•

CYCLE AND PROCESS

• Process is the manner of changing the condition or state of the substance or

system.
• Some of the processes of fluids are Isometric or constant volume process, Isobaric
or constant pressure process, Isothermal or constant temperature process,
adiabatic or isentropic process, and polytroplc process .
•
•

Figure 1.9 illustrates some of the processes of fluid in the pV diagram

• Cy.c/e is the series of two or more processes in which the final condition after the
execution of the' processes is the same as the initial condition.
• When a certain mass of fluid in a particular state passes through a series of
processes and returns to its initial state, It undergoes a cycle (Faires, 1978).
• Figure 1.10 illustrates a certain cycle in the pV diagram .
•
•
p

•
1
V
Figutel.9. Some Processes of·Fluids

p 2
3
•

1
V

Figure 1.10. A Certain Cycle

CONSERVATION OF MASS
•

• The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into components.
• For any system, conservation of mass is expressed in the following relation or
equation:
mass entering mass leaving change of mass
the system the system Eq. 1.16a
stored in the system
 •
•
t.m,
m,. - mcw1 ==
e
Figur
1 . 11 '

sh o w n In
system
w open
-flo
For ste ady
Eq. 1.17
•
:::: 6 ms ....
m, - m Ex. 1.26]
284 lpm, a
2

tnl '. n1
...........�
o1' �1-1 - _
- ___ a)
. .._ .............. � - Outl et, 2 b)
Inlet, l •

l Volu m e) System
Open (Co ntro Given· A p
dy·fl w
entering the system
Stea 0
mas s
1.11.
which
Figure
system in _ V=
is an ope n chan ge 1n the stored mass of
ope n syst e� m ther e is no
• steady-flow s leav ing t he s yste
to the mas Required:
is equal · 1 -17 will be:
syst em. Then, eQ a.
the Eq.1.\8 b.

TION
CONi\ NU\TV EQUA
expre ssion for steady flow aper.
conser vation of mass
the
• Contin uity equation is
system. rate is expressed by the
the equatio n for mass flow
• As illustrated in Figure
1.11,
a n d o b ta in e d fr o m eq .
following equation
1.18.
Solution:

Eq. 1 .1s a.

Where m, mass entering the system, kg/s, lb/min

= .
m2 -- mass 1 eav1ng • the system, kg/s , lb/min .
P , _- d ens,·t Y of fluid entering the system, kg/m l, \b/ftl
P2 = density of fluid leavin \h system, kg/m 3 ' lb/ft3
�
V' = velocity of fluid enter� e system, m/s, fpm b.
V2 = velocity of fluid leaving9the system, m/s, fpm
. • of�
• Continuity ,equation Is ln the f flow rate and volume flow rat
fluid into or from the system. It�::;;,:sed
•• by the followi
ng relations and ;,!JO"
only for one-dlmenslonal, steady-flow open system.
""L'
• Mass Flow Rate Equation·. ➔ m=pAV EQ• 1 .
 ■ Volume Flow Rate Equation: ➔ \I =Av · Eq. 1.21

Where m =- mass flow rate, kg/s

V = volume flow rate, m3 / s
A= cross sectional area, m3
V= velocity of fluid, mis
p = density of fluid, kg/m3

Ex. 1.26] A pump discharges into a 2.5-m-per-side cubical tank. The flow rate is
284 1pm, and the fluid has a specific gravity of 1.2. Determine
a ) the mass flow rate of fluid; and
b) the time required to fill the tank if the tank Is initially empty.

