecked ships
To detect the dangerous rocks
Musical Instruments
Musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the purpose of
making music
Stationary Waves
A stationary wave is the wave which occurs when two waves are travelling in
opposite direction with the same speed and frequency are superposed
𝝀
From: 𝑳 = → λ = 2L
𝟐
𝒗
From: V = λƒ → 𝒗 = 2Lf Then: 𝒇 =
𝟐𝒍
𝒗
∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 , 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
𝜆 𝑳
From: L = 2 × ( ) → λ =2 ( )
2 𝟐
From: V = λƒ
𝒗 𝒗 𝟐 𝒗 𝒗
Then: f1 = = = × =𝟐× = 𝟐𝒇𝟎
𝝀 𝒍 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍
𝝀 𝟐𝒍
From: L = 𝟑 × ( ) →𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
From: V = λƒ
𝑣 𝟑𝒗 𝒗
Then: 𝒇𝟐 = = = 𝟑 × = 𝟑𝒇𝟎
𝝀 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍
𝒇𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … … … … (𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … . . )
Sonometer
Sonometer is an instrument used to study the properties of stationary wave
It is an apparatus made of a hollow box having two holes
𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐
∴ 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏
𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟏 𝑻𝟏
∴ = 𝑶𝑹 = √
√𝑻𝟏 √𝑻𝟐 𝒇𝟐 𝑻𝟐
𝒇𝟏 𝝁𝟐
∴ 𝒇𝟏 √𝝁𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 √𝝁𝟐 𝒐𝒓 =√
𝒇𝟐 𝝁𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
Also for a diameter and density (𝒇 ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇 ∝ √ )
𝑫 𝝆
Now combine the three equations
𝟏 𝑻
𝒇 ∝ √ …………….. Remove proportionality constant
𝑳 𝝁
𝟏 𝑻
𝒇=𝒌 √
𝑳 𝝁
𝟏 𝑻
Where: k = 1/2, (experimentally) Then: 𝒇= √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻𝒍
∴𝒇= √ = √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
(fundamental frequency/first harmonic)
𝒎
Since 𝝁 = (mass per unit length)
𝒍
𝟏 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻𝑳
From: V = 𝝀𝒇 → 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒍 ( √ ) = √ = √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁 𝝁 𝒎
𝝀
Since 𝒍 = → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 (for fundamental frequency)
𝟐
𝒏 𝑻𝑳 𝟏 𝑻𝑳
𝒇𝒏 = √ = 𝒏( √ )
𝟐𝑳 𝒎 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
Example
1. The vibrating length of a stretched wire is altered at constant tension until the
wire oscillates in unison with a turning fork of frequency 320 Hz. The length of
the wire is again altered until it oscillates in unison with a fork of unknown
frequency. If the two lengths are 90 cm and 6o cm, respectively , determine the
unknown frequency
Solution
Given that: f1 = 320 Hz, L1 = 90 cm, L2 = 60 cm, f2 =?
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐
From: 𝒇 ∝ → =
𝒍 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏
𝒍𝟏 𝒇𝟏 𝟑𝟐𝟎×𝟗𝟎
∴ 𝒇𝟐 = = = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝒍𝟐 𝟔𝟎
Example of Resonance
1. A group of troupes was marching towards the bridge the bridge collapsed even
before it is approached.
2. If a very loud sound is produced near the mouth of the glass bottle, the
glass is likely to break.
3. The buildings are likely to collapse following the occurrences of the earth quake
4. Applied when turning the knob of a radio. This occurs when changing the natural
frequency of the receiver, it matches the transmission frequency of the radio station.
When the two frequencies match ,energy transfer occurs and we listen to the selected
channel
𝝀
Considering the end correction, 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒄 = ………………. (i)
𝟒
For second harmonic or first overtone is produced when the length is
increased to 𝒍𝟐
𝟑𝝀
Considering the end correction, then 𝒍𝟐 + 𝒄 = ……………. (ii)
𝟒
Now, consider the two equations
𝝀 𝝀
𝒍𝟏 + 𝒄 = → 𝒄 = − 𝒍𝟏 ……………. (iii)
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑𝝀 𝟑𝝀
𝒍𝟐 + 𝒄 = → 𝒄= − 𝒍𝟐 ……………. (iv)
𝟒 𝟒
Compare the two equations ((iii) and (iv))
𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
− 𝒍𝟏 = − 𝒍𝟐 → 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 = − → 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 =
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐
∴ 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒉, 𝝀 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
∴ 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )𝒇
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 26
Whereby: V is the speed of sound in air column and ƒ is frequency of sound in air
𝒗
∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 , 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟒𝒍
𝑣
From: 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 →𝑓=
𝜆
3𝜆 4𝑙
But 𝑙= → 𝜆=
4 3
𝒗
𝟒𝒍 𝟑𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟏 = = =𝟑× , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟑 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
𝒗
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇=
𝝀
𝟓𝝀 𝟒𝒍
But 𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝟒 𝟓
𝒗
𝟒𝒍 𝟓𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟐 = = =𝟓× , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟓 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
Since the resonance tube (closed at one end) produces odd harmonics then the
equation of the length of tube (length of air column) is given by
𝐧𝛌
𝐋= → 𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕 … ..
𝟒
𝒗 𝝀
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= , But 𝒍= → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍
𝝀 𝟐
𝒗
∴ 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
𝒗
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇=
𝝀
But 𝒍= 𝝀
𝑽 𝑽 𝟐 𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟏 = = = × =𝟐 × = 𝟐𝒇𝟎 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟎 =
𝝀 𝑳 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍
𝟑𝝀 𝟐𝒍
But 𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝒗 𝒗
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒍 =𝟑 ×
𝟐𝒍
𝟑
𝒗
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
Whereby (n = 1,2,3,4………….)
Beats
A beat is a rise or fall in loudness of sound when two sources of sound of
nearly equal frequencies produce sound together.
The Beat frequency (number of beats):
Is the difference between the two frequencies of sound
That is Bf = f1 – f2 or f2 – f1
Example
1. A 256Hz turning fork produces sound at the same time with a 249Hz turning
fork. What is the beat frequency? (ANS: Bf = 7Hz)
2. What is the beat frequency when a 262 Hz and 266 Hz turning forks are
sounded together? (ANS: BF = 4 Hz)
Electromagnetic Waves
Are a self – propagating transverse wave of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
OR: Are the waves which are propagated through space or matter by the
vibration of an electric field and magnetic field at right angles to one another
Self propagating means a change in electric field produces a change in
magnetic field and vice versa
Examples are Radio waves ,Microwaves, Infrared radiation, Visible light ,
Ultraviolet rays , X–rays, Gamma rays
NB:
It is produced when electrically charged particles oscillate or change energy
The greater the energy change, the higher the frequency of the resulting wave
Electric field and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other
Example
1. What is the wavelength of radio waves of frequency 95.6MHz ?(c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
Soln:
From: 𝒗(𝒄) = 𝒇𝝀
𝒗 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
∴𝝀= = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟗𝟓.𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔
Class Assignment – 1
1. (a) Explain why radio waves are similar to light waves but not sound waves
(b) A radio station transmits a signal of wave 1500m. Calculate the frequency of
this signal (ANS: ƒ = 200 KHz)
2. Light of frequency 4.6 × 1014Hz travels at a speed of 1.24 × 108ms-1 in diamond.
Calculate the refractive index of diamond for this color of light. (ANS: 𝝁 = 2.42)
3. (a) What is diffraction of wave?
(b) Illustrate how plane water wave fronts are diffracted on passing through a narrow gap
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 33
(c)(i) Is it possible for light to be diffracted on passing through an open window?
(ii) Give an explanation on your answer above
4. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a vibrating string?
(b) Sonometer consists of a taut steel wire fixed between two
bridges 100cm apart. Defining the first harmonic, second harmonic, third
harmonic and fourth harmonic, explain how overtones can be obtained
5. How an echo differs from the reverberation?
ANS: Echo occurs when long distances are considered WHILE reverberation is
when short distances are considered.
Echo is due to the reflection of sound wave by obstacles or end points like wall etc.
BUT Reverberation is due to the collection of reflection sounds from the surface
which is enclosed completely
6. Sound travelling towards a cliff 700m away takes 4.2 seconds for an echo to be
heard. Calculate the velocity of sound in air. (ANS: Va = 333.33m/s)
7. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high wall claps his hands and the echo
reaches him 0.5 second later. Calculate the velocity of sound in air using this
observation. (ANS: V in air is 400m/s)
8. A student standing between two vertical walls and 480m from the nearest wall,
shouted. She heard the first echo after 3 seconds and the second after two
second later use this information to calculate;
(i) Velocity of sound in air (Va =320m/s) (ii) Distance between the two walls.(d =1280 m)
9. An old woman sitting in a gorge between two large cliffs gives a short sharp sound.
She hears two echo, the first after 1 second and the next after 1.5sec. The speed of
sound is 340m/s what is the distance between the two cliffs? (ANS: d=425 m)
10. A sonar signal (a high frequency sound wave) sent vertically downwards from
the ship is refracted from the ocean floor and detected by a microphone on the
keel. 0.4 sec after transmission. If the speed of sound in water is 1550m/s. What
is the depth of the ocean in meters? (ANS: The depth of the ocean is 300m)
11. A man sees steam coming out from a factory whistle and 3 seconds later he
hears the sound. The velocity of sound in air is 360m/s. Calculate the distance
from the man to the factory. ANS: d = 1080m
12. (a) (i) Distinguish between longitudinal wave and transverse wave
(ii) Explain how beats are formed
(b) A light wave is refracted into an optically dense medium. What change will occurs in
(i) The frequency?
(ii) The speed?
(iii) The wavelength?
(c) (i) what is an echo
(ii) A sound is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the ocean floor
returns one second later. Assuming that the velocity of sound in water is
1500m/s. how deep is the ocean? (ANS: d= 750m)
13. (a) (i) What is a sonometer?