Given: A pump discharging to a 2.5-m-per-side cubical tank

V= 284 1pm = 0.284 m�min SG = 1.2 •

Required:
a. Mass flow rate of fluid
b. The time required to fill the tank

Solution:

a. Solving for the mass flow rate of the fluid

Using Eq.1.17 and Eq. 1.18,

' 3 3
1.2
- m=pV=(1 000kg/m )( )( 0.
2 84m /min)= 340.8 kg/min ans.

b. For the time required to fill the tank

•

(2.5 m) (2.5 m) (2.5 m)

t _ Y:s._= =55_ 02 min . ans.
- v
3
0.284m /min
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS

11 Liquid Is held In two compartments sepa rate d by 8 membran e as Sh

flgurs. The total volume Is 22 m3, and the volume of compartment y 1 8°Wn 1,, �
specific volume of the liquid Is 0.594 m 3/kg. The me.bran e bre ak 8 tnJ, l e
s' h
resulting specific volume Is 797 m /kg.
3
o. 8 no e
a) Determin e the original specific volume In compartment X. lh8
b) After breaking the membrane the tempera ture of the liq
uid is 0
absolute value of this temperature is doubled and decreased 3 C.
b y 23 It lh
what would be the final temperature of the mixture In K, 0 c oF 9 e
d g,6 6 e
. , , and R? s,
• Given: The figure shown

Membrane
vv = 0.594 m3/kg

vm = 0. 797 m3/kg

Required:
2]
a) The original
spec ific
b) The final tempe . . volume of liqui d at X
ratu re of the mixtu
re in
. K ' °C, 0F, and
Solution: R
GiVi
a) Determin ation
of the or1g
. 1na1
.
specif,c volu
• Fo r the me of fluid
volume of co at compa
mpartm ent rtment X
x
Vx =Vrn -V.y
:::: 22-
s ::::: 14 m3
• Consider
the total
m ass of the
m ixture
m,,, == m + Req
x my � Vr
;-- ==-V V
�+- t
V... ::::: - V.,... Ill v -+ V
-� - -VL
V
_ _Vy
"'
X -.:.:. -
Y
� ---t
V. ~::::_
V 14 X Vm S ot.
V-
22 Y
V VY � 8 ---
'" 0.797-� - 09· 904m3/k
b) Solving fo 0,594 g
r the t
emPeratu
• re of th e
Temper ltJ bctur
atu re In l<e e
1v1 n
� == 2(3 +
2 7J J -
2�9 -
31 3 I(
•
 ■ Temperature In degree Celsius
•

ans.

■ Temperature of mixture In Fahrenheit

ans.

■ Temperature of mixture in degrees Rankine

T A = t F + 460 = 104 + 460 = 564 R ans.

•
2) At the beach, atmospheric pressure Is 101.325 kPa. You dive 40 ft down in the
ocean and you later climb a hill up to 315-ft elevation. Assume the density of
water 1020 kg/m3· and the density of air is 1.21 kg/m3. What pressure do you feel
at each place?

Given: The figure shown

p1 = 1.21 kg/m3

Pw = 1020 kg/m 3
315 ft

pb = 101.325 kPa

Required:

The pressure at each place

Solution:

• Solving for the pressure at point A, considering the column of water 40 ft

below the beach

(1020 kg/m3 )(9.8066 m/s2 )(

40
kgf
= Pa1111 + (p w A = 101325 Pa+
k
1 9· m ·
- -m )
3.28
N•s2
= 223309.54 Paa = 223.31 kPaa ans.
 �1=.;....--
:
the beac h
e
3 1 5 ft abov
o\n t B,
e at p .8066 m I s') 15
e ss ur kg I m' ) ( 9 3 rn
th 8 pr (1 _2 1 4]
v1n g for .-- g 3 .2 8
• 5 01
101 32 6 pa ... 1 � 2
·S
�
g ho -- N
- �
P
PLI P�1 m k
::: 1 002 k P a a
a
pa
100 1 as.4 3
::: 3 and connected by
Po 8 1<g/ m Iii, Given·
99
,
r p :: kg and B has soo �
ld wa t
A ha s 1 oo
th n q u � u re . 2 and Aa = 0.25 m and �
2 gai p
8 d wi the �
01 m
I
s are fl\1 w n I n :: 0 . ,
d er s sh o e A, the valv e.
,wo cy\ln d va lve ' a
a rea s ar
h sid e of t
l
as e na I ea c
with a c cro ss -se ctlo
pr es su re on
the ir t
d he
water, a.so rn. Fin
nelg ht h 1s I

shown Po
ure
Givan: Fig Po
rn 3
p = 998 1<g/
Solutio
m = 100 kg •
m 8 = 500 kg 2
- A