(ii) Briefly explain when resonance is said to occur.
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 34
(b) Two boys are stand 200m apart on one side of a high vertical cliff at the
same perpendicular distance from it. When one fires a gun, the other hears the
sound 0.65 seconds after the flash and the second sound 0.25 second after the
first sound. Calculate the perpendicular distance of the boys from the cliff
(c) A diagram below illustrates part of the displacement-time graph of a wave
travel with velocity of 2m/s.
Calculate.
(i). The amplitude (ii). Frequency (iii). Wave length
(b) ANS: d = 84.27m (c) (i). A = 0.2m (ii) f = 10Hz (iii). λ = 0.2m
14. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength?
(i) Radio waves (ii) X – rays (iii) Red light
15. A column of air 26.25 cm long in a closed tube resonates to a sounding tuning
fork. If the velocity of sound in air is 33 600 cm/s, what is the frequency of the
fork? (ANS: f = 320 Hz)
16. If the shortest length of the tube for resonance is 0.12 m and the next resonant
length is 0.37 m, what is the frequency of vibrations? Take the speed of sound in
air as 340 m/s. (ANS: f = 680 Hz)
17. Explain the following
(a) Strings of different thickness are used on a stringed instrument such as a
violin or a guitar
(b) The same note played on a violin and a flute sound different
(c) The strings of a stringed instrument are usually mounted on a hollow box of
special shape
(d) Matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Explain why a
musician must retune a stringed instrument if its temperature changes
(e) How does the size of the gap in the barrier affect the diffraction of waves?
18. The commercial program of Radio Annur is broadcast on wavelengths of 1500 m
and 250 m. The frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz what is the
frequency of 250 m wave?
19. Explain briefly how the concept of wave is applied in each of the following fields
(i) Medicine (ii) Communication (iii) Scientific research
20. A light wave is refracted into an optical less dense medium. What change will
occur in (i)The frequency (ii) The speed (iii)The wavelength
21. A solid is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the floor of the ocean
returns half a second later. Assuming that the velocity of sound in water is 1500
m/s, how deep is the ocean?
When the current pass through a two conductors in the opposite direction the
conductors are repulsed to each other
See the fig below:
NB:
An EMF is only induced in a conductor when there is relative motion between
the conductor and the magnetic field
EMF produced is called induced electromotive force and Current produced
is called induced current
The conductor should moves in perpendicular to magnetic field
No current when conductor moves parallel to magnetic field
(b) When South Pole is pushed towards the coil, a South Pole is formed at the end of
the coil, and when the South Pole is moved away, a North Pole is formed. See the fig below
N.B
When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving into a coil the magnetic flux
increases, According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when
there is a change in flux, an EMF and hence induced current is induced in the
coil and this current will create its own magnetic field. Now according to Lenz’s
law ,this magnetic field created will oppose its own increase in through the coil
When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving out of the coil the magnetic flux
decreases, which induces an e.m.f in the coil. The resulting induced current
must be in the direction to oppose this decrease in flux. The induced
(secondary) magnetic field must be in the same direction as the primary field
Faraday’s Law
It states that: “The magnitude of induced electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the conductor”
Self-Induction
Is the phenomenon in which a change in electric current in a coil produces an
induced e.m.f in the coil itself
OR
Is the production of e.m.f in a conductor as a result of varying current in
the same conductor/solenoid
NB:
If the original current is increasing, then the induced current is smaller than it
would be
If the original current is decreasing, then the induced current adds to it and the
measured current is greater than it would be if no self – induced magnetic field
was produced in the conductor
Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in the coil due to variation of electric current
flowing in the same coil
NB:
The coil which varies current is primary coil while the coil with induced
current is secondary coil
Mechanism
Primary coil produces magnetic flux which change magnetic flux in secondary
coil to produce electromotive force
Application of Mutual Induction
Is used in transformers
Used in the ignition system
Used in flash tubes in cameras and strobe light
In wireless telegraphy
Generators and motors
Eddy Current
Are induced current loops circulating within a conductor
See the figure below:
APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNET
(a) MOVING COIL GALVANOMETERS
Mode of Action: The pointer rotates due to the force developed on the coil
(by Fleming’s left hand rule). When the current passes through the coil will be
magnetized hence different poles will be formed.
Advantages
How to convert:
If I = IS + IG
Potential difference across the shunt is equal to the Potential difference across the
galvanometer VG., ie VS = VG
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
Then: VS = ISRS and VG = IGRG ISRS = IGRG RS = , (Since: IS + IG = I)
𝑰𝑺
Shunt, R is a small resistance which can be connected parallel to the
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
galvanometer to give out ammeter reading ,ie RS =
𝑰−𝑰𝒈
1. A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 25 and can carry a
maximum of 15mA.
(a) What is the value of the shunt required to enable the galvanometer to
register 10A full scale deflection. (ANS: RS = 0.03Ω)
(b) What is the value of the multiplier required to enable the galvanometer to
register 10V full scale deflection. How will be connected? (Rm = 646.67Ω)
2. A moving will galvanometer has a resistance of 20 and gives a full scale
deflection when a current of 50mA passes through it. Calculate the value of the
resistance which must be used so that the meter may measure the potential
difference up to 100V.(ANS: A multiplier of resistance 1980 must be connected
in series with the galvanometer so that the meter may measure up to 100V)
When the switch is pressed and current flows through the circuit, the electromagnet
is powered and generates a magnetic field that attracts the iron strip towards it
The striker strikes the gong, when the striking arm strikes the gong, the contact
is broken and current stops flowing through the circuit. This causes the
electromagnet to lose its magnetic field.
The connected spring arm returns the striker to its original rest position
The contact is restored and current flows through the circuit
The process is repeated from the beginning.
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 46
Individual task– 2:2
1. In the electric bell, explain what would happen if the armature is made of steel.
ANS: If the armature is made of steel the hammer hits the gong and remains
there/ the bell rings once this is because steel acquires permanent magnetism
2. Why is the core of the electromagnet of an electric bell made of soft iron and not steel ?
ANS: Because iron gains and looses magnetisms easily. It is only magnetized if
there is a magnetic field around it and losses its magnetism immediately when the
field is removed. It also requires very little energy to magnetize and demagnetize
Reasons for steel:
(i) Steel forms a permanent magnet
(ii) Steel is not easily magnetized and demagnetized
Mechanism
When switch is closed to complete the circuit, the primary coil produces
magnetic fields which cause secondary coil to induce high voltage due to large
number of turns,
Induced magnetism on soft iron attracts iron hammer which open the circuit
that incomplete the circuit by opening the gap in platinum contacts cause the
soft iron to lose magnetism where spring pullback to platinum contacts to
complete the circuit. This cycle of events is repeated automatically
NB:
o The direction of motion, current and magnetic field can be shown by Fleming
right hand rule which states that
“If three fingers of the right hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other,
then the thumb points in the direction of motion, fore finger (index finger) points in the
direction of the field and the middle finger points in the direction of the induced current”
Transformer
Is a device that transfers an alternating current from one circuit to another by
the principal of mutual induction either by increasing or decreasing the voltage
OR
Is a device that uses mutual induction between two coils to convert alternating
voltage across one coil to a larger or smaller alternating voltage across the other coil
OR
Is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
The coil connected to the source is called primary coil and the coil in which
e.m.f is induced is called secondary coil
Types of Transformer
o Step up transformer
o Step down transformer
Step up Transformer
Is the transformer that convert low alternating voltage from primary coil to high
alternating voltage in secondary coil
OR
Is a transformer that increases voltage from primary coil to secondary coil
Transformer Equation
From the factors affecting the induced e.m.f (Faraday’s law)
For primary coil
𝑵𝑷 ∝ 𝑽𝑷 → 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑘𝑉𝑃
For secondary coil
𝑵𝑺 ∝ 𝑽𝑺 → 𝑁𝑆 = 𝑘𝑉𝑆
Transformer Efficiency
Is the ratio power in secondary coils to power in primary coils expressed as a
percentage
Mathematically:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑷𝒔
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝑷𝒑
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
But: Ps = Is x Vs and Pp = Ip x Vp
𝑷𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑷 𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷
Examples
1. A transformer with primary coil of 400 turns and secondary coil 200 turns is
connected to 240 V ac mains. Calculate the secondary voltage.
Soln:
Given: NP = 400, NS = 200, VP = 240 V, VS =?
𝑵 𝑽
From: 𝑷 = 𝑷
𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝑺
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
= → 𝑽𝑺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑺
2. A transformer with primary coil of 1200 turns and secondary coil 600 turns is
connected to 240 V mains. If the primary current is 3.0A and secondary is 5.0A.
What is its efficiency?
Soln:
Given: VP = 240 V, NP = 1200, NS = 600, IP = 3.0A, IS = 5.0A
Required: Efficiency=?
𝑵 𝑽
From: 𝑷 = 𝑷
𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝑺
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 53
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
= → 𝑽𝑺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑺
𝑷𝒔 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒑 𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷
𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟓
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟖𝟑%
𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐱𝟑
Transmission of electricity
Electricity generated at the power stations is usually at low voltage and high current.