0 01 rn
AA = .
.25 rn 2
h == Q.8 0
01 •
A9 = 0
-i Valve (gate)

Required:
of the valv e
each side
The pressure on •

Solution: 5] A

r the A side of the valve

• Conside
_ 1 6)
00(9.806_.!.. (9 8066) ( 0 8)
mA Q + __,:__ _ + 998 \ . \ . IS
PA -Po+ A + pgh = 101325
• 0.01
A
Given: A
a-s
PA= 207 220.59 \<Paa = 207 _22 kPaa

• Consider the B side of the valve

g 3 + 500(9.8066)
120.9 4 kPa a '°
Pe =Po+ ma = 101 25 = 120 938.2 Paa =
A, 0.25

Require

Th
 4) A piece of experimental apparatus is located where g = 9.5 m/s2 and the
temperature is 5° C. Airflow Inside the apparatus is determined by measuring the
pressure drop across an orifice with a mercury manometer showing the height
difference of 200 mm. If the density of mercury Is determined by an equation
pHg = 13595 - 2.5t, kg/m ; where t is In °c. What Is the pressure drop?
3

Given: The figure as shown Orifice

pH = 13595-:- 2.5t, kg/m 3 Airflow ►
,Jv
g = 9.5 m/s2
9

t = 5°c
Mercury
B "'T
200mm
Required:
The pressure drop in the orifice

Solution:
• S9lving for the density of the mercury
p =13595- 2.5t =13595- 2.5(5) =13582.5 kg /m3
• Solving for the pressure drop, considering the mercury manometer

PA = Pe + Pg h ➔ Pe - PA = -p 9 h = t.p
L1P=Pe - p A =-(13582.5)(9.5)(0.2)=-25 806.7.5 Pa=-25.8 kPaa ans.

■ The negative sign indicates reduction in pressure.

5) A 3-m diameter by 5-m height vertical tank is receiving water, density of

998 kg/m3, at the rate of 18 liters per second and is discharging through a 16-cm
inside diameter line with a constant velocity of 1.5 m/s. At .a given instant, the tank
is half full. Find the level of water in the tank 15 minutes later.

Given: A vertical tank

),

V, = 18 lps
v, 0.018 m /s
=

p = 998 kg/m
?

1 i
H=Sm

2
t
d2 = 16 om
v2 = 1.5 mis
Required:

The water level in the tank 15 minutes later if at a given instant the tank Is half full .

•
 vo1un1e flow role •
Solution· dlsch ar g a
• Solving for the l /s

(1t) ... Q,0301 6 m

)'(1.5)
(!!)(0.16
. V, = d, v,
2
4
4

flow rate
chan ge of vo1 um 8
6 ml s
/
• For the
0301 6-0 ,018 0.01 21
t:.V=V2 - V,- -0 •
7J A diver
15 minu tes
e remo ved 8 fter gauger
• For the volum 3
(60) = 1 o.944 m pressur
V1a = o.0121 6(15 )

minutes
Given; The fi
after 15
the remaining volume
-(.!: (!:!)-
• For
)( 3
2
) (2 .5) -10.944 = 6. 7275 m1
V .- o2 vIS = (�
VR - V
- l2
- ,� 4
) 2 ",

th e ta n k a ft e r 1 5 m in utes
l Inside
• Solving for the water leve
- 4 VR - 4 (6.7275) = 0.952 m . ans
h - 1tD2 - 1t )2
(3

6] A piston/cylinder with a cross-sectional area of 0.02 m2 has a piston mass ol

120 kg resting on the stops, figure as shown. With an outside atmospheric pressure
of 101 kPa, what should the water pressure be to lift the piston? The temperature
of water in the system is 16° C. If the absolute value of this temperature Is doubled Required:
and decreased by 239 degrees, what would be the final temperature In K, °F and
R? The abs

Given: The figure shown Solution:

mp = 120 kg • Sol
A = 0.02 m2 Pi,ton
P0 = 101 kPa P ton
\Vn1cr
Required:

The pressure of water Inside

Solution:

• Consider the FBD of the

PIston , and
solv8 for the press
= PoA + m g_ 101000(o
.o ure
p -. 2) + 120
A (9.8066)
o.02 = 159839.6 Paa,,,, 159 8 kP8,I
 • l
39

• Solving for the final temperature

TK= (16+273)(2)-239=339 K

tF = (339-273)(¾ )+32 =150.8°F

T R=150.8 +460 =610.8 R

•
7] A diver descends 328 feet to a sunken ship.A container Is found with a pressure
gauge reading 120 kPa. Atmospheric pressure Is 29.71" Hg. What Is the absolute
pressure of the gas in the container? The density of water is 1020 kg/m3 •

• Given: The figure shown

p0 = 29.71 " Hg
I .'... ....'.... . .... ' . ' .. ' ... . . ... � . . . . . . �
. .. ... .. ...·
.·•···· ... ..··•·
. ..'. . .. ... '.. ...'..... ... ........... . ..'.. ..' . ... . .. .. .
.
• • • •

.···- . . . ··· .
•

.····· .... ····

I • •

. .
+ • '

. . ·· .
• ' • • ·, • • • '

.
• • ' •

.
• • • •

.
• • • • • • • •

......
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;.......
•

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•

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..··.. ..··•· ···•·

' '

.
. , •

.
j f

'. . ·
· .·· .. . . .
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. . . ..... .,'.,....
··· .. ·.. ··.. ···
'
.
.

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. . . . . . . ···· . . . ···· . . .. ..
'
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... . ····,· . . . · . ·
· . ······ . .. . . . . .
.
..... ' . . .··•·
. ... ' . . t••··
. .
. . ' .. ' ····
.
··•·· . . ··
·· ........
.·. . ..
.

. . . . . .
.
·····
.···· .·.-: .·· . ··. .·.·•. ......;:.•j,·. ·.o··
. . . .,.,
,
. . ··· •.•
· ·..·-.·· . ·····
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. .. . . . ...
.. . ,
. •.
.. . .,.
. . <: :-: :
'

:, .:;_:-; ,;.;8: .
: • ft .,-.Y-•J�
.
:
1 : :
0
- ·
· -: . :: -: : :- :.,; •
.
l -
(}. 'V
.. 3
I :' '. ffi
. ..
·. ..· .
·.....······ ······· .
.
.
ft
. •
,_
· .···. ·,,�
. . m
. . . •
.. .• .. ... . � . . •.
.
. . .. .. . . .....
0
I"' • .. I ' . . .
�-�
. .
......'... ........ ................ ............ .... .. .. .............'. ....... .
· ···· ....
Kg/

.. ..··. ...··
.. . . .
... ...··.. . ...···....'. .........
. . . . . - . .
'

. '

.. �. .. ... . . . ..
.

.
'
.
···••·• . . . . ' . .•···· ...... ........ .. ·..... . . .,......
,.. .............. . .....
. .
.... . . .
'

.·······1. ' . .' .. •.. .·•·····

. . . .. ··. ··-
. . '•
... . ,
. . ···············�·
.. .....
.
.··. . ··· . . . .••·••··
. .. . . .
. .. ....
..·.·.·.·
.
·.··· ·. .·. .·.··· · ····
. '·. .. ....·... · ···
·.·. .·... ·.· , .·.. ...···
· ·.•.....·•..
.

·.. ·...1..· ..·..· ....· .·..· ..·...·

.

-. . .
·. · .. .-.·�·· .· .... '.. . ·. .• .. ·•• ..•.·.·..·.·•
·
. . . . . . • . . .·,•.·· . ...
. ag .· . . . · -
. . . ·
· . · · . ·
· · - · · · ·.•...
.