Before transmission, the voltage is first stepped up to very high voltages then
transmitted over a network of transmission cables known as the national grid system
The national grid system is a network of transmission cables connecting all
power stations in a country to each other and to the consumers
Advantage of the national grid system of transmission is that “to ensure that
the power is available to consumers even when one of the stations fails’’
N.B:
The transmission of power over long distance is usually done at very high
voltage and low current as opposed to low voltage and high current
Reason: High voltage transmission of electricity minimizes power loss during the
transmission
Class activity – 2
1. A transformer is used to step down 240V mains supply to 12V for laboratory
use. If the primary coil has 600 turns, determine the number of turns in the
secondary coil (ANS: Ns = 30 turns)
2. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a primary coil of
200 turns. A current of 0.1A is obtained in the secondary coil. Determine the
number of turns in the secondary coil and the voltage across if the primary coil
is connected to 240V mains. (ANS: Ns = 1200 turns, Vs = 1440V)
3. A step up transformer has 10000 turns in the secondary coil and 100 turns through
the primary coil. An a.c of 5A flow in the primary coil when connected to a 12V a.c
supply, Calculate
(a) The voltage across secondary coil (ANS: Vs = 1200V)
(b) Current in secondary coil if transformer efficiency is 90% (ANS: Is = 0.045A)
4. With a secondary transformer output of 1,320 watts and a primary input of
1,800 watts, calculate the efficiency of the transformer. (ANS: 73.33 %)
5. How Does a Transformer Work?
Answer:
Transformer consists of two coils. If one coil is connected with ac voltage
source then it will produce alternating flux in the core. Most of the flux is
linked with second coil hence mutually induced emf will be produced in
the second coil as per faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
7. What is the difference in energy transformation between a D.C motor and a D.C
generator?
8. State five ways by which the electric motor can be made to rotate faster (ANS:-
(i)By increasing the current flowing through the coils (ii) By using stronger magnets
(iii) By using many number of turns of the wire
(iv) By increasing the area of the coil in the magnetic field
(v) By using many coils with more split ring parts in many planes
9. What is the main structural difference between the D.C generator and the A.C
generator? (ANS: In the D.C generator a split ring (commutator) is used , while in
an A.C generator, a set of slip rings are used)
10. A power line from a power substation to a town some distance away, has a
resistance of 0.4 Ω per kilometer. Determine the current flowing through the power
lines if the rate of energy loss in the transmission of power over 100 km is 100,000 W
(ANS: P = 50 A)
11. What is meant by the national grid system?
12. What is the advantage of having a national grid in power transmission?
13. Why is the electricity transmitted at very high voltage and low current?
14. During the transmission of electricity over long distances, an alternating current
is passed over alluminium cables at high voltages and low current.
(a) Why is alternating current (a.c) used in preference to direct current (d.c)?
ANS
(i) Alternating current can be easily stepped up and down since transformers
work only on a.c not on d.c
(ii) Direct current requires thick overhead cables which will be expensive to buy
and support
(b)Why are alluminium cables preferred to copper for long distance
transmission of electricity (ANS:)
(i) Alluminium has lower density than copper.(It is lighter than copper,
therefore easy to support. Use of copper wires will require very strong poles to
support since copper wires are fairly heavy)
(ii) Alluminium is a better conductor of electricity than copper
(iii) Alluminium does not corrode easily, unlike copper
15. A transformer is used to step down 120V mains to 24volts, for kitchen use. If the
primary coil has 400 turns, find the number of turns is the secondary coil (NS = 80)
16. Explain why soft iron is better material to be used for the core than steel?
17. A step up transformer has 5000 turns in the secondary coil. And 500turns
through the primary coil. An alternative current of 5A flows in the primary coil
when connected to a 12V A.C supply.
(a) Calculate the voltage across the secondary coil . (ANS: VS = 120V)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 57
(b) If the transformer has an efficiency of 90% what is the current in the secondary
coil? (IS = 0.45A)
18. A step down transformer is used to light a 12V, 24W lamp from 240 volts
mains. The current through the primary coil is 125mA. What is the efficiency of
the transformer? (ANS: Eff = 80%)
19. A transformer is used to step down 24V mains supplier to 12V for laboratory use, if the
primary coil has 600turns . Find the number of turns in the secondary coil. (Ns = 30 N)
20. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a primary coil
of 200 turns. A current of 0.1 A is obtained in the secondary coil. Find the
number of turns in the secondary coil and the voltage across if the primary coil
is connected to 240V mains (ANS: NS = 33 N, VS = 39.6V)
21. The figure below shows a step – down transformer connected to a 240 V mains
socket. The primary coil P, has 4000 turns while the secondary coil, S, has 200
turns. The efficiency of the transformer is 60% and a current of 50 A flows
through P. Calculate the current through S
22. A Transformer has 1000 turns in its primary coil, which is connected to a 250 V
a.c supply. The secondary coil is connected to an ammeter via a 100 ohm
resistor .Determine the number of turns in the secondary coil if the ammeter
reads 1.5 A (ANS: NS = 600)
23. A student is designed a transformer to supply a current of 10 A at a potential
difference of 60 V to a motor from an a.c mains supply of 240 V. If the
efficiency of the transformer is 80%. Calculate
(a) The power supplied to the transformer (ANS: PIN = 750 W)
(b) The current in the primary coil (ANS: IP = 3.125 A)
24. A low voltage outdoor lighting system uses a transformer to step down a 240
voltage house hold voltage to 24 voltages. The lighting system has 6 lamps
with a total resistance of 10Ω
(a) What is the current in the secondary coil of the transformer (ANS:I =24 A)
(b) What is the current in the primary coil (ANS: I = 2.4 A)
25. The ratio of the number of in the secondary coil in a transformer to that in the
primary coil is 16:1.If the current in the secondary circuit is 4.0A. What is the
current in the primary circuit? (ANS: IS = 0.25A)
26. Could a transformer be used to increase the voltage of a battery? Explain
27. Explain the function of the commutator in a DC electric generator
28. A transformer is used on a 240 V a.c supply to deliver 12 A at 120 V to a
heating coil. If 20% of energy taken from the supply is dissipated in the transformer
Given that N1 =10, N2 = 200, N3 =100, N4 = 50 and V1 =240 V, what is the value of V4?
31. A laptop computer is plugged into the 230 V mains .The lap top is left on
standby .Its power consumption from the mains is 3.2 W .The lap top’s
transformer changes the 230 V mains to 9.2 V which goes to the laptop .What
is the current passing through the laptop?
32. Transformers are designed to use alternating current .Describe what change
happens when a step – up transformer is used
33. What is meant by the national grid system?
34. Explain how transformers are used to improve the efficiency of power
transmission in the national Grid.
35. A step – down transformer in a mobile phone charger converts 230 V mains
into 5 V .The phone needs a current of 3 A when charging .What current is
required from the mains?
36. Describe the structure and working of a simple d.c motor
37. A d.c generator has a resistance coil of 10 ohms and is connected to a bulb of
resistance 100 ohms .Calculate the induced e.m.f if the current flowing in the
bulb is 5 amps
38. A step – down transformer has a secondary winding of 100 turns and primary
winding of 200 turns .If the output voltage is 150 V ,find the input voltage
,assuming the transformer is 100 % efficient
39. Describe the structure of a step – up transformer
40. A transformer with primary and secondary windings of 200 and 100 turns
respectively is connected to 250 V mains .Calculate the secondary voltage if
the transformer is 75 % efficient
Terms used
Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Eg, water, iron, meat,etc
Element
Is a pure substance that is made up of only one kind of atom and cannot be
broken down into simpler parts by a chemical means.
For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Atom
Is the smallest particle of an element that has all the chemical characteristics of
an element. For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Molecule
Is a group of atoms. For example, water molecule (H2O), hydrogen molecules (H2)
Strong Force
Is the force that hold protons and neutrons present in the nucleus oppose and
overcome repulsion between protons
Binding Energy
Is the energy that holds protons and neutrons present in the nucleus oppose
and overcome repulsion between protons
Nuclear Binding Energy
Is the energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into its components
Therefore atoms are made up by subatomic (three types of) particles namely
Protons(p), Neutrons(n) and Electrons(e)
Protons
Proton is the positively charged particle of an atom.
It is denoted by small letter p. its charge and its mass is +1.6 x 10-19 C and
1.6726 x 10-27 kg respectively
Neutrons
Neutron is the neutral charged particle of an atom.
It is denoted by small letter n. Its charge and its mass are 0 C and 1.6749 x 10-
27 kg respectively
Electrons
An electron is the negatively charged particle of an atom.
It is denoted by small letter e. Its charge and mass are -1.6 x 10 −19 C and 9.1094
x 10−31 kg respectively. The electron always revolve around the nucleus
Atomic Number
Atomic number is the number of protons present in a nucleus of a particular atom.
It is denoted by capital letter Z
Mass Number
Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons particles.
Also is called atomic mass/weight. It is denoted by capital letter A
Mathematically: A = Z + N
In a given atom/elements (X) mass number (A) located as Superscript while
atomic number (Z) located as Subscript. i.e 𝐴𝑍𝑋
Isotopy
Is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same atomic number
but differ in atomic mass.
Elements which can form isotopy are called isotopic elements (isotopes)
Elements Z Isotopes A
Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen - 1 1
Deuterium 2
Tritium 3
Carbon 6 Carbon - 12 12
Carbon - 13 13
Carbon - 14 14
Oxygen 8 Oxygen - 16 16
Oxygen - 17 17
Oxygen - 18 18
Chlorine 17 Chlorine - 35 35
Chlorine - 37 37
Uranium 92 Uranium - 234 234
Uranium - 235 235
Uranium - 238 238
lead 82 Lead - 202 202
Lead - 206 206
Lead - 207 207
Lead - 208 208
NB:
The different isotopes always differ by one neutron (1 01𝑛 )
Isotopes of particular element/atom; the larger the mass number (A) the
heaviest of element and vice versa
Isobars
Isobar is the different elements having the same mass number but different
atomic number.
Isotones
Isotones are different elements having the same number of neutrons.
Example 1
3. One isotope of chlorine has the symbol 𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
Calculate the number of neutrons in this isotope
Soln: from A = Z + N → 37 = 17 + 𝑁 → 37 − 17 = 20
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 62
Individual task – 3:1
1. Tin (Sn) has a total of twenty-five isotopes; the lightest is represented by the
symbol 108Sn50. Given that all twenty-five isotopes of tine exist, write down the
symbol for the heaviest tin isotopes (ANS: 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒏)
Stable Atom
Is the atom whereby its binding energy is strong enough to hold nucleus of an
atom together.