Pt = l �. .. Rf. . . ' . .. . .. . . i
... ..... '. . .. .1..., .. .. .,.. , ... ....• .•.. ,.
. . .
••• •• • • •
. .
. . . 1 .. . . . . .. . . . . . . ..
· · · · · · -· · · ·
&?��ftl?:.i§:.����\����'/,❖1:flf:}X�t;;·i:,���t&!t{;��:�f%�</.&'lt}l:.:1���:�&��{/lt,:��Wl

Required:

The absolute pressure of gas in the tank

Solution: .'

•• Solving for the absolute pressure of gas in the tank,

P =Patm +p, +( �)h •

101325 + 1020(9.8066)
= 29.71( )+ 120000 (100)
29.92 1
= 1220887.03 Paa
= 1220.89 kPaa ans.

•
 lJO

8] Two reservoirs, A and B, open to the atmosphere, are connect ed With a

rn
manometer. Reservoir A is moved up/down s o the two top s urfa ces ar 8'Cu
e 18 ry
h3, as shown In the figure. Assuming that you know P.4, PH11 and mea "et a1
,

..-..,"...
f -;,.:•:-..,··, ' 1· -

heights h1, h2, and h3, find the density p8. sure the ,.
,,,

9) A manom
Given: The figure shown den sity of
• grav/ty ;5 g
at Pin kP
a
P. P.
4
Given; Man
ome
� ·--···············

P., = 1000

PHQ = 13 5
•
h, ..................
g = 9.81

Required: Required•·

The density of The Pressu

fluid B n
Solution: So/utJon:

• Consider the •
left Ieg of the Co nsidE
manometer
p2--po + PAg(h
J -h)
z +p11g g(h
2 -h1)
• Cons,·der the
righ t leg eq.
p' -
-p0 +peg h Cons1de
(3 -h,)
• Equatin g
equarrons Pa
1 and 2
Po +
pAg(h3 -h )+
2 Pkvg(h2 -h
• Cons;d
• So/v1n
· g for th ,)-
-p + Pa9 h
e value of
o
( a -h)
i
Pe Pr;,

1herafo

ans
 9] A manometer shown i n the figure below is connecting systems P and a. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and that of the mercury is 13 590 kg/m3 ; and local
gravity is g = 9.8066 m/s 2 • If the pressure Pa = 350 kPag, determine the pressure
at P in kPaa.

Given: Manometer shown

Pw = 1000 kg/m3

pHg = 13 590 kg/m3

h1 = 1.25 m.-=--...u..._o_
g = 9.81 m/s 2 • t ----t
h2 = 52 h, = 380 mm
Pa = 350 kPag, --'-----'
I
-i, '-- , B i.

�Mercury
Required:

The pressure at P in kPaa

Solution:

• Consider the right leg of the manometer

PA =Pa -pH20 gh, =350000-1000(9.81)(0.38)=346272.2 Pag

1 • Consider the middle leg of the manometer

p8 = PA+ pH11 gh2 =346272.2 + 13590(9.81)(0.5)=4 15597 .508 Pag

• Consider the left leg of the manometer

PP =p8 -pHa0 gh3 =415597.508-1000(9.81)(1.25)=403335.01 Pag

Therefore, pP = 504 660.01 Paa = 504.66 kPaa ans.

,
 . ••et:A so. ur c e or heat sink f exert:
o12 ME••• a he a t ar
o AE es as 101 .3
OI N TS r se rv
ORTA NT p en ral only heat and Wor�
IMP th t g e . � r volr. u l wit h
yst e m re s n u o sY
na n1l c at ntl erv ious to the flo w 01
a

rmo dy t,e te s co are im p

• A the system 1s know 11,at ope ra r Ies whi ch
s
n as

anol her c yste rn bO U nd a

rrnody n arnl n d h as
t becau se of 't' s Perfec1
the 88
s
• A bou nde rle u to h
cros 1 n g Its heat en g1ne, t s 1rnperv I o
s a

tem.
s
lled i s s
ma s: Is caynemlc sY stem thawnI as ad iabat c YIn its chemical comp osition Is
1her mod Is k no 1nva rla ble
• A e s urfa ce s and
.
on 1
ti ene o u
In sutatlo that I s "'
" omog kPa ' MPa, bar .rn the met ric
an ce 2' pa,
n