N.B: Stability of an atom decreases as the atomic number increases
Unstable Atom
Is the atom whereby its binding energy is not strong enough to hold nucleus of
an atom together.
Types of Radioactivity
Natural radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity
Natural Radioactivity
Is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting
radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic wave
OR
Is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atoms (nuclei).
For example, unstable isotopes such that carbon-14 and heavy elements
such as lead and uranium etc
NB:
In natural radioactivity the nucleus of the elements disintegrate on their own accord
Materials exhibit radioactivity is called radioactive material
In the periodic table all elements above lead exhibit natural radioactivity
Examples of radioactive material are thorium (Th), uranium (U), Radon (Rn),
Radium (Ra), Polonium (Po) etc
Nuclear Radiation
Is the energy or particles or electromagnetic waves emitted by unstable atom
(radioactive element)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 63
Types of Radiation
Alpha (𝛼) particle
Beta (β) particle
Gamma (γ) rays
Whereby:
𝐴𝑍𝑋 Is parent nuclide
𝑍−2𝑌 Is daughter nuclide
𝐴−4
The parent nuclide can give more than one daughter nuclide
Example 1: Uranium-238 undergoes an alpha decay to produce thorium-234
Solution: 238
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒
234 4
Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce xenon-131 and gamma rays
𝟏𝟑𝟏
𝟓𝟑𝑰 → 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 + −𝟏𝒆 + γ
Alpha particles deflected toward south pole, beta particles deflected toward
north pole while gamma rays is not deflected
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 66
Individual task – 3:2
1. Uranium 238
92𝑈 emits an alpha particle to become another element, as shown in
the following equation 23892𝑈 → 𝑍𝑋 + 𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒. Determine the value of A
𝐴
3. The following reaction is part of a radioactive series. Identify the reaction x and
determine the values of c and z
𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟑𝑨
𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟒𝑨
𝑪
𝒁𝑸 (ANS: x is beta particle, c = 206, z = 82)
4. (ii) Define the terms isotope
(ii) Uranium 23892𝑈 decayed to Polonium 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 by 𝛼-particle emission at each
𝟐𝟐𝟐
stage via 234𝑥𝑇ℎ, 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝒙𝑹𝒂 and 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝒛𝑹𝒏 . Following this stage 𝟐𝟐𝟒 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 decayed to
𝒒
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 by 𝛽-particle only
(a)Write balanced equation of the stage decay process from 238 92𝑈 𝑡𝑜
𝟐𝟐𝟔
𝒛𝑹𝒏
and determine the value of x, y, z and q
(b) Identify isotopes and isobars
(ANS Isotopes is Radon; 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 and 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 , Isobars is 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 and 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 )
𝟐𝟐𝟐
5. A uranium nucleus, U-238 with atomic number 92, emits two 𝛼-particles and two
𝛽-particles and finally forms a thorium (Th) nucleus. Write the nuclear equation for
this process (𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟐 𝟐𝑯𝒆 → 𝟐 −𝟏𝒆 → 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉)
𝟒 𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝟒
In industry
(a) Used to measure and control the thickness or density of metal and plastic sheets
(b) Used in preservation of food by killing microorganisms that cause spoilage
Archaeological field.
(a) It is used for carbon – dating to determine the age of ancient remains
Artificial Radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity is the emission of radiation due to bombardment of small
and stable nuclei by high energetic particles.
It is also called induced radioactivity or man – made radioactivity
In artificial radioactivity, the nucleus must be excited by injection of a neutron
for radioactivity to start
Neutron Activation
Is the process whereby neutron radiation induces radioactivity in materials
Example: Stable cobalt-59 undergo neutron radiation to emit cobalt-60
𝟓𝟗
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 + 𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐
(ii) Aluminium 27 30
13𝐴𝑙 bombarded by 𝛼-particle to give silicon 14𝑆𝑖 particle
(iii) Sodium 23 27
11𝑁𝑎 is bombarded by 𝛼-particle to give aluminium 13𝐴𝑙
particle
35 35
(iv) Chlorine 17𝐶𝑙 is bombarded with proton gives Sulphur 16𝑆 particle
ANS: (i) Particle is alpha (helium) (ii) Atom produced is proton
(iii) Atom produced is neutron (iv) Two electrons are produced
NB:
Nuclear fission of heavy element is a highly exothermic reaction that is why it
is used as a source of energy in form of heat
If neutron is bombarded with atom the decay will continue until stable atom
form, since neutron decreases to finish. This chain is called chain reaction
Nuclear Fusion
Is the process whereby lighter nuclei joining together to form heavier nucleus.
Example: Nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium yield helium, neutron and
heat energy
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 → 𝟐𝑯 + 𝟎𝒏 + energy
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
NB:
Nuclear fusion of heavy element than iron or nickel is endothermic reaction
Nuclear fusion of lighter element is exothermic reaction
Nuclear fusion occur naturally in stars
Nuclear fusion occur artificially in human enterprises
Carbon – 14 Dating
Is the scientific method which is used to determine age of dead living and non-
living organism
Mathematically
Activity (A) ∝ Original number of atoms presents (N)
𝐴 ∝ 𝑁 – removing the proportionality constant
𝐴 = 𝑘𝑁
𝛥𝑁
But: 𝐴 = −
𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑁
− = 𝑘𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁 (𝑘 = 𝜆 = Proportionality/decay constant)
𝛥𝑡
1. Linear method
This involves dividing the initial mass/ percentage /fraction by two after each half life
In general, If No is the initial mass and t1/2 the half life then:
𝑵 𝑵 𝑵 𝑵
NO 𝑶 𝑶 𝑶 𝑶
𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟔
Example: The count rate of a radioactive indium falls from 3200 counts per minute to
200 counts per minutes in 220 minutes. Determine the half – life of the radioactive isotope
Soln:
3200 1600 800 400 200
Total number of half lives = 4
Total time taken = 220 minutes
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
𝟒
2. Formula method
The formula used is:
𝒕
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 𝑵
= ( ) 𝑶𝑹 = 𝟐𝒏
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝑵𝑶
−𝒕
whereby: 𝒏 = (𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠)
𝒕𝟏/𝟐
Example: If a radioactive isotope has a half –life of 2.5 hours, how long will it take for
256 grams of the isotope to decay to 32 grams?
Soln:
𝒕
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕
From: = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐
𝑵𝑶 𝟐
𝒕 𝒕
𝟑𝟐 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓
= ( 𝟐) → ( 𝟐) = ( 𝟐)
𝟐𝟓𝟔
𝒕
𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝟑= → 𝒕 = 𝟑 𝒙𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟐. 𝟓
3. Graphical method
This method involves plotting a decay curve, then using the curve to work out
the half life
Radioactive Decay Curve
Is the exponential curve drawn with number of atoms on the vertical axis and
time for disintegration on the horizontal axis
(Is a graph of either mass, count rate, activity, percentage e.t.c against time)
Whereby;
1T1/2 = First half life, 2T1/2 =Second half life and 3T1/2 =Third half life period
4. Isotope has a half-life of 1min and 1000 nuclei initially present, after 1min will decay to 500
nuclei, next 1min will decay to 250 nuclei, and next 1min will decay to 125 nuclei and so on
Graphically
remained. Determine the half life of M.(ANS: Atomic number = 87, t1/2 = 56 days)
Composition of Gm Tube
Hollow tube consists of noble gas (argon) coated metallic film maintained at a
high negative voltage relative to the collector
Mica thin window at one end where radiation allowed passing through mica
during detection
A collector wire at the centre of tube
Mechanism of Gm Tube
When radiation enters the tube, it causes electrons to be ejected from the
gaseous atoms and are then accelerated toward the positively–charged
collector wire
Then an electron strikes the wire causing a brief pulse of electric current to be
produced
Finally the current can cause a ‘’click’’ in a speaker or be counted by a scalar
Background radiation
Is the natural radiation that is always present in the environment
It comes from (sources) the earth’s crust, the atmosphere, cosmic rays and
radioisotopes
Background Count Rate
Are the radiations present in the environment even when there is no apparent
radioactive material around
OR Is the number of counts recorded by a radiation detector from background radiation
OR Is the evidence or effect on a detector of radiation caused by background radiation
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 75
Source of Background Count Rate
Earth’s radioactive impurities
Residue of nuclear radiation present in G.M.T
Cosmic rays escape from outer space through ozone layer
NB:
A GM tube left well away from a radioactive source will still count some
radioactive emissions (The background count).
If the GM tube is placed close to a radioactive source, it will count the
emissions from the source and the background count
Background radiation count must be subtracted from the total count registered
by a detector to obtain the actual /correct count of the source
Example if the background was 5 Bq and the count recorded is 45 Bq, then the
count from the source is ( 45 – 5 = 40 Bq)
In calculations the Background count rate is treated as zero. i.e. not allowed (it
is subtracted from recorded count rate)
Class Activity – 3
1. A patient suffering from cancer of thyroid glands is given a dose of radioactive
iodine 131, with a half-life of 8 days, to combat diseases. He is temporarily
radioactive and his nurse must be changed regularly to project them. If his
radiation is initially 4 times the acceptable level, how long is it before the special
nursing radiations can be dropped (ANS : t = 16 days)
2. The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days .A sample contains 16 g of iodine – 131
(a) Draw a graph to represent the decay of the sample
(b) From the graph determine mass of the sample which will remain undecayed
after 20 days (ANS: (a) Draw graph (b) 3g)
3. A sample contains 800 g of iodine – 131.How much of the sample will remain
undecayed after 40 days ? (The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days) (ANS: 25 g)
4. Isotope A has a half – life of 36 s and decays by emission of alpha particle to
Isotope B . Isotope B has a half life of 18 s and decays by emission of beta
particle to isotope C which is stable .A sample initially contains 120 mg of pure
Isotope A. After 72 s :
(a) What mass of Isotope A remains?
(b) What mass of Isotope B has been produced?
(c) Of the mass of Isotope B produced, how much remains?
(d) What mass of Isotope C has been produced?
(e) After which of the following times would there be less than 1 mg of isotope
A remaining? ((a) 120 s (b) 160 s (c) 240 s (d) 280 s)
5. The half life of Technetium 99m is 6h. If 12 mg of Technetium 99m is injected into
a patient and starts to decay into Technetium 99m .Calculate the amount of
Technetium 99m present in the patient after 24h ANS:
6. After 24 days, 2 mg of an original 128 mg sample remain .What is the half – life of
the sample? (ANS: 4 days)
7. U – 238 has a half life of 4.46 x 109 years .How much U – 238 should be present
in a sample 2.5 x 109 years old .If 2 g was present initially ? (ANS: 1.36 g remain)
8. How long will it take for a 40 g sample of I–131 (Half – life = 8.04 days) to decay to
1/100 its original mass? (ANS 53.4 days)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 79
9. If a radioactive element has a half – life of 40 minutes. Initial count rate was 1000 per
minute , then how long will it take for count rate to drop to 125 per minutes?(ANS:120min)
10. A particular radioactive has a half-life of 2.0 hours. A sample gives a count rate of
2400 per second at 11:00 am. When will the count have dropped to approximately
300 per second in the same counting system?
11. 8 x 108 atoms of Radon were separated from Radium. The half life of Radon is
3.82 days. How many atoms will disintegrate after 7.64 days? (ANS: = 6 x 108 atoms)
12. The half life of a radioactive element is 10 minute. Calculate how it takes for 90%
of a given mass of the element to decay.(ANS: Therefore, time = 33min)
13. A radioactive material has a half life of 16 days. How long will it take for the count
rate to fall from 160 counts /min to 20counts/min? (ANS: t= 48 min)
14. The half life of the Bismuth is 20min what fraction of a sample of this
𝑵 𝟏
radioactive bismuth remain after 2 hours? (ANS: = )
𝑵𝟎 𝟔𝟒
15. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the symbol write down the composition of
the nucleus at the end of each of the following stages of disintegration.
(a) The emission of an alpha particle. (b) The further emission of a beta particle.
(ANS (a.) 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟒 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟎
𝟗𝟐𝒀 → 𝟗𝟎𝑿 + 𝟐𝑯 (𝒃) 𝟗𝟎𝑿 → 𝟗𝟎𝑴 + −𝟏𝒆, 𝒑 = 𝟗𝟏, 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑)
16. The count rate recorded by Geiger Muller tube and counter close to an alpha
particle source is 400 per minute after allowing for the back ground count. If the
half life of the source is 4 days.
(i)What will be the count rate 12 days later?
(ii) What should be determined over period of several minute rather than over a
few second? (ANS: C = 50 count/min, This is because the rate of emission was so fast).
17. A rate meter record a background count rate of 2 counts per second when a
radioactive source is held near the count rate is 162 counts per second. If the half
life of the source is 5 minute what will be the recorded count rate be 20min later?
(ANS: Therefore C = 10counts /sec, Hence the recorded count rate = 10 + 2 = 12 counts/sec)
18. A Geiger Muller tube connected to a rate meter is held near a radioactive source.
The correct count rate allowing for background count is 400 counts per second. 40
min later the corrected count rate is 25 counter rates per second. What is the half
life of the source? (Half life = 10 minutes)
19. The rate os disintegration of a radioactive substance is recorded after every 3
days ,as shown in the table below .Back ground radiation is 10 counts/day .Plot an
appropriate graph and use it to determine the half – life of the substance .Show
how you obtained your answer
Time(days) 0 3 6 9 12 15
Counts/day 123 95 66 47 34 25
Table
Counts per minute
Detector Magnet not Magnet
position present present
1 26 295
2 300 28
3 28 26
3. Fluorescent Screen
This is the display component of the CRT where image displayed.
It is phosphor coated so that it emits light wherever the electrons strike it
NB:
The horizontal and vertical deflection plates can direct the beam towards any point
on the screen. In some devices, the electrically charged plates are replaced by
poles of electromagnets.
Televisions (TV)
It may be black and white television or coloured television
Types of X-Rays
Soft X-rays
Hard X-rays
Soft X-Rays
Are the X-rays that produced by lower accelerating potential with longer
wavelength and lower range of frequency
They have less energy and less penetrating power
Hard X-Rays
Are the X-ray produced by high accelerating potential with short wavelength
and higher range of frequency.
They have high energy and more penetrating power
Differences between hard and soft x-rays
Hard x-rays Soft x-rays
Produced by high accelerating potential Produced by low accelerating potential
Have shorter wavelength (high frequency) Have longer wavelength (low frequency)
They have higher energy They have less energy
Have higher penetrating power Have lower penetrating power
Properties of X-Rays
They travel in straight line at the velocity of light
They cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic field
They can produce fluorescence
They affect photographic film
They penetrate matter but depend on density of matter
They ionize gases.
Class Activity
1. (a) State one way in which cathode rays differ from electromagnetic waves and
describe an experiment which illustrates this difference
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal section view of the cathode ray
oscilloscope tube showing its main features
5. (a) (i) What are the two types of X – rays?
(ii) X – Rays are said to have harmful effect to human beings when used for
a long time. Explain the effect that X – rays cause to human beings
(b) Describe how X – rays are produced in X – ray tube
(c) Show the three main parts of cathode ray oscilloscope on a well labeled diagram
6. (a) Write two properties of (i) X rays (ii) cathode rays
(b)(i) Give any four uses of cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
(ii) State two ways in which x – rays differ from gamma rays
7. (a) Explain briefly the following
(i) Thermionic emission
(ii) The production of a stream of electrons in cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.T)
(b) What method in a device using the thermionic emission principle ensures
that the electrons produced
(i) Do not accumulate at the source? (ii) Reach their range undeviated?
(iii) Travel without meet other forms of particles on their way to the target?
8. (a) (i) Explain why cathode ray tube (CRT) are evacuated
(ii) What happens to the CRT when a gas is maintained?
(iii) If gas is maintained in a CRT, will the image be formed onto the screen? Explain
(b) In the production of X – rays what are roles of:
(i) Low voltage (ii) High voltage? (iii) Tungsten target?
(c) How is hard X – rays produced?
9. (a) (i) Define thermionic emission
(ii) What is X – rays? (iii) Mention two uses of X – rays
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how X – rays are produced
(c) Draw a well labeled diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
10. State one property of X –rays which makes it possible to detect fractured bones
11. The penetrating power of x –rays is normally varied depending on the intended
use. Explain briefly how this is done
12. X –rays are passed through the air surrounding a charged electroscope. State
what is observed.
13. How can the intensity of X-rays in an X –ray tube be increased
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 91
14. The figure below shows a circuit of a special type of a cathode ray tube
(a) Name the parts labeled A,B and C(ANS: A =cooling fins B=metal target C= Filament cathode)
(b) Explain how X –Rays are produced in a tube
(c) Why it is necessary to use an evacuated tube? (ANS: In order to minimize
the chance of electrons colliding with air molecules)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 92
(d) What are the purposes of high and low voltages.
Low voltage heats up the cathode filament to emit electrons
High voltage accelerates electrons towards the metal target
(e) With reason, state the most appropriate metal to be used to make part B
(ANS: tungsten/molybdenum, It has a high melting point)
17. In the production of X – Rays what are the roles of
(i) Low voltage? (ii) High voltage? (iii) Tungsten target?
ANS: (i) Used for heating the cathode
(ii) Used to provide a high p.d between the electrodes, for accelerating the electrons
(iii) Used for absorbing highly energetic electrons and emit X – Rays.(Converting K.E
of electrons into electromagnetic waves and heat)
A semiconductor
Is a material in which its electrical conductivity intermediate between that of
conductor and insulator.
For example silicon, germanium, cadmium sulphide and gallium arsenide
A semiconductor behaves as an insulator at very low temperature
o Has a significant electrical conductance at room temperature, however, much
lower than that of a conductor
Band theory
Is the theory which explains about energy levels in a solid in terms of energy band
Energy Band
Is a collection of closely spaced energy levels
OR
Is the series of “allowed” and “forbidden” energy bands that it contains
Diagram:
We have about three bands in which a band electrons possesses energy called
energy level
Conduction band
Band gap (forbidden band)
Valence band
Conduction Band
Is the upper most part of semiconductor in which there is few or no electrons
It is sufficient to make the electrons free to accelerate under the influence of an
applied electric field and thus constitute an electric current
N.B In conductors some electrons occupy the conduction band
Valence Band
Is the lower part of semiconductor in which there is completely filled with electrons
The valence band is the highest range of electron energies where electrons are
normally present at the absolute zero temperature
Forbidden energy gap (Fermi energy level).
Is the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band which cannot
be occupied by electrons
The band obtained by separating conduction band and valence band is called
forbidden energy band or forbidden gap .