A ubsl kN / rn A ma
• t8 nee
3]
p sub s are Kg ' s densi
d e m
s
sur� t
·
calle
/rn 2
pre sys
un Its of En glish i ma tte r or space of fixed
ure
mon th e ect o of
• The com s· a nd Psl ' lb/ft2 in
s
coll
.n gravi1
SI sy tern o defi ne da Min�
or stem is
al
s a

mo � yna �le sy co nd itio n tha t describes

s

• Ther tanc e ,
is Its
or subs
identity. of th e system
nodyn am l stale
• Then ce exists.
how the sub s ta c
n

. ry Research)
QUESTIONS (For
Libra
syste ms ·n
I a more detailed manner:
energy con ve rsion
Examine the followi g
11 .
n

to th g n e ra ti o n of electric power
• Ste arn power Pan I t• fundamental
e
power plant
e

g in as a Diesel .
• Internal combustio n en e

Geoth ermal power plant

• Hydroelectric power pla nt
1

How do you differen tiate between microscopic and macroscopic viewpoints? 4] Deter
2]
9.806
3] How do concepts differ from definitions? Discuss the differences. 5] The t
Deter
4] Give at least two examples for each of a) open system and b) closed system.
Discuss or explain usin g a block diagram why you have that examples for each 6) A Bol
type of thermodynamic system. press

Discuss t�e invers, e-square gra 7] The s

5] vitational law. Show th
the equation. e necessary derivation of press

PROBLEMS 8] If am
Hp. (,
1J Con vert 20 Y.g, in to N
and lb ,, show A pur
the dime nsio
9]
nal analysis. (Ans. 196.1 N; Deter
44.1 lb,)

The piston -cyline:ler tank:

arran gemen'1
2]
pressure. The piston show be
has a mass
of 20 �rn !�� • contains air at an undeter,:nined
10] A nev
a d i amet boilini
er o f 20 cm . The sprln9 betwe
 43

exerts a downward force of 1.5 kN on the piston, and atmospheric pressure is

101.3 kPa. Determine the pressure of the air. (Ans. 64 638.6 kPaa)

P•lSton\ l««<t<i««G
Ii
A
+J\.._Spring

Air

3] A manometer shown In the figure below is connecting systems M and N The

density of water Is 1 000 kg/m3 and that of the mercury Is 13 590 kg/m3; and local
gravity is g = 9.8 m/s2• If the pressure pN = 350 kPag, determine the pressure at
Min kPaa. (Ans. 499.492 kPaa)

.-t-i-i------:--
h,1 =.1,.5 m

hl = 50
B

�Mercury

4] Determine the equivalent pressure of a 100 cm column of water, in kPag. (Ans.

9.8066 kPag)

5] The temperature of water in the water-cooled condenser is increased by 18°F.

Determine its equivalent in °.C. (10°C)
SJ A Bourdon pressure gauge reads 50 psi in a certain region where the atmospheric
pressure is 14.25 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in psia. (Ans. 64.25 psia)

7] The suction pressure-of a pump reads 620 mm Hg vacuum. Determine the absolute
pressure, in kPaa. (Ans. 18.665 kPaa)

8] If a man eats two 100 kCal cookies per hour, determine his power intake in W and
Hp. (Ans. 232.61 W, 0.312 Hp)

9] A pump discharges 285 1pm of water with a density of 985 kg/m 3 (g = 9:74 m/s 3).
Determine a) the mass flow rate, in kg/min; and b) the total time required to fill a
tank 3 rn in diameter and 3 m high. [Ans. a) 280.725 kg/min; b) 24.8 min]
10] A new temperature scale is proposed with freezing point of water a.t 250°J and the
boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure is at 900°·J. Derive an expression
between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees J. What is the absolute zero in degrees J?