The figure below shows the conductor, semiconductor and insulator in terms of
their energy level (band gap)
For conductor
There is no forbidden gap available, the valence and conduction band overlap
each other (figure a)
The electrons from valence band freely enter into conduction band
Due to the overlapping of the valence and conduction bands, a very low
potential difference can cause the continuous flow of current
For semiconductor
The forbidden gap is very small (fig b)
There are no electrons in the conduction band. The valence band is completely filled at 0 K
With a small amount of energy that is supplied, the electrons can easily jump
from the valence band to the conduction band
For example, if the temperature is raised, the forbidden gap is decreased and
some electrons are liberated into the conduction band
Germanium and Silicon are the best examples of semiconductors with
forbidden energy gap of 0.7 eV and 1.1 eV respectively
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 96
For insulator
The forbidden energy gap is very large (fig c). It is more than 3 eV and almost no
electrons are available for conduction
Therefore, a very large amount of energy must be supplied to a valence
electron to enable it to move to the conduction band
If the electron is supplied with high energy, it can jump across the forbidden
gap. When the temperature is increased, some electrons will move to the
conduction band. This is the reason, why certain materials, which are
insulators at room temperature become conductors at high temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors
These are impure semiconductors materials which contains added impurities
Examples are N – Silicon , N – Germanium P – Silicon and P – Germanium
Doping
Is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their
properties
N-type Semiconductor
Is the type of semiconductor in which the majority carriers are electrons
Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped with pentavalent elements
The purpose of n-type doping is to produce an abundance of mobile or carrier
electrons in the material
Mechanism of Doping
Consider the silicon with four valences (with four electrons in their outer
most shell) combine with dopant of more than four electrons they will share
the four valences results the extra electrons from dopant (group V) remaining
as extra (free electrons). This extra electron is only weakly bound to the atom and
can easily be excited into the conduction band, since the silicon atoms with five
valence atoms have an extra electron to “donate”, they are called donor atoms
Diagram of silicon after doping (n-doping with Antimony, Sb)
[
P-type Semiconductor
Is the type of semiconductor in which the majority carriers are holes
Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped with trivalent elements
The purpose of p-type doping is to produce an abundance of holes in the
valence band.
Mechanism of Doping
Consider the silicon with four valences (with four electrons in their outer
most shell) combine with Dopant (group III) of less than four electrons in
their outer most shell they will share the three electrons results the semiconductor
with less electrons (holes) to attain stability, since the silicon atoms with three
valence atoms have a less electron to “acceptor”, they are called acceptor atoms
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 99
Diagram of silicon after doping (P-doping with boron)
N – TYPE P – TYPE
Produced by adding pentavalent Produced by adding trivalent impurities to
impurities to a pure semiconductor. a pure semiconductor.
The number of free electrons exceed the The number of holes exceeds the number
number of holes. of free electrons.
The majority charges are negative charges. The majority charges are positive charges.
The donor energy level is just below the The acceptor energy level is just above
bottom of the conduction band. the valence band.
JUNCTION DIODE
P–N Junction
In forward bias, the positive charge applied to the p–region repels the holes while
the negative charge applied to the n–type repels the electrons .As the electrons
and holes are pushed toward the junction, the distance between them decreases
This reduces the size of depletion layer and lowers the potential barrier
Therefore the charge carriers interact easily and makes the flow of an electric
current possible
The graph of voltage against current for forward is given below
When the diode is connected in this manner, the holes in the p-type are attracted
away from the junction by the external negative potential. Also electrons are
attracted away from the junction by the external positive potential. This increases
the thickness of the depletion layer .Thus the potential barrier and hence the
resistance of the junction is increased .A very small current (leakage current) may
flow in the circuit due to the flow of minority charge carries.
The graph of voltage against current for reverse bias is shown from the fig below
When the voltage of the battery is greater than barrier potential majority charge carries
(holes and electrons)are pushed away and very small or no electric current is flowing
N.B
Potential barrier is the potential required to overcome the barrier at the PN junction
Zener/Break down voltage Is the reverse Voltage at which p-n junction breaks
down with the sudden rise in reverse current.
Diodes
A diode is an electrical device that allows current to flow through it in one direction.
NB:
When the junction is reverse-biased, the diode blocks the voltage
When the junction is forward-biased, the diode conducts
The magnitude of the current through the diode depends on the current in the
external circuit
Types of Diode
Semiconductor diode
Metal semiconductor diode
Light-emitting diode
Zener Diode
Semiconductor Diode
Most semiconductor diodes are made up of silicon or germanium.
Semiconductor diodes are most used for rectification
NB:
LEDs are made from a variety of semiconductor materials depending on the
wavelength of the light required
The most commonly used materials for visible LEDs are gallium phosphide and
gallium arsenic phosphide
LEDs have a wide range of applications, from simple indicator lamps and huge
display screens to optical fiber communication links
Zener Diode
Zener diodes are specifically manufactured and designed to be operated in the
reverse breakdown voltage.
Every Zener diode is manufactured for a specific reverse breakdown voltage
called the Zener voltage.
Its symbol:
NB:
Zener diodes are used as voltage regulator devices.
It allows required voltage to pass through
Mechanism
During the first half-cycle of the AC sine wave, A is positive and B is negative.
The diode is forward-biased and current flows around the circuit formed by the
diode, the transformer winding and the load (R)
During the second half-cycle, A is negative and, B is positive. The diode is
reverse-biased therefore no current flows in the circuit
NB:
o The output signal can be displayed on a CRO screen which outlines the above trace
o The output voltage of half wave rectification flows in pulse (half rectified) because
the diode allows current to flow during the first half of the cycle when it is forward
biased and stops the current during the second half when it is reversed biased
o The diode conducts on every half- cycle
o The rectified voltage is d.c and is always positive in value
o If the diode is reversed, then the output voltage is negative
o The voltage is not steady and needs to be smoothed (by putting a large
capacitor, C in parallel with the load) for it to be useful (see fig below)
o The capacitor is charged during the positive half-cycle of the a.c. and discharges
through the load in the negative half-cycle
Advantages of half wave rectification
Low cost of construction, since it includes few components
Easy to constructs
Mechanism
During the first half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased while D2 is reverse biased.
Hence current flows through AD1BCA
During the second half cycle, diode D2 will now be forward biased while D1
reversed biased .Thus current flows through DD2BCD.
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 106
N.B
In both half cycles, the direction of flow of current through the resistor is the
same. The resultant output will therefore take the form shown below
Mechanism
During the first half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while D2 and D4
are reversed biased. Current thus flows through diode D1 and D3 via the resistor R.
During the second half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 are now reversed biased while D2
and D4 are forward biased. Current thus flows through D2 and D4 via the resistor R
N.B
In both half cycles current flows through the resistor R in one direction only.ie
from end A to B. This kind of rectifier can be used with very high voltage
If a smooth rectified wave is needed, then a capacitor is connected across the resistor
Transistors
Transistor Is a semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and generating
electrical signals.
OR
Is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power
Terminals of Transistor
There are three terminals namely emitter (E), collector (C) and base (B)
Emitter (E)
Is a terminal used to supplies (remove /push) charge carriers to Collector
It is the negative lead (region)
Collector (C)
Is a terminal used to receive charge carriers repelled from emitter terminal
It is the positive lead (region)
The maximum possible current obtained at the output (collector) is called
Saturation current
Types of Transistors
Field-effect transistors (FETs)
Bipolar transistors (BJT)
NB:
The outward arrow shows that the direction of current in npn transistor is from the
collector through the base to the emitter ( NPN → Never Points iN)
PNP Transistor
Is a type of transistor in which one n–type material is doped with two p–type materials
The diagram and symbol of pnp transistor is shown in the figure below
The inward arrow shows that the direction of current in pnp transistor is from the
emitter to collector (PNP → Points iN Permanently)
The collector base region is connected in reverse biased. The holes which collect
around the depletion region when coming under the impact of negative polarity
attracted by the collector. This develops the collector current. The complete emitter
current flows through the collector current IC
Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the sum of the collector or the base
current (IE = IC + IB)
Electronic amplifier is the circuit that increases the amplitude (intensity) of a given input
OR is the magnification of input signal
Mechanism
The input signal is fed to the base-collector circuit while the output signal is
tapped from the emitter terminal with respect to the ground
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input
and output of the amplifier
Common-Base Amplifier
The emitter terminal serves as the input, the collector as the output, and the
base is common to both. The emitter-base junction is forward-biased by the
power supply VEE while the collector base junction is reverse-biased by VCC
Mechanism
o The input signal is fed to the emitter-base circuit while the output signal is tapped
from the collector-base circuit
o C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input
and output of the amplifier
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Common-Emitter Amplifier
The base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the collector as the
output, and the emitter is common to both. The emitter-base junction is
forward-biased by power supply VBB while the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased by power supply VCC
Mechanism
The input signal is fed to the base-emitter circuit and the amplified signal is
tapped from the collector terminal with respect to the ground emitter circuit
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input
and output of the amplifier
Information Signals
Are current or voltage variations (waveforms) through which information is
relayed in electronic circuits
Class Activity – 5
1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is called bipolar?
ANS: Because, the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charges
carriers (majority and minority carriers)
2. Why transistor is called current controlled device?
ANS: Because, the output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input
current in a transistor
3. What is the significance of the arrow –head in the transistor symbol?
ANS: Is to show the conventional direction of current flow.(From emitter – to – base
in case of p-n-p transistor and from base – to – emitter in case of n – p –n transistor)
N.B: Arrow head is always marked on the emitter and not for collector, since collector
always reverses its leakage current opposite to the direction of emitter current
4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.
ANS: For normal operation, base–emitter junction should be forward biased
and the collector base Junction reverse biased
5. What are the differences between a semiconductor and an insulator in terms of
their conductivity
6. In case the transistor is not biased properly, what would happen?
ANS: It would
Work inefficiently
Produce distortion in the output signal
Importance of Astronomy
Measurement of time
Duration of the day, month and year were determined by using position and
phases of the sun, moon and stars
Development of calendars.
Were used to predict seasons for agriculture by studying position of stars in space
Navigation on land and sea uses the knowledge of astronomy
To study the origin of the earth and life
Used in space exploration
Geocentric Theory (Earth centered)
Is the theory which considers that the earth is at the centre of the universe and
other heavenly bodies such as the Sun and other planets to be orbiting around it
It was based on religious beliefs, observations and common-sense.
Stars
A star is a large celestial body made up of hot gases known as plasma.
Plasma refers to an ionized gas in which a certain proportion of electrons are
free rather than bound to an atom or molecules.
Stars radiate energy derived from the thermonuclear reactions in the interior region.
The sun is the largest star.
The sun is the closest star to the earth at a mean distance of 149.60 million kilometers
This distance is known as Astronomical Unit (AU) and is used to measure
distances across the solar system
1AU = 1.4960×1011m
Light year Is the distance that light travels in one year, or about 6 trillion miles
[Light Moves about a distance of 186,000 miles per second (3 x 10 8 m/s)]
Variable star Is a star whose brightness changes over the course of days,
weeks, months or year
Super Nova is the end of life of a star in a huge explosion
Double Star (Binary Star) Are two stars that lie very close to, and are often
orbiting each other
Galaxy
A Galaxy is a giant collection of stars, gas and dust.
Most of stars in the universe are in the galaxies.
Milky Way
Is the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
Nearly all of the stars visible in the night sky are within our galaxy, the Milky Way.
Planets
A planet is a major (large) object which is in its orbit around a star (sun).
The planets revolve around the sun. They are held in orbit by the gravitational pull
of the sun.
Planets do not give their own light, but rather reflect the sun’s light.
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These planets are
(i) Mercury
It is the closest planet to the sun
It gets more direct heat, but even it isn’t the hottest planet (4270 C)
It is the smallest planet in the solar system
It has no moons, no rings and an atmosphere
(ii) Venus
Is the second planet from the sun and has no moon
It is also known as morning star or evening star
It is the hottest planet in the solar system (4820 C)
It has very thick atmosphere 90 times that of the earth
Question, Mercury is the closest planet to the sun but not hotter than Venus, Why?
ANS:
This is because any heat that mercury receives from the sun is quickly lost
back into space because it does not have any atmosphere to trap and hold heat
Similarly Venus is the hottest due to presence of very thick atmosphere of
carbon dioxide. This atmosphere makes the surface of Venus hotter because
heat does not escape back into space (Greenhouse effect)
(iii) Earth
Is the third planet from the sun and largest terrestrial planet
Is the only planet to host living beings and the only one known
to have liquid water on its surface
It has atmosphere which supports life
It is the only known planet to have current geological activity
It has a radius of 6371 km and its distance is 1.0 AU from the sun
It has one large moon
(iv) Mars
Is the fourth planet from the sun
It is reddish planet. The red color comes from iron oxide or rust in the soil
It experiences frequent planet – wide wind storms
It’s colder than earth. The surface temperature ranges from -1130 C to 00 C
(v) Jupiter
Is the fifth planet from the sun
Is the largest planet in the solar system
It has 63 moons and a faint ring system
(vi) Saturn
Is the sixth planet from the Sun. It is also a gas giant planet
It has the rings that orbit the planets in a thin band about a mile thick
Its radius is about 9.5 times that of the Earth.
(viii) Neptune
Is the eighth planets from the sun
It has a radius four times that of the earth as Uranus
It has the atmosphere made of methane
Its surface temperature is about -2140C
It has 13 moons and a faint ring system orbit the planet
NB:
All of these planets excepts the Earth, have names from Greek or Roman mythology
(a) Mercury means god of commerce because it moves so quickly across the sky
(b) Venus means goddess of love and beauty due to beautiful sight in the sky
(c) Mars means god of war due to its red color
(d) Jupiter means King of the Gods due to its biggest size in the solar system
(e) Saturn means god of agriculture,
(f) Uranus (the ancient Greek deity of the heavens ) means the earliest
supreme god
(g) Neptune means god of the sea due to its beautiful blue color
(h) Pluto means god underworld because it’s so far away from the Sun
Types of planets
The planets in the solar system are divided into two types namely:-
(i) Terrestrial planets (innermost planets)
(ii) Jovian planets (Outer planets / Gas giants)
The difference between the two types of planets
Terrestrial planets Jovian planets
Are the planets which are made of Are the planets which are made of
solid surfaces gaseous surfaces
Examples are Mercury, Venus, Examples are Jupiter, Saturn,
Earth and Mars Uranus, Neptune
They are small in size They are large in size
They are closer to the sun They are far away from the sun
They have few number of moons They have many number of moons
Their core are more denser Their core are less denser
Satellite
Satellite is the celestial body that revolves around the planets.
Types of Satellite
1. Natural Satellite
Natural satellite is the natural celestial in which revolves around the planet.
Example, moon
2. Artificial Satellite
Artificial satellite is the man made satellite and spacecraft that orbit the planet.
Uses of the earth Satellites
The moon leads to ocean tides
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Man – made satellite used to reflect radio waves for communication
Asteroids (minor planets)
Asteroid is a large rocky body in space that revolve around the sun
OR
Asteroid is an astronomical body smaller than planets that orbit the sun
NB:
Asteroids are of different sizes and shapes
Asteroids are mostly small Solar system bodies composed mainly of rocky and
metallic non-volatile minerals
They lie between mars and Jupiter
Meteors
Are asteroids which enter the earth’s atmosphere and burn completely before
reaching the earth’s surface
Are also called shooting stars
Meteorites
Are meteors that survive the passage through the earth’s and reach the ground
OR A meteorite is a piece of rock or metal that has fallen to the earth’s surface
from outer space as a meteor
In Tanzania a 16 ton piece of meteorite found at Mbozi Mbeya called Mbozi meteorite
Comets
Comet: Is a small icy celestial body that when passing close to the sun
heat up and emit gas displaying a visible atmosphere and a tail
OR
Is a small icy celestial body that revolves around the sun
They can often be seen by naked eyes. They stop glowing once the gaseous
materials are all burnt off or when they are once again far away from the sun
Meteoroid
Is a smaller body than asteroid that moves in the solar system that would
become a meteor if it entered the earth’s atmosphere
Gravitational Force
Gravitational force is the attractive force existing between any two objects that
have masses
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
The law States that
“Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them”
Consider the fig. below
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𝑮(𝒎𝟏𝒎𝟐)
The gravitational force is given by F =
𝒓𝟐
Whereby: G is the universal gravitation constant , m1 is the mass of the first body,m2
is the mass of the second body and r is the distance between the two bodies
Gravity
Is the gravitational force that attracts a body towards the centre of the Earth
This is the force that holds us on the ground and causes objects to fall back to
the ground after being thrown up in the air
The further you move away from the center of the earth, the weaker the force becomes
The measure of the force of gravity on an object on the earth’s surface is called the weight
As we go above the surface of the earth, acceleration due to gravity goes on
decreasing,
That is why, the astronaut in space can float without falling because the
gravitational force is almost zero in the outer space
NB:
If the astronaut goes in the outer space he needs a spacesuit. This special suit
is important because it is used to:-
(i) Protect his body from low pressure
(ii) Supply astronaut with oxygen to breath
(iii) Supply water to drink during spacewalks
(iv) Protect his body from being injured from impacts of small bits of space dust
(v) Protect the astronaut from cold and dangerous radiation
What could happen if an astronaut would not put on a spacesuit?
(i) Boiling blood. The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling point, in space
there no air pressure. So boiling point could easily drop to his body
temperature .That means his blood would start to boil
(ii) Cell mutation. He also be bombarded with dangerous radiation from the
sun and other stars .This radiation could warp his cells and cause poisoning
or cancer and eventually cause death
(iii) Loss of bowel control. He could lose control due to severe lack of oxygen
(iv) Bloating. If the liquid in his blood stream started boiling, it would turn into
gas that would make his skin swell
The astronaut use small jets of gas in his movements (maneuvers) instead of
swimming like fish because there is no matter (no atmosphere) to cause
resistance of his movements to move forward (due to Newton’s third law of motion)
Gravitation Is the force of attraction which acts between two bodies in the universe
The Sun’s gravity keeps the planets in their orbits
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Constellations
A Constellation: Is a group of stars that form a definite shape or pattern
when viewed from the earth
OR
Constellations: Are small groups of bright stars that form patterns in the sky
which resemble familiar with animals and objects on the earth.
Some of known constellations are: LEO, IRON, SCORPIO, URSA MAJOR,
CORPUS, CANIS MAJOR, PISCES, GEMIN and the SOUTHER CROSS
There are about 88 known constellations.
Types of Constellations
Circumpolar constellations
Seasonal constellations
Zodiac constellations
Circumpolar Constellations
Are seen all of the year round in the night sky for observers in high northern or
high southern latitudes because of the rotation of the Earth
Seasonal Constellations
Seasonal constellations are the constellations that appear at some time of the
year and are not seen at other times of the year.
In Tanzania and in central Africa are close to the equator so we do not see any
circumpolar stars or circumpolar constellations. Hence In Tanzania night sky
we see only seasonal constellations
Zodiac
Is a set of constellations situated along the ecliptic in the sky, through which
the sun, moon and planets move
Zodiac Light
Is very faint cone of light in the sky, visible in the east just before sunrise and in
the west just after sunset
It is probably caused by the reflection of sunlight from cosmic dust in the plane
of the ecliptic
Asterism:
Is any prominent star pattern that is not a whole constellation
Black Hole
Is a concentration of mass so dense that nothing – not even light – can escape
its gravitational pull once swallowed up
Celestial Coordinate: Is a grid system for locating things in the sky
Maria
Maria is an Italian word Means Sea
Maria is the dark region on the surface of the moon
It is caused by hug impact craters that were later flooded with molten lava.
Most of Maria is covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris
produced by meteor impact
Ocean tides
Are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water
Tides energy: Is the rising and falling of the ocean level
Causes of Ocean tides
Are caused by the gravitational pull (force) between the earth and the moon
How Ocean tides Occurs
Due to different in gravitational force the earth pulls the moon to keep it in orbit
also the moon pulls the earth and the sun pulls the earth to keep it in orbit also
the earth pull the sun. This gravitational interaction tends to pull earth’s fluid
(gas and liquid especially in ocean) results in rising and falling of the ocean
level. As the earth rotates on its axis two tides occur each day
Neap tides occur when the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun are
perpendicular to one another (with respect to the earth)
Neap tides occur during quarter moons. At this time, the sun and the moon are
pulling at right angles to each other causing their gravitational forces to cancel
each other. They are weaker tides
Advantage of tides
During high tides the water level in the harbor rises, This enable bigger ships to
move into harbor and unloaded
The high tides clear the sea shore from garbage, etc
High tides are used for generating electricity
Class Activity–6
1. What is solar system?
2. How many known planets are there in our solar system? Name them.
3. Briefly explain how astronomy gave rise to the 12 months of the year
4. Why is Pluto not a planet as it used to be?
5. (a) Which one is the largest planet in our solar system? (ANS: Jupiter)
(b)Which planets in the solar system have satellites?
6. What is a milk way
7. What are the real names of objects in the sky which are commonly
known by the following names?
(i) An evening star (ii) A morning star (iii) A shooting star
8. Can humans breathe normally in space as they can on Earth? (Give reason)
9. Why Venus is hotter than Mercury, although Mercury is very closer to the Sun
than Venus?
10. State reasons why an astronaut in space
(a) Needs a special space suit to prevent blood from boiling
(b) Can float without falling
Earth's Crust
The crust is the outer solid layer of the earth.
The earth’s crust ranges from 5 km – 70 km
It is divided into two layers namely continental crust and oceanic crust
N B:
Mantle contains about 70% of the earth’s mass
It is made by plastic rocks (both in solid and molten state)
Upper part of mantle has a temperature of about 870 0C
Lower part of mantle has a temperature of about 2200 0C
The lower limit of brittle behavior is the boundary between the upper and lower mantle
This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient
The heat energy is the source of force that causes continental movement like
volcanism and earthquakes
Earth's Core
Earth's Core is the innermost part of the earth.
It extends from Gutenberg discontinuity to earth’s geometric center.
It consists of two distinct regions which are the outer core and the inner core
Outer Core
The outer core is the second largest layer and composed of liquid of molten
nickel and iron known as magma. It is about 2200 km thick
The magma surrounds the inner core and creates the earth’s magnetic field
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic plates are the huge pieces of cracked earth’s crust and mantle parts
which float over semi-molten rock.
Also is called lithospheric plate. Tectonic plates are in slow motion.This
movement means continents are moving apart and toward each other. This
process in which continents move is called continental drift.
Boundary
Boundary is the line where two tectonic plates meet
Types of Boundary
Destructive/ converging boundary
Constructive/diverging boundary
Conservative boundary
Conservative Boundary
Is the kind of boundary in which two plates slide moving each other in opposite
or the same direction
Central Volcanoes
Central volcanoes are a single vertical main vent through which magma
reaches the earth’s surface.
It is a cone shaped, builds up from successive layers of lava and ash
The process by which magma is forced from interior of the earth through a vent
in the earth crust is called Vulcanicity
Effects of Volcanoes
Negative effects of volcanoes
Destruction property and loss of human life : Eruptions occurring close to
human settlements may spill and destroy lives and property
Environmental Pollution : Ash discharged very high into the stratosphere can
have negative consequences on the ozone layer
Lahars: Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming lahars.
Lahars are mudflows flowing at very fast pace
Acidic rain: Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acidic rain
Accident: Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft,
especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating
temperature.
Positive effects of volcanoes
o Landscape formation: Volcanoes lead to formation of mountains ,islands ,
plateaus and valley
o Tourism: Provide extraordinary scenery, so beautiful and natural that they attract
tourists to the area, bringing in some economic value.
o Geothermal energy: Places close to volcanic activities tend to have higher
potential for geothermal energy, which can be an advantage to the towns and cities
o Soil: Ash and lava breakdown become soil that are rich in nutrients, and become
good areas for crop planting activities
o Mineral: it brings valuable mineral to the earth’s surface
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Earthquakes
Earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking or rolling of the earth's surface.
The study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around
the earth is known as “Seismology”
Scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves is called seismologist
Causes of Earthquakes
Movements of tectonic plates
Volcanic eruptions
How earthquake occur?
Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks
along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that
make the ground shake.
When two blocks of rock (plates) are rubbing against each other, they stick a
little , after a while the rocks break ,and the earthquake occurs
NB:
Hypocenter(Focus) is the point within the earth where an earthquake originates
Wave energy released by earthquakes is called seismic waves
Epicenter Is the point on the earth’s surface directly above where an earthquake
occurs and spread
Seismic Waves
Are mechanical waves through which earthquake energy is transmitted and released
OR
Is the energy released by earthquakes from hypocenter
Surface Waves
Are seismic waves which originate from and travel radically from the epicenter
OR
Surface wave is the seismic waves which propagate in earth’s surface.
Love Waves
Are the waves that travel by a transverse motion of particles that is parallel to
the ground surface
They make the ground shifting from one side to another
The surface waves do damage to surface structure such as buildings and
hydroelectric power plants
Love waves generally travel faster than Rayleigh waves
NB:
P waves is faster than S wave to be detected at seismic station
Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves (P and S)
Love waves (do not propagate through water) can effect surface water only insofar as the
sides of lakes and ocean bays pushing water sideways like the sides of a vibrating tank
Rayleigh waves propagates through water due to vertical components of their motion
Earthquake Scales
The nature of an earthquakes described in terms of their magnitude and intensity
Earthquakes Magnitude
The magnitude of an earthquake Is a measure of the energy it releases.
It is usually measured on the Richter scale.
The Richter scale is based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave
recorded for an earthquake, no matter what type of wave was the strongest
The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base 10)
The scale has no upper limit
The small magnitude expressed in negative numbers while large magnitude
expressed in positive numbers
Earthquakes Intensity
The intensity of an earthquake Is a measure of its strength based on the
changes it causes to the landscape.
The intensity of an earthquake is usually measured on the Modified Mercalli
scale. The scale is calibrated from 1 to 12. On this scale, level 1 is a minor
tremor that CAUSES NO DAMAGE whereas level 12 causes TOTAL DEVASTATION.
Earthquake can only have one magnitude but, its intensity reduces as the
seismic waves spread out from the Hypocenter
Seismograph
Is an instrument used to record ground movements caused by earthquakes.
The seismograph records both the magnitude and the intensity of the earthquake .
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Types of Seismograph
o Simple pendulum Seismograph
o Inverted pendulum: Seismograph
Recording the Pendulum Motion
The recording of the motion of the pendulum can be done through Optical
mechanical or electronic methods
Effect (Hazards) of Earthquakes
Landslides: Earthquakes can cause unstable hillsides, mountain slopes and
cliffs to move downwards, creating landslides
Snow slopes: Earthquakes can also trigger avalanches on snow slopes which
can collide with people, house etc
Tsunamis: Tsunamis are the hug water waves cause water to rise or fall. When a
tsunami reaches shallow water, it slows down, its wavelength reduces and its height grows.
Collapsing of buildings: A strong earthquake can flatten a whole city. An
example, is the Japanese city of Kobe which was completely flattened by an
earthquake measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale
Fire outbreak: Breaking of gas or oil pipes and collapsing of electricity lines
activate a fire outbreak
Loss of Life: People in areas where an earthquake has stricken may get
buried under buildings and soil or get hurt or even get killed when items fall on them
Destruction of property: When earthquakes occur in places with buildings
can lead to collapse of buildings and structures
Floods: Tsunamis lead to coastal floods since ocean water suddenly rises
above its normal
Backward rivers: Tilting ground can also make rivers change their course.
This can result in the creation of earthquake lakes that cover huge tracts of
previously settled land
Stratosphere Region
Stratosphere Is a region that starts from the tropopause and extends to about
50 km high.
This layer is more stable, drier and less dense compared to the troposphere.
The temperature in the stratosphere slowly increases with altitude
Temperature increase due to the presence of the ozone layer which absorbs
ultraviolet rays from the sun. The ozone layer lies in the middle of the
stratosphere between 20 and 30 km. Ozone(O3) is a triatomic form of oxygen
This layer plays the important role of absorbing ultraviolet radiations which
would otherwise reach the earth’s surface .This radiation is harmful to both
animal and plant life on earth
The stable air of the stratosphere also prevents large storms from extending
much beyond the tropopause
Planes also fly in the stratosphere. This is because it has strong steady
horizontal winds which are above the stormy weather of the troposphere
Troposphere and stratosphere are collectively known as the lower atmosphere
Boundary separates the stratosphere and the other layer is called stratopause
Mesosphere Region
Mesosphere is region that starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85
km high
Temperature at this layer decreases with altitude. The lowest temperature of
the atmosphere (-90°C) occurs within this region
Mesosphere is the layer in which most meteors burn while entering the earth’s
atmosphere
Boundary separates the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called mesopause
Methane (CH4)
Is one of the trace gases in the atmosphere that is considered to play a major role
in the greenhouse effect
The main source of methane is;
(i) Agricultural activities. It is released from wetlands, such as rice fields and
from animals, particularly cud-chewing animals like cows.
(ii) Mining of coal and oil (Fossil methane emission during the exploration and
transport of fossil fuels)
(iii) Biomass burning (Forest fires, charcoal combustion and firewood burning)
(iv) Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste in landfills
Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of 10 years in the atmosphere
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons are organic compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
The sources of CFCs in the atmosphere include fridges, air conditioners,
sprays and aerosols
CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. A CFC molecule is 10 000 times
more effective in trapping heat than a carbon dioxide molecule
Global Warming
Global warming is the increase of the average temperatures near or on the
earth’s surface caused by greenhouse gases
OR
Global warming is the increase in temperature near or on the surface of the
earth resulting into greenhouse effect